Philosophy PDF

PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 ORIGIN OF LOGIC: Aristotle is the fo...

PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 ORIGIN OF LOGIC: Aristotle is the founder of logic PHILOSOPHY Compiles his logical works (treatises) into ORGANON — the original term for logic TECHNICAL TERM/KEY TERM (instrument) Comes from 2 words Philo and Sophia Treatises include categories, on Philo = Love interpretation, prior analytics, posterior Sophia = wisdom analytics, topics and sophistical It is the love for wisdom and the act of refutation/sophism wondering Pierre de la Ramee (1515 - 1572) – Promotes critical thinking criticized aristotelian logic and made the 3 activities of the human mind COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY: Activities of the human mind – refers to Metaphysics – Study of reality i.e beings the operations of the mind by which we and being grasp the meaning of the term and Epistemology – The study validity of deny or affirm it and reason out for our human knowledge action Ethics – Study if the morality of human 3 activities of the human mind (SAJR) – acts ○ Simple Apprehension Cosmology – Science of the universe i.e. ○ Judgment space and time ○ Reasoning Theodicy – Philosophical study of god Logic – ○ Defines as the science and art of correct thinking ○ Science = a body of knowledge and truth derived from observation and experiment ○ Art = guides our mind to correct reasoning ○ Used in acquisition and interpretation of knowledge ○ expansion and application of Knowledge ○ Preparatory to all Sciences FORMATION OF IDEAS TYPES OF LOGIC: Transcendental – inquiry into human knowledge to determine what elements Process of Intellectualization – or factors in human thoughts are a ○ The process of formation of ideas priority ○ Also known as ideogenesis Symbolic - Application of mathematical Human Person – methods to the thought process (Ex: x=_) ○ Rational Being who can cognize Applied logic - logic applied to the study — known or become aware of of natural sciences ○ Uses 2 approaches to cognize Natural Logic (Common Sense) - native ○ Sensitively (Approach 1) – power of the mind by which most Needs senses for people are able to judge correctly and operation reason validly. Senses only know the accidental qualities (things that we can  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 perceive or external ○ Form of the object as it exists in features) senses (results) Know the things as it ○ Called impressed because the appear but can not know external sense take in the what it is qualities of the object and ○ Intellectually (Approach 2) – impress the presence of Things that we can objective reality inside our mind understand with our ○ Stimulates the 3 internal senses mind/intellect Something that is 3 Internal Senses immaterial or that we ○ Cognitive Sense don't have direct contact ○ Imagination with ○ Sense Memory Object of Intellect – ○ All 3 are required to create ○ Abstract and universal essence of “Phantasm” sensible realities ○ Contains individuating concrete qualities The Formation of Ideas – Phantasm – ○ The fundamental operation of ○ Expressed specie in the sensible intellect order ○ Requires that our senses have to ○ Called expressed because it is the function first manifestation of the Process of how we form ideas : representative power of our internal senses ○ To be understood by the intellectual its individualized form must become something intelligible. ○ Contains individuating concrete qualities Intellectual Order – ○ Agent Intellect – Individualizes the “Phantasm” Discards the individuating features Power to abstract Example: Pen, Pencil, Marker = things used for writing Abstract nature that is Sensible Order taken in by the possible Thing – Objective realities intellect External Senses – Gather from the ○ Possible Intellect – “thing” Power to understand Proper Common Sensibles – External Receptive and reactive qualities and features of the “thing” Expresses the result of the Common Sense – Unifies the proper agent intellect by common sensibles producing an idea or Percept – concept ○ Impressed specie in the S.O A formal sign which (sensible order) represent the being or  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 essence of the object Analogical (Both sound known and spelling) – similar sound and spelling but different meaning TRUTH Ex: Light(magaan) - Light(ilaw) Definition: Adequate intellectus et rei or Conformity Quantity or Extension of our intellect and reality -St. Thomas Aquinas Term PROPOSITION External representation of a concept Manifestation Standard Categorical