Philosophy – Lesson 2 PDF

PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 KNOWING THE TRUTH 3. Contingent Truth so...

PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 KNOWING THE TRUTH 3. Contingent Truth sometimes expressed by saying that a contingent proposition NATURE OF TRUTH is one that is true in some possible worlds and not in others "It is raining outside right now" is contingent because it is There are two conflicting philosophical views about this true at this moment but not necessarily true at all times. question: those who affirm that truth indeed has a specific "The Eiffel Tower is in Paris" is contingent because it could nature and those who deny it. have been built elsewhere in a different world. o Those who affirm that truth has a specific nature see truth "The car is blue" is contingent since the car could have been as a substantial property. The motivating idea behind this is painted a different color in another circumstance. that by ascribing “is true,” “it’s true,” or any of its cognates 4. Necessary Truth to a given truth-bearer something theoretically significant is a true statement whose negation must imply a contradiction being added to it. in reality, such that the negation would be impossible o Those who deny this claim that when we say that a given "A triangle has three sides" is a necessary truth because truth-bearer is true, the predicate “is true” does not add denying it would lead to a contradiction. anything significant to it at all. "All humans are mortal" is a necessary truth since being ❖ A variety of truth-bearers are considered – statements, beliefs, mortal is part of the definition of being human. claims, assumptions, hypotheses, propositions, sentences, and "The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees" is a utterances. necessary mathematical truth that cannot be denied without ❖ Proposition refers to a linguistic expression whose function is to contradiction. advance a claim about the world. 5. PRIVATE TRUTH ❖ Propositions are distinguished as the primary bearers of truth, can only be known by the person who has the belief or make while sentences and utterances are properly characterized as the statement considered to be true. true in virtue of expressing true propositions. "I am feeling happy today" is a private truth known only to ❖ Beliefs are the mental expressions of our claims. Sometimes it is the person experiencing the emotion. said that statements are expressions of beliefs, which means "I believe in life after death" is private since only the beliefs as more basic than statements. individual can truly know their belief. "I have a headache" is private because only the person Differences of Fact and Truth experiencing it can know if it's true. FACT TRUTH 6. PUBLIC TRUTH Objective Subjective is a kind of truth known by everyone. Empirical Evidence only Based on evidence, but with "The Earth revolves around the sun" is a public truth known personal and cultural perspective and accepted by everyone. Specific Broader "Barack Obama was the 44th President of the United States" is a public truth because it is widely recognized. KINDS OF TRUTH "Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms" is a public truth known through scientific consensus. 1. Empirical Truth 7. SUBJECTIVE TRUTH described as a posteriori which means that it can only be is dependent on the attitudes, preferences or interests of a known after some relevant experience. person or a group of persons The statement "Water boils at 100°C at sea level" is true "Chocolate ice cream is the best flavor" is a subjective truth based on experimental observation. based on personal preference. "The sun rises in the east and sets in the west" is an "This movie is entertaining" is subjective, as different people empirical truth based on repeated daily experience. may have different opinions. "Ice melts at 0°C under normal atmospheric pressure" is "Running is a fun activity" is dependent on the individual's true only after the relevant experience of observing ice interest in running. melting. 8. Objective Truth 2. Rational Truth is an objective claim is a statement about a factual matter, called a priori which means that it can be known before some one that can be proved true or false. relevant experiences. "The Earth is approximately 93 million miles away from the "All bachelors are unmarried" is a rational truth because it Sun" is an objective truth that can be scientifically verified. is true by definition without requiring experience. "The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean on Earth" is an "2 + 2 = 4" is known to be true through logic and reason, objective fact that can be measured. independent of experience. "Humans require oxygen to survive" is an objective truth "If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky" is true that applies to all people and can be proven. based on the logical connection between rain and clouds.