Philosophy PDF

The word philosophy is derived from philosophia, MODERN PHILOSOPHY - 1600 ~ 1900 which is a combination of the Greek terms philos - Anthropocentric: the study of man (in relation (love) and Sophia (wisdom). Thus, philosophy means to himself, others, nature, and God) "...

The word philosophy is derived from philosophia, MODERN PHILOSOPHY - 1600 ~ 1900 which is a combination of the Greek terms philos - Anthropocentric: the study of man (in relation (love) and Sophia (wisdom). Thus, philosophy means to himself, others, nature, and God) "love of wisdom" (Amanze, et. al., 2010) - Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant Philosophy is the science of the first causes (Maritain, 2005). It seeks to know and clarify the very CONTEMPORARY - 1900 ~ PRESENT source to which the chain of causes ultimately all go - Explosive: it has no center back for it. - Auguste Comte, Henri Bergson, Jean-Paul Sartre Philosophy can be stated as scientia rerum per causas primas sub lumine rationis naturalis or the science of TWO DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY beings in their ultimate reasons, causes, and principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY (Bittle, 1984). - It is composed of philosophical fields, which study not only to obtain knowledge but to WHAT ARE THE MISCONCEPTIONS IN use that knowledge for practical purposes. PHILOSOPHY? It presents related data from which the directive laws or norms are immediately PHILOSOPHY IS NOT... derived (Ardales, 1987). 1. Philosophy does not make real progress like the sciences. 1. LOGIC 2. Philosophy is just stating your personal - Questions related to reasoning. opinion. 2. ETHICS 3. Philosophy is not one's view of life or other - Questions related to morality. matters. 3. AXIOLOGY 4. Philosophy is light reading, something you - Questions related to values. relax with in the evening, after all the serious 4. AESTHETICS work of the day is done. - Questions related to beauty and taste. WHERE DID PHILOSOPHY ORIGINATE? 5. SEMANTICS - Questions related to meaning. Pythagoras first coined the term philosophy, by a Greek mathematician. He used this term to classify SKEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY three classes of people who attended the ancient - It is made up of philosophical fields whose Olympic Games as lovers of gain; lovers of honor; and main concern is the acquisition of lovers of knowledge or wisdom (Caraan, 2016). knowledge without any thought of applying it for practical use. It is a philosophy that HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY enriches the mind by principles to be ❖ Ancient - B.C. 600 ~ C.E. speculated upon or to be known (Ardales, ❖ Medieval - 600 ~ 1600 1998). ❖ Modern - 1600 ~ 1900 ❖ Contemporary- 1600 - Present 1. EPISTEMOLOGY - Questions related to truth and ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY (600 BC - CE) knowledge. - Cosmocentric 2. THEOLOGY - Beginning of everything - Questions related to God. - Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus 3. COSMOLOGY - Socrates, Plato, Aristotle - Questions related to the universe. 4. PSYCHOLOGY MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY - 600 ~ 1600 - Questions related to soul. - Theocentric: the study of the existence, 5. METAPHYSICS nature, and essence of God; - Questions related to being and - Ethical: existence of evil and the immortality of existence. the soul - St. Justin Martyr, Hippolytus, Tertullian Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  HOLISTIC THINKING VS PARTIAL THINKING *introspection means learning about yourself* TWO TYPES OF THINKING: ❖ PRIMARY REFLECTION refers to the process directed at deriving clear concepts about HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE reality. Holism comes from the Greek word "holos" which literally means all, entire, totality. ❖ SECONDARY REFLECTION is the realization It maintains the interdependence of factors of the unity of the situation and the individual to other agencies of casualties. which provides us with a holistic view of Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that reality. considers large-scale patterns in systems. It requires an individual to have an open ALL QUADRANTS ALL LEVELS (AQAL) mindset and the ability to get a general According to Ken Wilber, everything can be sense or impression regarding a situation. analyzed using a vertical line. The line divides space into two sides: left and APPLICATION OF HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE right. Holism is used in anthropology wherein an The left side represents the interior, anthropologist can begin to see subjective, aspect of everything. interrelationship or correlation of different The right side represents the exterior, components of a culture. objective, aspect of everything. Example is that one can see the correlation between Another basic distinction was introduced by the ecological situation and social organization of a Ken Wilber using a horizontal line that community. divides space into above and below: Above the line represents what is singular, Holistic medicine is a prominent example of individual, one. The space below represents holistic thinking. A medical professional who what is plural, collective, and many. believes in holistic care considers the relationship between the mind, body, and