Proposition – Classification of terms : ○ External Sign of Judgement. Univocal – ○ Provides reason, explanation to ○ Exhibit similarity in meaning support a judgment. when used in at least 2 occasions ○ Basically an Idea that can be true Ex: Marc is a student, or false. Franz is a student ○ A statement which affirms or Analogous – denies something about a ○ Expresses partly the same and reality or object. partly different meaning when used in at least 2 occasions Elements of a Proposition : ○ Should be proportional and Subject Term – Point under discussion attributed and the central focus or main idea in Ex: Orange(fruit) and the proposition. Orange(color) Predicate Term – States or describes Ex: match (to light a something about the main idea in a candle) match (to match proposition. To be affirmed or denied of 2 things) the subject. Ex: Don’t turn your back to Copula – The connector between the see your back subject and predicate term. Generally Equivocal – using the verb “to be”. ○ Exhibit difference in meaning or signification whenever they are Kinds of Proposition : used in at least 2 occasions Categorical Proposition - The proposition Ex: He put his money is expressed in an Absolute, Immediate, inside the bank, He went Direct or Unconditional manner. (If any to the river bank of the 4 is fulfilled, it is categorical. – Rule ○ Can be known by considering the #1) 3 processes: Hypothetical Proposition - The Homograph (spelling proposition is expressed in an Indirect or only) – Same spelling. Conditional manner (if, then). (If any of Different pronunciation the 4 is fulfilled, it is categorical; Same as different meaning Rule #1) Ex: resume’-resume ○ Conditional Hypothetical - Homophones (sound Contains antecedent and only) – same consequent statements. pronunciation, different ex : If man can think then spelling, different meaning he is rational (if, then) Ex: made-maid  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 ○ Disjunctive Hypothetical - Present alternatives which 1 of them is true, and the other false. ex : Either you love me or you hate me ○ Conjunctive Hypothetical - Denies Simultaneous possibility of 2 alternatives. ex : Man can not be rational and irrational at the same time 4 standard form of Categorical Proposition : All government officials are natural-born citizens (universal affirmative) No involuntary act is a conscious act (universal negative) Several movie directors are passionate (particular affirmative) Not all commentators are objective (particular negative) Quantity or Extension of the Proposition : Universal [negative and affirmative] — If it implies every member of the class or general expressions and ideas. (No, All) Singular — If it refers to something Theories of Knowledge : definite. Empiricism — Particular [negative and affirmative] — If ○ Philosophical doctrine which it pertains to a part of a whole. (Few, claims that human knowledge some, most) comes from sense experiences. ○ Our knowledge is A Posteriori Quantity of the Predicate : (Learned/based through sense Universal — negative experience) Part — affirmative ○ Denies innate ideas. ○ John Locke — Human mind is in Quality of the Proposition : the state of Tabula Rasa (Blank Affirmative - If the predicate term tablet) upon birth. affirms something about the subject. ○ Nothing enter the mind without (copula — is, are) passing through our senses Negative - Whenever the predicate term (window) denies something about the subject. ○ Without the senses we cannot (copula [linking verb] — is not, are not; verify subject uses — no none no body) ○ To see is To believe Rationalist — ○ Philosophical doctrine which claims ideas are formed through reason alone. ○ Gives knowledge as A Priori. (Knowledge is gained even without your sense experience;  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 Gained independent of the sense experience) FALLACY ○ Times when your senses may fail (impairment = compensate) Used to indicate any false belief or cause Skepticism — of a false belief ○ Philosophical doctrine which First discussed by Aristotle in De doubts the knowledge of things. Sophisticis Elenchis, (Sophistical ○ Rene Descartes — ”Cogito Ergo Refutation) Sum”. Doubt makes you think. ○ No certain knowledge Fallacy as a term either refer to: A kind of error in an argument A kind of error in reasoning ( Criteria of Truth : including arguments, definitions, Truth — Stems from a belief in explanations & the like consistency within the universe. A false belief Correspondence Theory (Popularized by The cause of any of the previous Plato and Bertrand Russel.) — errors including