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 9. Universal Truth Examples: when a belief or a statement is acknowledged to be true by a) "2 + 2 = 4": This statement is true because it coheres with everyone the system of mathematics, where the rules and logic "All humans need food and water to survive" is universally consistently support this outcome. accepted as true by everyone. b) "All humans are mortal": This belief is coherent with our "Fire burns" is a universal truth acknowledged by all people understanding of biology and human existence, fitting within due to its obvious effects. the broader network of beliefs about life and death. "The Earth has gravity" is a universally recognized truth c) "Democracy is a fair form of government": This experienced by everyone on Earth. statement may be seen as true within a coherent system of 10. Relative Truth beliefs that values equality, freedom, and public when a belief is acknowledge only by some people. participation in decision-making. "In some cultures, it is customary to remove shoes before entering a home" is true for some cultures but not all. 3. Pragmatic Theory "Abortion is morally acceptable" may be true for some William James is considered the father of pragmatism. A individuals or societies but not for others. sentence is meaningful only if believing it would make a "Spicy food is enjoyable" is a relative truth, as not everyone practical difference in your life as opposed to believing some shares the same taste preferences. alternative to it. Explanation: The Pragmatic Theory, associated with William James, THEORIES OF TRUTH asserts that a belief or proposition is true if accepting it leads to practical consequences or benefits in one's life. According to this view, truth is 1. Correspondence Theory determined by the practical effects of a belief—if believing something helps proposes that a proposition is true if it corresponds to the one navigate the world effectively, then that belief is considered true. Truth facts. Often traced back to Thomas Aquinas’ version: “A is not an abstract ideal but rather a tool for achieving desired outcomes. judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the Examples: external reality” (Summa Theologiae, Q. 16). a) "Exercising regularly improves health": This belief is true Explanation: The Correspondence Theory asserts that a statement or pragmatically because acting on it leads to improved proposition is true if it accurately reflects or corresponds to reality or physical well-being, making a practical difference in life. facts. In other words, a belief or judgment is considered true if it matches b) "Wearing a seatbelt reduces the risk of injury in a car what is actually the case in the external world. This theory traces back to accident": This statement is pragmatically true because philosophers like Thomas Aquinas, who believed that truth occurs when following it leads to better safety outcomes in accidents, as thought or judgment aligns with real-world facts. verified by its practical results. Examples: c) "Studying increases your chances of passing an exam": a) "The sky is blue": This statement is true because it This belief is pragmatically true because acting on it typically corresponds to the fact that, under normal conditions, the leads to better academic performance, which makes a sky appears blue to observers. practical difference for students. b) "Water freezes at 0°C": This proposition is true because it corresponds to the physical fact that water changes state METHODS IN PHILOSOPHIZING to ice at this temperature under standard atmospheric pressure. Philosophy of Man c) "There are 50 states in the United States": This The British philosopher Karl Raymund Popper (as cited in statement is true because it corresponds to the factual Demetrio, 2001) theorized that man concurrently exists in three number of states in the U.S. distinct worlds: (1) the physical world of nature 2. Coherence Theory (2) the internal world of ideas, thoughts, and emotions Preferred by many idealists. For idealists, reality is like a (3) the social world of inter-subjectivity. collection of beliefs, which makes the coherence theory Philosophy of the Human Person can be defined as the science of particularly attractive. human beings that interprets the data of experience in the light of Explanation: The Coherence Theory of truth holds that a belief or metaphysical principles. proposition is true if it fits coherently within a larger system of beliefs or Philosophy of Man is as broad as life and as deep as human statements. Rather than depending on external facts, truth here is understanding, since it looks into the wholeness and fullness of determined by how well a proposition aligns with other accepted truths or human existence. Philosophy of Man is an inquiry into the what- beliefs. This theory is often favored by idealists who view reality as who-and-why of man. interconnected, and coherence among beliefs as essential for establishing truth.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 Approaches in Understanding Man 2. Transcendental Method 1. The descriptive (or scientific) approach asks about what is man Aspect Transcendental Method as person, as a nature, and as existing. It is merely interested in Origin Immanuel Kant describing man’s personhood, nature, and condition. It uses Focus Conditions that make experience and knowledge empirical method and explains that there is no knowable reality possible beyond what one can see, hear, measure, etc. Purpose To uncover the a priori (pre-experiential) Examples: conditions that structure experience a) "Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes": This is a Approach Investigates the structures of consciousness factual, scientific statement about human biology, based on that allow for the possibility of experience empirical research and observation. Key concept A Priori Knowledge: Structures like space, time, b) "Humans sleep an average of 7-8 hours per