AQAL spirit. - An interesting thing happens when we combine the two lines. According to Wilber PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW quadrants are "the inside and outside of the Partial point of view focuses on specific individual and collective. aspects of a situation. The partial view is an important component of analytical thinking as an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order to understand it. Partial point of view has clearly stated and admitted that the way the person sees reality or certain phenomenon is based on a single factor or causal agency. PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD - Phenomenological method was pioneered by EXISTENTIALISM Edmund Husserl whose aim was to arrive at Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes a philosophy understood as a rigorous science individual existence, freedom, and choice. which should describe, rather than explain, It is the view that humans define their an immediate experience. meaning in life, and try to make rational - Phenomenologists encourage "to go back to decisions despite existing in an irrational the things themselves”—that which presents universe. itself to the human person—to see things as Both phenomenology and existentialism do not they are, independent and free of prejudice. present a set of doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude. It is supported by diverse REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN PHILOSOPHY doctrines centered on certain themes which ❖ HUMAN SELF-REFLECTION is the capacity include: of humans to exercise introspection and the the human condition or the relation of the willingness to learn more about their individual to the world; fundamental nature, purpose, and essence. the human response to that condition; Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  being, especially the difference between the being of a person (which is "existence") and Martin Heidegger (1889-1976): the being of other kinds of things; - He introduced the idea of "Dasein," which human freedom; means "being-there" and refers to human the significance of choice and decision in the existence as being deeply connected to the absence of certainty; world around us. KEY CONCEPTS OF EXISTENTIALISM Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980): Existence precedes essence. Man is a - He argued that "existence precedes conscious subject, rather than a thing to be essence," and his work "Being and predicted or manipulated; Nothingness." explores themes of freedom, Absurdity. It is brought about because the bad faith, and the nature of human existence. human instinct to seek order and meaning is frustrated by the refusal of the world to be Albert Camus (1913-1960): orderly or meaningful. - In "The Myth of Sisyphus," he suggests that Anxiety. Kierkegaard said, "Anxiety is the we find personal meaning and happiness in dizziness of freedom. the struggle itself, embracing life despite its Alienation. The sense that you're a stranger lack of ultimate purpose. His works, like "The in the world or a stranger to yourself. Many Stranger" and "The Plague," explore themes of aspects of existence can be alienating. absurdity, rebellion, and the human condition. Subjectivity. Your first-person perspective on the world, including the needs, desires, and EXISTENTIALISM ACTIONS emotions that accompany that perspective. ❖ Taking responsibility for your own actions ❖ Living your life without regard to SECULAR EXISTENTIALISM VS TRADITIONAL commonly-held religious or social beliefs ❖ Believing as an educator that that being a teacher is a providing a beneficial and critical role in the growth of students ❖ Determining your career choice based on what you think is an important way to spend your future. NATURE OF TRUTH There are two conflicting philosophical views about this question: those who affirm that EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHERS truth indeed has a specific nature and those who deny it. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) Those who affirm that truth has a specific - His key contributions include the concept of nature see truth as a substantial property. The the "leap of faith". His analysis of religious motivating idea behind this is that by ascribing experience, and the first developed analysis of "is true," "it's true," or any of its cognates to a many key existential concepts, including given truth-bearer something theoretically absurdity, anguish, authenticity, the weight of significant is being added to it. responsibility you bear for your choices, and Those who deny this claim that when we say the importance of the irrational to human life. that a given truth-bearer is true, the predicate "is true" does not add anything significant Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) to it at all. - His key contributions include the concepts of the "Übermensch" (Overman), an individual A variety of truth-bearers are considered - who transcends conventional morality to statements, beliefs, claims, assumptions, create and live by their own values, and the hypotheses, propositions, sentences, and declaration that "God is dead," suggesting utterances. that the decline of religious belief in modern Proposition refers to a linguistic expression society necessitates the creation of new whose function is to advance a