Philosophy 101 Midterms PDF

Lesson 1: Introduction to Philosophy Philosophy ➔​ Greek words: ◆​ "Philos" – meaning love or friendship ◆​ "Sophia" – meaning wisdom ➔​ Philosophy = “Love of wisdom." ➔​ Symbol: Phi Holistic vs Particular Holistic: Part...

Lesson 1: Introduction to Philosophy Philosophy ➔​ Greek words: ◆​ "Philos" – meaning love or friendship ◆​ "Sophia" – meaning wisdom ➔​ Philosophy = “Love of wisdom." ➔​ Symbol: Phi Holistic vs Particular Holistic: Particular: ​ Unbiased ​ Biased ​ Open mindedness/open to new ideas ​ Narrow/close mindedness ​ Integrated ​ Limited/focused ○​ Combining or coordinating separate elements to provide a harmonious, interrelated whole Wisdom ≠ Knowledge ➔​ “All wise are knowledgeable, but not all knowledgeable are wise.” ◆​ Knowledge: Knowing a tomato is a fruit. ◆​ Wisdom: Not putting it in a fruit salad.​ Knowledge Wisdom ​ Acquired learning inside & outside the ​ A character trait or critical habit classroom (know-how). (know-why) (Barry, 1983). ​ Passed down through books, scribes, ​ Gained through accumulated teachings, etc. experience, beyond theory. ​ Understanding things through experience & exposure. Formal/Holistic/Analytical Definition of Philosophy ​ ➔​ “Philosophy is the art and science of searching for the ultimate cause/s of beings acquired through the aid of human intellect alone.” As a SCIENCE ​ Follows procedures, systems, and methods to form sound conclusions.Seeks to determine the validity of arguments. As an ART ​ Rooted in the Greek “techne” (skills, ability, craft). ​ Involves learned and practiced skills to guide reason toward holistic truth. Wisdom begins in WONDER ➔​ Philosophy often begins with wonder, a state of puzzlement or perplexity that leads individuals to seek deeper understanding. ➔​ This initial sense of confusion or curiosity prompts the pursuit of knowledge and clarity. ◆​ ‘Wondering’ is realizing that you don't know and seeking to know what you don’t know. This seeking is known as 'philosophy'. For Plato: ​ Wonder is not merely amazement or curiosity but a profound puzzlement or perplexity. ​ This puzzlement arises from encountering something within the scope of philosophy—such as logic, ethics, or metaphysics. ​ It leads to a longing for clarity, which may be achieved through acquiring further knowledge or rethinking existing beliefs. For Aristotle: ​ An individual who is perplexed recognizes their own ignorance and turns to philosophy to escape it. ​ This feeling of confusion and frustration stems from not understanding something, prompting the individual to seek knowledge. "An unexamined life is not worth living" "I know that I do not know" ➔​ Socrates' belief that self-reflection and ➔​ "Docta Ignorantia," or "learned critical examination are essential for a ignorance” meaningful life. ➔​ Socrates is often associated with the concept of acknowledging one's own ignorance, emphasizing the importance of recognizing the limits of one's knowledge. Three Types of Questions: 1.​ Common Sense: Based on everyday reasoning and experiences. 2.​ Scientific: Involve empirical investigation and experimentation. 3.​ Philosophical: Explore fundamental concepts and abstract ideas. "Questioning" in Philosophizing: ➔​ Very crucial characteristic in philosophizing (wondering) ➔​ The heart of the process ➔​ Basic Seeking Process (Repetitive Cycle): ◆​ Question: The core of philosophy. ◆​ Answer: May not yet be the truth. ◆​ Wonder: The beginning, leading to further inquiry. Nature and Discipline of Philosophy: ​ Object of Study: Philosophy examines fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and reality. ​ Method: Employs critical analysis, logical reasoning, and systematic approaches to explore these questions. ​ Distinctiveness: Unlike other disciplines, philosophy resists being limited. ○​ Recognizes the reality of experience as immensely varied and abundant—its "richness is inexhaustible." ○​ Described as a "humanistic discipline that is encompassing in its breadth and at the same time descriptive but not deterministic." TOP 3 PHILOSIPHERES>@?! 1.​ Socrates ("Father of Western Philosophy") → Teacher of Plato. Father of Western philosophy. 