night": This and causality are preconditions for experience describes human behavior based on statistical data Methodology Analytical: Examines how the mind structures gathered through studies of sleep patterns. experience Use of Bracketing Not central; the focus is on underlying 2. The normative (or prescriptive) approach asks what man as a (Epoché) conditions rather than suspending judgment person, as a nature, as existing is suppose to be. It uses the reflective method and views that there lies beyond what one can Phenomenological Method see, hear, and measure. Explanation: The phenomenological method, developed by Edmund Husserl, Examples: focuses on the study of human experiences as they are perceived by 1. "Humans ought to be compassionate toward others": individuals, without making assumptions about external reality. It involves This is a prescriptive statement suggesting an ethical ideal "bracketing" or suspending one's judgment about the existence of the about how humans should behave in social situations. external world to focus on the subjective experience itself. The goal is to 2. "Humans should strive for self-actualization": This describe and understand how things appear in consciousness, free from reflects a normative view of human potential, suggesting preconceived notions. that individuals ought to aim for the fulfillment of their Examples: highest personal capabilities, as proposed by thinkers like 1. Studying the experience of grief: A phenomenologist might Maslow. investigate how people experience grief by asking individuals to describe their feelings and perceptions, focusing solely on how the Methods in Philosophizing: emotions manifest in their consciousness. A method is a way of doing something, especially in a systematic 2. Analyzing the perception of beauty: Rather than defining beauty way. objectively, a phenomenologist would explore how individuals Philosophy of Human Person, being a rational investigation into the perceive beauty, seeking to describe the lived experience of nature of human being, needs a method so that it can bring out its encountering something they find beautiful, such as a painting or a subject matter in a lucid and logical manner. sunset. Phenomenological and transcendental - because human beings Transcendental Method have two aspects, namely, the physical and the psychic. Explanation: The transcendental method, notably developed by Immanuel Kant, seeks to understand the conditions that make knowledge and 1. Phenomenological Method experience possible. It explores how the mind structures experiences of Aspect Phenomenological Method the world, rather than focusing on subjective experiences alone. Origin Edmund Husserl Transcendental inquiry asks what universal structures or principles must Focus Direct description of lived experience exist for experiences to be comprehensible, examining the "conditions of Purpose To describe experiences as they are perceived, possibility" for knowledge and perception. without presuppositions Examples: Approach Investigates the content of consciousness as it 1. Studying the structure of time: Using the transcendental method, presents itself a philosopher might investigate the way human minds perceive Key concept Intentionality: Consciousness is always directed time, questioning what makes the experience of past, present, and toward something future possible and how time is structured in the mind. Methodology Descriptive: Focuses on describing the lived 2. Exploring the nature of causality: Instead of just observing experience cause-and-effect relationships, a transcendental philosopher would Use of Bracketing Central: Bracketing is used to set aside biases ask what conditions must exist in the mind for us to understand (Epoché) and focus purely on the experience events in terms of causality, focusing on the underlying cognitive frameworks that shape this understanding.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 Critical Thinking as Method that Leads to Wisdom and Truth Example: "I think online education is more effective than 1. For Double (1999) the subject matter of philosophy is questions, traditional classroom learning because it offers more which have three major characteristics: flexibility for students." Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in 2. Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not dispute. easily and clearly explained by facts. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common Example: "I believe that good things happen to those who wait, sense or faith. even though it cannot be proven scientifically." Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interests to 3. Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true human beings. and provide reasons why the statement is true. 2. For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking is a lifelong Example: "The car stopped running because it ran out of fuel. process or self-assessment that further consists of: Without gasoline, the engine cannot generate power." defining, analyzing and devising solutions; 4. Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions; convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. applying understanding and knowledge to new and different Example: "Since exercise reduces the risk of heart disease problems; and improves overall health, everyone should aim to exercise willingness to change one point of view; at least 30 minutes a day to stay healthy." continually examining and re-examining ideas; and willingness to 5. Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning. Some of them say “I don’t know”. are intentional, as the person making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. Importance of Philosophy of Man Example: Ad hominem fallacy: "You shouldn't listen to her It provides guidance in better understanding man’s nature and opinion on climate change because she's not a scientist." personhood. 6. Biases are the personal views of the person presenting it. They It enables man to appreciate the diverse views on the ideals of full are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies humanness. or influences which affect the views of people It tells man the similarities and differences among man, plants, and Example: "The news article favors the company's decision animals. because the journalist has personal ties to the CEO, making It enables man to appreciate the nature of life and the meaning of the coverage less critical of potential downsides." his existence. It opens the way for better relationships among men, others, and FALLACIES God are arguments based on faulty reasoning. Some of them are intentional, FACT VERSUS OPINION as the person making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. Aspect Fact Opinion Definition A statement that can be A personal belief, Kinds of Fallacies proven true or false judgement, or feeling 1. Ad Hominem based on evidence or that cannot be proven Attacking the person instead of the argument itself. reality. true or false. "You can't trust John's opinion on climate change because Example “Water freezes at 0˚C” “Vanilla is the best ice he's not smart enough to understand science." cream flavor.” "Why should we believe what she says about healthy eating? Verification Can be verified through Cannot be verified; it She's overweight." observation, varies from person to "Your argument about politics is invalid because you're too measurement, or person. young to know anything about it." reliable sources. 2. Ad Baculum Basis Based on objective Based on personal Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance reality and evidence. views, preferences, or an argument emotions. "If you don’t vote for me, I’ll cut funding to your community." Universality True for everyone Can differ widely "You should agree with me or else you'll be sorry when I regardless of beliefs or between different report this to the boss." opinions. people or groups. "If you don't do what I say, you'll regret it when something bad happens." How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth from opinion? 3. Ad Misericordiam 1. Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts Using emotions such as pity and sympathy but also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain "You should give me a good grade because I have been going situations. They may advance a belief about certain things or through a tough time." provide explanations. "Please don't fire me, I have a family to feed."  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 "You must vote for this policy, think of all the children who be terrible at driving." will suffer if it doesn't pass." "The first person I met in that country was rude, so all people 4. Ad Populum from there are impolite." Idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people 11. Petitio Principii accept it The conclusion of an argument is assumed in the premises, "Everyone is buying this product, so it must be the best one creating a loop of reasoning that doesn't provide any actual on the market." support for the argument. "You should follow this trend because everyone else is doing "Reading is beneficial because it’s good for you to read." it." "God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true "Most people believe in this myth, so it must be true." because it’s the word of God." 5. Ad Antiquitatem "The government must be obeyed because the laws say we The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long should obey the government." time 12. Post Hoc "This method has been used for centuries, so it must be the Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship between best way to do it." unrelated events "We should continue this practice because it’s always been "I wore my lucky socks and won the game, so the socks must done this way." be the reason we won." "Monarchy is the right system of government because it's "The rooster crowed, and then the sun rose, so the rooster's been around for hundreds of years." crowing must have caused the sunrise." 6. Ad Verecundiam "After the new mayor was elected, crime rates increased, Misusing an authority so the mayor must be responsible for the rise in crime." "A famous actor endorses this product, so it must be good." "A well-known politician supports this law, so it must be beneficial." "This diet is recommended by a celebrity, so it must be effective." 7. Dicto Simpliciter Argument based on an unqualified generalization "Exercise is good for everyone, so even people with heart conditions should exercise vigorously." "All college students are lazy because the ones I know don’t study much." "Reading books makes you smarter, so everyone who reads must be a genius." 