claim about the values. world. Propositions are distinguished as the primary bearers of truth, while sentences and Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  utterances are properly characterized as true SUBJECTIVE TRUTH in virtue of expressing true propositions. - Is dependent on the attitudes, preferences or interests of a person or a group of persons. Beliefs are the mental expressions of our claims. - perspective Sometimes it is said that statements are expressions OBJECTIVE TRUTH of beliefs, which means beliefs as more basic than - An objective claim is a statement about a statements. factual matter-one can be proved true or false. - Based on facts. DIFFERENCES OF FACT AND TRUTH UNIVERSAL TRUTH - When a belief or a statement is FACTS TRUTH acknowledged to be true by everyone. Objective Subjective RELATIVE TRUTH Empirical evidence Based on evidence, but - When a belief is acknowledged only by only with personal and some people. cultural perspective. Specific Broader THEORIES OF TRUTH CORRESPONDENCE THEORY KINDS OF TRUTH - proposes that a proposition is true if it corresponds to the facts. Often traced back EMPIRICAL TRUTH to Thomas Aquinas' version: "A judgment is - Described as a posterior which means that it said to be true when it conforms to the can only be known after some relevant external reality" (Summa Theologiae, Q. 16). experience. COHERENCE THEORY RATIONAL TRUTH - Preferred by many idealists. For idealists, - Called a priori which means that it can be reality is like a collection of beliefs, which known before some relevant experiences. makes the coherence theory particularly attractive CONTINGENT TRUTH - This is sometimes expressed by a saying that PRAGMATIC THEORY a contingent proposition is one that is true in - William James is considered the father of some possible worlds and not in others. pragmatism. A sentence is meaningful only if - It is not true everytime; can be true, can be believing it would make a practical false. difference in your life as opposed to believing some alternative to it. NECESSARY TRUTH - A true statement whose negation must imply FACTS VERSUS OPINION a contradiction in reality, such that the negation would be impossible. - Regardless of the circumstances or ASPECT FACTS situation, it should be true. Definition A statement that can be proven true or false based on evidence or reality. PRIVATE TRUTH - Can only be known by the person who has Examples “Seventeen is a kpop boy group consisting of thirteen members and the belief or makes the statement considered not seventeen.” to be true. - One or two person only Verification Can be verified through observation, - Counseling measurement, or reliable sources. - Confidential Truth Basis Based on objective reality and evidence. PUBLIC TRUTH - Is a kind of truth known by everyone. Universality True for everyone regardless of belief or opinions. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  METHODS IN PHILOSOPHIZING A method is a way of doing something, ASPECT OPINION especially in a systematic way. Definition A personal belief, judgment, or feeling Philosophy of Human Person, being a rational that cannot be proven true or false. investigation into the nature of human being, needs a method so that it can bring out its Examples “Wonu prefer burat than bilat.” subject matter in a lucid and logical manner. Verification Cannot be verified; it varies from Phenomenological and transcendental- person to person. because human beings have two aspects, namely, the physical and the psychic. Basis Based on personal views, preferences, or emotions. Phenomenological Universality Can differ widely between different - Describe a certain experience people or groups. - No judgment - After experience PHILOSOPHY OF MAN - Edmund Husserl The British philosopher Karl Raymund Popper (as cited in Demetrio, 2001) theorized that Transcendental man concurrently exists in three distinct - Priory - before experience worlds: namely, (1) the physical world of - With judgment nature, (2) the internal world of ideas, - Causality thoughts, and emotions, and (3) the social - Senses world of inter subjectivity. - Foreseeing Philosophy of the Human Person can be - Immanuel Kant defined as the science of human beings that interprets the data of experience in the light of metaphysical principles. ASPECT PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD Philosophy of Man is as broad as life and as deep as human understanding, since it looks Origin Edmund Husserl into the wholeness and fullness of human Focus Direct description of lived experience. existence. Philosophy of Man is an inquiry into the what-who-and-why of man. Purpose To describe experiences as they are perceived, without presuppositions. APPROACHES IN UNDERSTANDING MAN Approach Investigates the content of consciousness as it presents itself. Descriptive The descriptive (or scientific) approach asks Key Concept Intentionally: Consciousness is always about what is man as person, as a nature, and directed toward something. as existing. It is merely interested in Methodology Descriptive: Focuses on describing the describing man’s personhood, nature, and lived experience. condition. It uses empirical methods and explains that there is no knowable reality Use of Central: Bracketing is used to set aside Bracketing biases and focus purely on the beyond what one can