2.​ Plato ("Philosopher of Forms") → Student of Socrates, Teacher of Aristotle. 3.​ Aristotle ("Father of Logic") → Student of Plato. The Four Philosophical Periods 1.​ Ancient Period – Focused on the nature of things. (e.g., Thales: "Everything comes from water.") 2.​ Medieval Period – Centered on the existence of God (Faith). 3.​ Modern Period – Explored human nature (Reason). 4.​ Contemporary Period – Examined human experiences (Existence: love, freedom, justice, etc.). Two (2) Major Divisions and its Branches of Philosophy 1. Theoretical Division: Aims at acquiring 2. Practical Division: Focuses on applying knowledge about the subject matter. knowledge for practical purposes. ​ Epistemology: Studies the nature, ​ Logic: The science and art of studying sources, limitations, and validity of correct and incorrect thinking. knowledge. ​ Ethics: Explores the nature of moral ​ Metaphysics: Explores the fundamental virtue and evaluates human actions. nature of reality and existence. ​ Aesthetics: Studies the nature of beauty ​ Cosmology: Investigates the origin and and artistic expression. structure of the physical universe. Philosophy enhances critical thinking, decision-making, and interpersonal relationships. As Students: ​ Academic Foundation: Supports analysis, essay writing, and debates. ​ Critical Thinking: Encourages questioning and evaluating ideas. As Individuals: ​ Reasoning Skills: Improves logical and critical thinking. ​ Personal Growth: Promotes self-awareness and understanding. As Professionals: ​ Informed Decisions: Aids in ethical and reasoned choices. ​ Problem-Solving: Equips strategies for complex issues. Lesson 2: Insight and Reflection Insight & Its Importance: ​ Recognizing deeper meaning beyond surface-level information ("aha" moment). ​ Applying insights to solve problems, make decisions, and grow personally. ​ Gained through reflection, which processes experiences for deeper understanding. Reflection vs. Insight: ​ Reflection: Analyzing past experiences to gain understanding. ​ Insight: A sudden realization or deep understanding that emerges, often from reflection. Abstraction & Conceptual Analysis: ​ Abstraction: Extracting concepts from experiences. ​ Conceptual Analysis: Examining aspects of an experience but never fully capturing its meaning. ○​ Danger: Over-reducing experience to abstract ideas limits understanding. Thinking vs. Perceiving: ​ Perception is seeing with the eyes; Thinking is seeing with the mind. ​ Fr. Roque Ferriols: Insight is a kind of seeing with the mind. Human life vs. Biological existence ➔​ Biological existence is mere survival—breathing, eating, and growing. Human life, however, goes beyond this, involving consciousness, relationships, purpose, and creativity. Learning as Dialogical and Transformative ➔​ Learning happens through dialogue (interaction and exchange of ideas) and transformation (changing how we think and act). It’s more than memorization—it shapes our understanding and growth. Gabriel Marcel's Reflection Types: Primary Reflection: Secondary Reflection: ​ Derives clear concepts from analyzing ​ Goes beyond the physical to grasp reality observable phenomena. as truly felt from within. ​ Focuses on objective qualities (physical, ​ Introspective—unites meaning and three-dimensional aspects). experiences. ​ Separates oneself from an inner world to ​ Seeks the interconnectedness of life. see things objectively. ​ Recuperative function: Integrates ​ Reality is not confined to spatial and fragmented experiences into a holistic temporal aspects. view. ​ Danger: Reduces human experience to objectivity, ignoring life’s spontaneity. Mystery in Human Existence: ​ Life is incomplete; existence is more than just biology. (Living not just surviving) ​ Humans face contrasting choices and cannot detach from moral or existential burdens. ​ Living meaningfully is not just about problem-solving—it is about truly experiencing life. Understanding Essence ➔​ Essence refers to the intrinsic nature of something—what makes it what it is, beyond its physical attributes or functions. Take a table, for example: ​ A table isn’t