8. Fallacy of Composition Assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole "This athlete is amazing, so their entire team must be the best." "Each ingredient in the recipe is healthy, so the entire dish must be healthy." "Each department in the company is well-managed, so the whole company must be perfectly run." 9. Fallacy of Division Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for its parts "The university has a great reputation, so every student there must be brilliant." "This car model is reliable, so every single car from this brand will never break down." "The team won the championship, so every player must be exceptional." 10. Hasty Generalization The generalization is reached too hastily. There are too few instances or evidences to support such a conclusion. "My friend got sick after getting the flu shot, so vaccines must be unsafe." "I saw two bad drivers today, so everyone in this city must  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 BIASES instances when predictions fail. 3. Conflict Interest - are the personal views of the person presenting it. They are not A person or a group is connected to or has a vested necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or interest in the issue. influences which affect the views of people A pharmaceutical company funding a research study on the - Thomas Kelly distinguishes a pejorative from a non-pejorative effectiveness of its own drug, which may lead to biased sense of “bias”. results in favor of the drug. A judge ruling on a case where one of the parties is a close A. Pejorative personal friend, potentially leading to biased legal decisions. A pejorative bias refers to a negative or derogatory bias A financial analyst providing overly positive that leads to unfair, discriminatory, or unjust views and recommendations on a stock they hold significant shares in, judgments about certain groups, individuals, or ideas. potentially skewing investment advice. A news outlet consistently portrays immigrants as 4. Cultural Bias criminals, leading the audience to develop negative and Analyzing an event or issue based on one’s cultural unfair views about immigrants as a group. standards. A teacher unfairly assumes that students from a specific Evaluating a different culture’s family structure based on socioeconomic background are less capable, treating them one's own cultural norms, assuming other family models are with lower expectations and stifling their potential. less valid or inferior. Judging a country’s educational system harshly because it B. Non-Pejorative differs from the observer's cultural standards of education, Non-pejorative bias refers to biases that are not necessarily without understanding the context or effectiveness within negative or harmful but are simply tendencies or that culture. inclinations that shape how one perceives and evaluates Analyzing an art form from another culture and dismissing information. it as primitive or unsophisticated based on one’s own A person prefers to listen to expert opinions from well- cultural aesthetic values. known scientists over lesser-known experts, not because 5. Framing the lesser-known are wrong but due to a natural inclination Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring to trust familiar names. other aspects A film critic tends to favor films from a particular genre, Presenting a new policy as "a significant tax cut for the such as drama, over action films, due to personal taste, middle class" rather than "a reduction in government without necessarily thinking that action films are bad. revenue" to emphasize its positive aspects while downplaying potential negatives. Kinds of Bias Reporting a company’s decision to increase prices as "a 1. Correspondence Bias necessary adjustment for inflation" rather than "a decision Tendency to judge a person’s personality by his/her actions to maximize profits," influencing public perception. without regard for external factors or situations. Describing a political candidate's controversial statement Observing someone being late to a meeting and assuming as "a candid and honest moment" instead of "an offensive they are irresponsible, without considering they might have remark," which shapes how people perceive the candidate’s faced unexpected traffic or personal issues. character. Judging a colleague as lazy because they missed a deadline, 6. Hindsight without recognizing they may have been dealing with a Is when after an event occurs, we feel we already knew what serious health problem. was going to go. Assuming a student who fails an exam is not intelligent, After a sports team loses a game, claiming "I knew they disregarding the possibility of external factors like would lose" despite not having made such a prediction inadequate teaching or personal difficulties. before the game. 2. Confirmation Bias Following a financial crisis, asserting "It was obvious that The tendency to look for and accept information in that the market was going to crash," even though the signs were confirms one’s own beliefs and reject ideas that go not clear before the event. against it. After a political decision results in negative outcomes, A person who believes that a particular diet is effective will stating "It was clear that the policy would fail," even though only seek out success stories and ignore any negative the outcome was not predictable at the time of the decision. reports or studies. A political supporter only reads news articles and views media that align with their political beliefs, dismissing opposing viewpoints as biased or incorrect. A person who believes in astrology selectively remembers instances when horoscopes seem accurate while ignoring