see, hear, measure, etc. (Epoché) experience. Describe what a certain experience is. How you actually think, behave, act. Realistic, without judgment. ASPECT TRANSCENDENTAL METHOD Normative The normative (or prescriptive) approach asks Origin Immanuel Kant what man as a person, as a nature, as existing Focus Conditions that make experience and is supposed to be. It uses the reflective knowledge possible.. method and views that there lies beyond what one can see, hear, and measure. Purpose To uncover the a priaori (pre-experiential) conditions that Concerns with how a person should think, structure experience. behave, and feel. Idealistic, with judgment. Approach Investigates the structure of consciousness that allows for possibility Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  Beliefs are statements that express convictions that of experience. are not easily and clearly explained by facts. Key Concept A Priori Knowledge: Structures like space, time, and causality are Explanations are statements that assume the claim preconditions for experience. to be true and provide reasons why the statement is Methodology Analytical: Examines how the mind true. structures experience. Arguments are a series of statements that provide Use of Not Central; the focus is on underlying reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim Bracketing conditions rather than suspending (Epoché) judgment. or opinion is truthful. Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning. CRITICAL THINKING AS METHOD THAT LEADS TO Some of them are intentional, as the person making WISDOM AND TRUTH the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. For Double (1999) the subject matter of philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics: Biases are the personal views of the person Philosophical questions have answers, but the presenting it. They are not necessarily errors in answers remain in dispute. reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which Philosophical questions cannot be settled by affect the views of people. science, common sense or faith. Philosophical questions are of perennial FALLACY intellectual interests to human beings. Fallacies For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking is a - are arguments based on faulty reasoning. lifelong process or self-assessment that further Some of them are intentional, as the person consists of: making the claim is desperate to convince you defining, analyzing and devising solutions; to accept his or her argument. arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions; KINDS OF FALLACY applying understanding and knowledge to new and different problems; AD HOMINEM willingness to change one point of view; - Attacking the person instead of the argument continually examining and re-examining ideas; itself. and willingness to say “I don’t know”. - You are going to attack the personal life of the person rather than the argument. IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY OF MAN It provides guidance in better understanding AD BACULUM man’s nature and personhood. - Using the threat. of force or an undesirable It enables man to appreciate the diverse views event to advance an argument. on the ideals of full humanness. - Appeal to force or appeal to threat. It tells man the similarities and differences - Like guilt trips, manipulation, gaslighting. among man, plants, and animals. It enables man to appreciate the nature of life AD MISERICORDIAM and the meaning of his existence. - Using emotions such as pity and sympathy. It opens the way for better relationships - Appeal to pity. among men, others, and God. AD POPULUM HOW CAN PHILOSOPHY GUIDE US IN - The idea is presented as acceptable because DISTINGUISHING TRUTH FROM OPINION? a lot of people accept it. - Idea is presented because a lot of people Opinions are statements which not only give facts but accept it. also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain situations. They may advance a belief about AD ANTIQUITATEM certain things or provide explanations. - The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  - Acceptable because it has been true for a long discriminatory, or unjust views and judgments time. about certain groups, individuals, or ideas. - Very discrimination ang atake. AD VERECUNDIAM - Misusing an authority. NON-PEJORATIVE - Appeal to authority. - Non-pejorative bias refers to biases that are not necessarily negative or harmful but are DICTO SIMPLICITER simply tendencies or inclinations that shape - Argument based on an unqualified how one perceives and evaluates information. generalization. - Sweeping generalization. KINDS OF BIAS - Conclude agad; jump into conclusion. CORRESPONDENCE BIAS FALLACY OF COMPOSITION - Tendency to judge a person's personality by - Assuming that what is true of a part is true his/her actions without regard for external for the whole. factors or situation. - Nag judge ka na agad; judgerist. FALLACY OF DIVISION - Assuming that what is true of the whole is CONFIRMATION BIAS true for its parts - The tendency to look for and accept information that confirms one's own beliefs HASTY GENERALIZATION and reject ideas that go against it. - The generalization is reached too hastily. - You already have an idea yourself There are too few instances or evidence to disregarding the idea of others. support such a conclusion. - Bassit