what are normally ○ Aims to distinguish true beliefs referred to as “rhetorical techniques” from the false ones. ○ True knowledge corresponds to The World of Fallacy: the facts; agrees/present with An error in reasoning the reality. an incorrect argument ○ The most common and a type of argument that seems to be widespread way of correct, but that proves, on examination, understanding the nature of not to be so. falsehood. ○ What confirms the mind and is Divisions of Fallacies: also found in reality. Fallacies of Relevance (Non-Sequential) Pragmatic Theory (Popularized by — William James.) — ○ When argument relies on ○ An Idea is good when it premises that are NOT relevant to produces desired results. its conclusion ○ Practicality is the most simple ○ Described as IRRELEVANT to the application in this theory. conclusion (Ignoratio Elenchi) ○ Anything that is beneficial ○ Everything becomes Relative [Argument from Ignorance - ○ No absolute agreement Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam] — Coherence Theory (Popularized by Hegel Mistake committed when it argued that and Spinoza.) — a proposition is true/false on the ground ○ A set of beliefs is true if such that it has NOT been proven false or true beliefs are comprehensive and ○ Nobody has ever proved to me not self contradictory. there’s a God, so I know there is ○ Every bit of knowledge is no God consistent and harmonious. [Appeal to Inappropriate Authority - ○ Used in many scientific research. Argument Ad Verecundiam] — arises ○ Most reliable when the appeal is made to parties ○ Harmonizes; blends; does not having no legitimate claim to authority in contradict the matter at hand ○ Cohere with one another ○ You can believe the moon is ○ No conflicts covered with dust because the president of the home owner  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 association said so, and he should broke his wrist while playing for know the college’s last basketball game Appeal against the Person [Appeal to force - Argumentum Ad ○ Argument Ad Hominem — when Baculum] — When careful reasoning is the attack is leveled NOT at the replaced with direct or insinuated threats claims being made or the merits to bring about the acceptance of some of the argument, BUT at the conclusion. Use of force, intimidation, person of the opponent coercion, harassment in order to press an ○ Abussive Ad Hominem — when issue the attack is directly against ○ e.g. Promote to a higher position persons, seeking to defame or otherwise I will reveal to others discredit them your deep secret e.g. What she says about [Appeal to Advantage - Argumentum Johannes Kepler’s Pansarilum] — An appeal to gain or astronomy of the 1600’s profit. It is committed by a person who must be just so much wants one to adhere or adopt a belief, garbage. Do you realize policy or course of action against the she’s only fourteen years person’s will; forces the person to do it old? bcoz the advantage preferred is given Circumstantial Ad ○ e.g. I will give you job provided Hominem — when the you would join our prayer attack is indirectly against meetings and accept our belief persons, seeking to [Appeal to Money - Argumentum Ad defame or discredit them, Crumemam (Argumentum Ad hold their view chiefly Pabagsakum)] — An appeal to the sense because of their of greed or cupidity of a person. Instead circumstances or interest of presenting a logically valid argument, Why is the private it uses money as a bribe to the opponent development of to concede resources so more ○ e.g. Sir, Please give me a passing efficient than any mark. I am willing to share my government? an fortune. How much? executive asked. ○ e.g. The money is deposited [Appeal to emotion - Argumentum Ad already in your account. Populum] — When careful reasoning is Remember, you see nothing...you replaced with devices calculated to elicit heard nothing… enthusiasm and emotional support for [Irrelevant Conclusion - Argumentum Ad conclusion advanced. Is seen frequently Ignoratio Elenchi] — When the premises in many TV commercials miss the point, purporting to support ○ e.g. Drink Enervon prime one conclusion while in fact supporting everyday… or establishing another [Appeal to pity - Argumentum Ad ○ e.g. “In court, Thompson testifies Misericordiam] — When careful that the defendant is a honorable reasoning is replaced with devices person, who wouldn’t harm a flea. calculated to elicit sympathy on the part The defense attorney rises to say of the hearer for the objects of the for which the first conclusion is speakers concern. Use of pity, sympathy irrelevant.” or simply appealing to emotion to