ti evidence mo then nag-conclude ka na CONFLICT OF INTEREST agad. - A person or a group is connected to or has a - You have evidence but your evidence is vested interest. in the issue. insufficient; not enough. - Merong involve na money or sentimental value. PETITIO PRINCIPII - The conclusion of an argument is assumed in CULTURAL BIAS the premises, creating a loop of reasoning that - Analyzing an event or issue based on one's doesn't provide any actual support for the cultural standards. argument. - Nagba-base sa cultures. - Circular reasoning FRAMING POST HOC - Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem - Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship while ignoring other aspects. between unrelated events - You only focus on one aspect of that - Unrelated events of cause and effect. problem. BIAS HINDSIGHT - When after an event occurs, we feel we Biases already knew what was going to go. - are the personal views of the person - Awan reason na pero nag predict ka na. presenting it. They are not necessarily errors - You predict even though hindi pa in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or nangyayari then noong nangyari na saka influences which affect the views of people. mo lang sinabi. Thomas Kelly distinguishes a pejorative from a non-pejorative sense of "bias". PEJORATIVE - A pejorative bias refers to a negative or derogatory bias that leads to unfair, Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  Human Person as an Embodied Spirit OF A PERSON which includes his/her body type, strength and appearances. MAN - By definition, it is generally and commonly EMBODIED SPIRIT defined to represent the entire human race. - Embodied spirit is an animating core living within each of us. It is known to be the driving HUMAN force behind what we actually think, do and - A term used to refer to various classifications say. and species. For a living man, humans are - In the context and views of Christian under the classification of Mammalia. philosophy, the embodiment of the spirit particularly refers to the inseparable union of HUMAN BEING human body and soul. Inseparable which also - A term used to separate man from other means the body and soul work together at all Human Classifications like animals. times. PERSON As an embodied spirit human beings demonstrates - Refers to an individual who possesses the following qualities (Abella, 2016): self-awareness, self- determination, rational Self-awareness refers to a person having a mind, and the capacity to interact with others clear perception of oneself, including his or her and with himself/herself. thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions (Abella, 2016). The self is the subject that PERSONHOOD thinks, feels, and acts. It is your I amness - A general term refers to the state of being a (Wilber, 2006). person with unique, sacred and ethical status A human person can connect and interact with within him/herself. another person, an animal or an inanimate object. We call this externality. HUMAN NATURE Others do not determine us. Because we have - A general term refers to the deepest and interiority; we can direct the course of our own natural behavior of a person that distinguishes life. This is what we call self-determination humans from animals. A collective trait that which is "the capability of persons to make formed and considered the very essence of choices and decisions based on their own humanity. preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal-oriented and HUMAN PERSON self-directed" (Abella 2016). - is someone with an exact origin of his/her Finally, a human person has an inherent value classification. and importance. This is what we call dignity. - Human people from time after time learned That is why no amount of money can equal the how to live beyond what was traditional value of a human life. This is also the reason through the various human evolutions from why individual rights are absolute (Rand Hominid to Homo Sapiens or the Modern Man 1964). The American Founding Fathers called people learn the concept of power, politics and rights "inalienable" because they cannot be economics. separated from our humanity. - Human person is typically a tangible body with three components composed of SOUL, MIND Self-Awareness and SPIRIT. ○ refers to a person having a clear perception of oneself. 2 GENERAL KINDS TO DISTINGUISH HUMAN Externality PERSON ○ A human person can connect and interact with another person. 1. Cognitive Self is the essential components of Interiority a human persons that deals with THE WHAT ○ Others do not determine us. Because OF A PERSON which includes human we have interiority. persons' belief, desire, dreams, and intentions. Self-Determination ○ the capability of persons to make 2. Physical Self which deals with the essential choices and decisions based on their features of the human way of life or THE WHO own preferences. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  Dignity ❖ Right Speech ○ a human person has an inherent value Abstaining from verbal offenses such and importance. as lying, divisive speech, unforgiving speech, and irrational speech. TRANSCENDENCE ❖ Right Action This power is your ability to surpass your refraining from physical offenses such limits. This is the definition of Transcendence. as murdering, thieving, and sexual You are able to transcend your limit through misbehavior. your physical and mental abilities. (Abella, ❖ Right Livelihood 2016). evading trades that directly or St. Thomas Aquinas, a philosopher and one of indirectly damage others, such as the greatest theologians in the Catholic trading slaves, weapons, animals for Church in the 13th century, said that "of all butchery, intoxicants, or poisons. creatures, human beings have the unique ❖ Right Effort power to change themselves and things for the forsaking undesirable states of mind better." (Ramos, 2016). that have already arisen, preventing Buddha left his royal life in the palace and undesirable states that have yet to spent his life for 6 years in the wilderness to arise, and sustaining positive states find answers for his questions about life. And that have already arisen. when he sat under the Tree of Enlightenment ❖ Right Concentration for 40 days, voila he found the answers. The Single-mindedness Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Paths. ❖ Right Mindfulness Consciousness of body, feelings, 4 NOBLE TRUTHS thought, and phenomena. 1. The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Life is inherently unsatisfactory and filled with HUMAN LIMITATIONS suffering. We have only a certain amount of strength to It is not only physical but also mental and carry things or accomplish tasks. We cannot emotional. prevent accidents entirely no matter how careful we are. 2. The Truth of the Cause of Suffering We cannot move as fast as we could from one (Samudaya): place to another. Despite all advances in The root cause of suffering is desire or technology, we can never reverse the course attachment (tanha). of time. It is about our desire. Moreover, the3re are things that we cannot do and perform because we are not angels and 3. The Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): superheroes. Suffering can be overcome by eliminating Human limitations are not solely obstacles; desire and attachment. they also play a crucial role in shaping Liberation and freedom creativity, resilience, and innovation. Constraints often drive individuals and 4. The Truth of the Path to the End of societies to find novel solutions, fostering Suffering (Magga): progress and adaptation. The path to the cessation of suffering is the We can create this to apply opportunities to Eightfold Path. address what they need. It falls the hateful path that serves as our guide… BODY TRANSCENDENCE While we mostly complain about how there are EIGHTFOLD PATHS so many things that we cannot change about ❖ Right View our lives because of our bodies we hardly see A correct understanding of the nature that the body also opens possibilities. There is of things, specifically the four noble an important paradox about the body that we truths. need to understand. While the body limits us, ❖ Right Intention the very same limitations create opportunities Eliminating thoughts of attachment, for us. detestation, and harmful intent. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN PERSON AS AN 2. Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) = "The body is EMBODIED SPIRIT seen as an object to be studied like other objects." Facticity It refers to the things in our life that are THE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TOWARDS already given. THE ENVIRONMENT Spatial-Temporal Being ACCORDING TO TIMBREZA... As temporal beings, our most obvious Human beings have the responsibility to take limitation is our finitude-our finite quality or care of, protect, and cultivate his/her state. Also, as spatial beings, we are limited by potentialities, faculties, and functions. our bodies to be present in two or more places However, this responsibility is not limited to at the same time. his/her self; it extends to his/her external world and the environment. The Body as Intermediary Intermediary means acting as a mediator The encyclical letter of Pope Francis... (Merriam-Webster). Our body serves as an It provides an avenue for us to think about it intermediary between us and the physical this way. Pope Francis points to the evil of world. consumerism- the desire to consume has already consumed us. REFLECTION ON MY BODY As Pope Francis says: "When people become self-centered and self-enclosed, their greed The capacity of human beings to think or even increases. The emptier a person's heart is, the to feel is the very basis of consciousness of more he or she needs things to buy, own, and the "I" of its existential existence; that it consume. It becomes almost impossible to tangibly exists as a thinking substance. accept the limits imposed by reality. In this Moreover, "my body" is the main basis for horizon, a genuine sense of the common good reflection and self-consciousness. It means also disappears." that the statement of certainty of something is always related and rooted in the very Now, from a holistic perspective, the fight for the foundation of reflection: "my body." "My body" environment can be done in both: is the manifestation of my existence, of who I am. 1. PERSONAL LEVEL 2. SOCIETAL LEVEL I HAVE MY BODY The experience of the oneness of my body PERSONAL LEVEL and I is manifested in the claim "I have my Minimizing Single-Use Plastics: body." The claim "I have my body" implies ○ Individuals can significantly reduce possession. I own my body; it is mine. their environmental