accept their claim Fallacies of Presumption (Fallacies of ○ e.g. As History instructor you Illicit Assertion): accept Max’s claim that he earned mistaken arguments arise from reliance an A on history quiz because he upon some proposition that is assumed  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 to be true but is in fact false, dubious or Fallacy of Converse Accident — without warrant ○ when one moves carelessly or too quickly from a single case to an Complex question — question asked in indefensible broad generalization such a way as to presuppose the truth of ○ from circumstantial cases you some assumption buried in that question draw a general rule or statement ○ e.g. Lawyer: The figures seem to e.g. A young girl unhappy indicate that your sales increased experience with her as a result of these misleading boyfriend made her advertisements. Is that correct? established a general rule Witness: They did not! Lawyer; But that boys are unworthy to you admit, then that your be trusted advertising was misleading…. False cause — Fallacies of Ambiguity (Fallacies of ○ when one treats as the cause of a Expression) thing what is not really the cause mistaken arguments are formulated in of that things, blunder in such a way as to rely on shifts in the reasoning is based upon causal meaning of words or phrases, from their relations use in the premises to their conclusion ○ fallacy that implies that what is Fallacy of Equivocation — When the not the cause is assumed to be same word or phrase is used has more the cause of something than one meanings, deliberately or e.g. The death penalty in accidentally in the formulation of an the USA has given us the argument highest crime rate and ○ e.g. An elephant is an animal; ergo greatest number of a small elephant is a small animal prisoners per 100,000 Fallacy of Amphiboly — When one of the population in the statements in an argument has more industrialized world than one plausible meaning, because of [Begging the Question - Petitio Principi] the loose or awkward way in which the — when one assumes in the premises of words in the statement have been an argument the truth of what one seeks combined to establish in the conclusion of that ○ e.g. The farmer blew out his brains argument. a form of circular reasoning after taking affectionate farewell ○ e.g. There is no such thing as to his family with a shotgun knowledge which can not be Fallacy of Amphiboly — lack of verbal carried into practice, for such clarity because of grammatical error knowledge is really no knowledge ○ e.g. My mother told your mother at all that she should go to Real Estate ○ e.g. Communism is the best form division of the SSS. of government because it alone Fallacy of Accent — When the shift of takes care of the interest of the meaning arises within an argument as a common people, consequence of changes in the emphasis Fallacy of Accident — given to its words or parts ○ when one applies a generalization ○ e.g. Please don’t stop kissing me. to an individual case that does Fallacy of Composition (Hasty not properly govern Generalization) — When one reasons ○ it arises when what is accidental is mistakenly from the attributes of a part confused with what is essential. to the attributes of the whole e.g. Black is a color. ○ e.g. I’ve met two people in Nigerians are black. So Nicaragua so far, and they were Nigerians are colors. both nice to me. So all people I  PHILOSOPHY PHL [onsite] monday — 1:15 - 3:15 | [isp] thursday - 1:15 - 3:15 will meet in Nicaragua will be nice 3 views: persona; define who the person to me.. is: Fallacy of Composition — When one Unspirited body view — Human reasons mistakenly from the attributes of person is simply just a body & a part to the attributes of the whole nothing more ○ e.g. I’ve met two people in Nicaragua so far, and they were ○ ”Mind brain identity theory” both nice to me. So all people I — the brain is the entity of the will meet in Nicaragua will be nice human person that allows us to me... to do something; CPU that Fallacy of Division — It consists in taking controls every movement; collectively what should be taken every component of our body, individually. every muscle - there is a ○ e.g. Jose is an intelligent boy. But corresponding movement an Jose studies in DLSHSI. Ergo, all action that our brain[willing to who study in DLSHSI are do a certain action] does intelligent. ○ I own my body, I am my body, beyond that I don't care. Bec. This is my own body as long as my body concern ○ Through the use of human brain Disembodied spirit view (Plato) — Human person is composed of body and soul - Plato ○ BODY