impact by cutting Nonetheless, this does not only show authority down on the use of single-use plastics over it, but also great responsibility. like water bottles, straws, and grocery bags. I AM MY BODY Adopting a Minimalist Lifestyle: - The union between my body and I is not just a ○ Rethinking the urge to buy mere relationship of two organisms or entities. unnecessary items is a personal For Marcel, this union means existential choice that combats consumerism. existence to my body and to myself. My Energy Conservation in Daily Life: body cannot exist alone apart from me; and ○ By turning off lights when not needed, that I cannot exist apart from my body. My unplugging devices, or switching to relationship with my body is not the same with energy-efficient appliances, individuals my relationship with other things that I own or can reduce their carbon footprint. possess. Thus, my body is not a mere Waste Segregation and Composting: instrument for "I am my body." ○ Sorting household waste into recyclables, non-recyclables, and PHILOSOPHERS: organic waste is a practical way for 1. Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) = “I encounter the individuals to reduce landfill Transcendence through my body." contributions. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli  Supporting Sustainable Brands: Three Major Perspectives on Environmental Ethics ○ Consumers can choose to purchase 1. ANTHROPOCENTRISM products from brands that prioritize 2. BIOCENTRISM environmental sustainability, such as 3. ECOCENTRISM those using recycled materials or supporting fair trade practices. ANTHROPOCENTRISM is a view that considers humans to be the SOCIETAL LEVEL most important species with a superior worth Implementation of Recycling Programs: than other species. This view mainly focuses ○ Communities or governments can on humans and puts the other entities of the establish recycling programs to natural world at the background. As value is encourage proper waste disposal on a focused on humans alone, all other things of societal scale the natural world are considered of lesser Stricter Environmental Regulations for significance. Corporations: ○ Governments can impose stricter BIOCENTRISM environmental regulations on Claim that humans are not the only important industries known for pollution, such as species on the earth and that they are not mining or manufacturing. inherently greater to other living things. It Promoting Renewable Energy Projects: suggests that humans are equal members of ○ On a societal level, governments or the environment and that humans and other private sectors can invest in living things are interdependent. renewable energy projects like solar or wind farms. These initiatives reduce ECOCENTRISM reliance on fossil fuels, which are is a broader worldview as it incorporates major contributors to climate change. biocentrism by including environmental Banning Harmful Chemicals in Agriculture: systems and its abiotic aspects. This view ○ Governments can pass laws to restrict believes that humankind is merely a portion or ban the use of harmful pesticides of the biological system or community and and fertilizers that degrade soil health that we have a vital role as stewards of nature. and contaminate water sources. Education and Awareness Campaigns: Environmental Aesthetics ○ Public awareness campaigns can is one of the new areas of aesthetics that influence societal attitudes toward the focuses on issues concerning appreciation of environment. Schools, media, and the environment. Environmental aesthetics organizations can promote education can be defined as the interaction between a on environmental stewardship. person and his environment, with respect to beauty. This philosophical view asserts that Environmental Ethics improving the natural beauty of the environment will contribute to the well-being of Mahatma Gandhi the people and other living organisms. One of the most respected spiritual and political leaders of the 1900s, said "The Earth Human Beings and the Environment provides enough to satisfies every man's needs, but not every man's greed.". We, Human Being's Perspectives on the Environment humans, exploit nature and considered Human beings see and consider the ourselves to be the most superior beings. environment as an erratic and disorderly thing that needs to be analyzed, reformed, and As defined by Stanford Encyclopedia of reshaped through the cultural tools of science philosophy… and technology to serve the human self. Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship In such cases, the human self fails to relate with the of human beings to, and also the value and environment as another subject, as a bio-community. moral status of, the environment and its Approximately 50,000 species go extinct each year. non-human contents. Simply, environmental Three fourths of the world's birds and a quarter of the ethics studies the relationships between world's mammalian species face extinction. human beings and the environment. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli Climate change has rapidly accelerated because of manifested through the expression of intellect industrial-scale burning of both fossil fuels and tropical and reason. rainforest. Multiple rivers and tributaries have been converted as dumping sites of waste. The conversion VIRTUE ETHICS of mountains into settlement areas, agricultural land The development of our virtue of care and into golf courses have been the causes of massive respect for the environment is a habitual destruction of natural habitat and ecosystem (tropical performance of caring and respecting and temperate rainforests, fresh water, lakes, streams, non-human beings. The act of caring and of rivers, coral reefs, and coastal mangroves). respecting becomes our second nature. This extends to non-human especially for the Various Approaches to Nature environment where he/she lives and realizes his/her being. INSTRUMENTAL In this approach to the environment, human The Role of Business in Environmental Protection beings affirm the protection of the The environment is crucial for society and environment as long as it possesses the businesses together. We all have a value or importance of human beings. responsibility to conserve and protect the He/she takes care of the environment because environment. And whether it be governments, it is a medium in establishing his/her society businesses, consumers, workers or other and civilization. members of society, each must contribute to stop the environment from pollution further. AXIOLOGICAL In this approach to the environment, human INITIATIVES BY BUSINESS ENTERPRISES TO beings recognize the intrinsic value of the PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT environment. This demands him/her to protect A sincere commitment by the top management and take care of it. Beauty can be seen as the of the business to cultivate, maintain and external expression of such intrinsic value. develop work culture for environmental protection and pollution prevention. ANTHROPOLOGICAL To ensure that the commitment towards In this approach, the primary concern of environmental protection is shared by all the human being is to unveil his/her being as employees of all the divisions of the business. human or what being human ought to be. The Developing clear-cut policies and programmes focus of establishing a relationship with the for purchasing good quality raw material, using environment is not the environment itself, latest technology, using scientific techniques of but his/her "being." Consequently, he/she sees disposal and waste management and to the importance of protection, care, and respect develop the skills of the employees for the for the environment. Nonetheless, the human purpose of pollution control. being is the one who determines the intrinsic To adapt to the laws and regulations passes value of it. The value of the environment by the government for the prevention of comes from external authority; from human pollution. beings. Participation in government programmes relating to the management of hazardous UTILITARIANISM substances, clearing up of polluted water This approach focuses on the consequences bodies, plantation of trees and to reduce of human action, whether it is wrong or right. deforestation. Our action is ethically right when it produces Assessment of pollution control programmes the greatest happiness for the greater number in terms of costs and benefits to increase the of people, otherwise the action is ethically progress with respect to environmental wrong. protection. Also businesses can arrange workshops and NATURAL LAW ETHICS give training material and share technical There is goodness in human nature to do information and experience with suplliers ans good which is rooted in the goodness of customers to get them involved in pollution God; the God who created everything control programmes. according to His Divine plan. This goodness of Promoting green energy that reduces the use God in human beings can be seen and of fossil fuels. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli Human Being S Encounter with the Environment PRUDENCE Prudence is defined as the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks. FRUGALITY Frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically. These virtues or values should not just be applied in a personal setting. The spirit of coexistence between human being and the environment It is shown every time a human being recognizes his/her dependence upon the latter. As a human being becomes aware of the consciousness and the natural systems of the environment, he/she cultivates a more understanding and caring relationship with it. Mercado asserts that: The Filipino wants to be in harmony with nature through equilibrium- maintenance (pagkakapantay-pantay, di pagkakatalo). If this balance is upset, the Filipino expects suffering and other forms of misfortune (Mercado 1974, 110) "Forests and rivers were his/her brothers. Their preservation and conservation was his life, their destruction." (Mercado 1994, 140) Human Being’s Ethical Responsibility toward Environment My A human being recognizes the being and the otherness of the environment, if he/she relates with the environment as a subject. In this context, he/she respects and cares about the otherness of the environment. For instance, when a person wishes to relate with a tree in the I-Thou attitude, he/she considers all elements or aspects that belong to the tree such as its form and its mechanics, its colors and its chemistry, and other possibilities that the tree has or has been such as its relation to the sky, to the earth, to God, and the like. Kurt B. Cera 12 - Machiavelli