a table just because it can hold things (that’s its function). ​ It’s not a table because of its shape, size, or material (those are just features). ​ A table is a table because of its "tableness"—its essence. ​ This means even if a table is broken, missing a leg, or repurposed into something else, it still has the essence of a table. Its existence is not solely defined by what it does but by what it fundamentally is. This idea comes from philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, who argued that things have an underlying "form" or essence" that defines them beyond their physical properties or practical uses. Lesson 3: Methods of Philosophizing Opinion vs. Truth Opinion: ​ A belief, often subjective and unjustified. ​ Can be false, biased, or abstract. ​ Lacks strong evidence and varies between individuals. Theories of Truth: 1.​ Correspondence Theory – Truth aligns with physical reality. 2.​ Coherence Theory – Truth fits within a logical system. 3.​ Pragmatic Theory – Truth is what works and has practical benefits Platonic Idealism 1.​ World of Forms (Ideal World) – Nonmaterial, unchanging, independent existence. 2.​ World of Appearances (Physical World) – Imperfect, changing, and dependent on the Forms. Plato's Tripartite Soul & Chariot Allegory ​ A well-ordered soul is when reason governs, spirit supports, and appetite is kept in check—leading to harmony and justice. ​ Plato divides the soul into three parts, each with a unique role: 1. Rational (Head) – Seeks truth, wisdom, and logic. ​ Symbol: The charioteer (reason guiding the soul). ​ Should lead for a just and balanced life. 2. Spirited (Heart/Chest) – Represents courage, emotions, and willpower. ​ Symbol: The white horse (noble desires). ​ Supports reason in controlling desires. 3. Appetitive (Stomach) – Desires physical pleasures (food, wealth, comfort). ​ Symbol: The black horse (base instincts). ​ Must be controlled to prevent chaos. Allegory of the Cave (Symbolism) ​ The Cave – World of senses. ​ Outside the Cave – Intelligible world ​ Prisoners – People who accept second (World of Forms). hand knowledge. ​ Objects Outside – The Forms. ​ Images on the Wall – Illusions. ​ Reflections of Objects – Thinking. ​ Fire – Sense perception. ​ Objects Themselves – Intelligence. ​ Seeing Fire & People – Belief. ​ Sun – The Idea of the Good. The Logic of Discovery and Paradigm Shifts Karl Popper: Science and Predictability ➔​ Scientific knowledge is characterized by predictability.  ➔​ Any scientific theory must be consistent and sustainable both mathematically and in practice. ➔​ Systematic consistency ensures ideas fit within an established framework. Thomas Kuhn’s Paradigm Shift ➔​ Scientists work within existing norms until new discoveries challenge the status quo. ➔​ A theory remains valid as long as it withstands rival challenges. ➔​ Paradigm shifts happen only when an existing theory can no longer explain scientific problems. ➔​ Example: Newtonian physics vs. Einstein’s relativity. ◆​ Newton’s laws explained motion for centuries, but they failed at extreme speeds and for subatomic particles. Einstein’s relativity replaced them by showing that time and space are relative, marking a shift in our understanding of physics. Phenomenology (Edmund Husserl) ​ Phenomenology (from Greek phainomenon = appearance, logos = study) examines lived experiences beyond conventional understanding. ​ Husserl: A German mathematician-turned-philosopher who explored rationality through experience. Parts of Husserl’s Phenomenology: 1.​ Epoche – Suspending biases and judgments. 2.​ Eidetic Reduction – Seeing things as they truly are. 3.​ Transcendental Reduction – Validating truth through experience. Western vs. Eastern Philosophy Western Philosophy: Eastern Philosophy: ➔​ Focuses on duality (human vs. world). ➔​ Sees unity between self and nature. ➔​ Emphasizes individual perspective. ➔​ Values harmony, virtue, and governance. Confucianism ➔​ Focuses on virtue, morality, and good governance. ➔​ Morality must be practiced before leading others. ➔​ Governance means leading by righteousness, not force. Five Cardinal Virtues: 1.​ Ren – Compassion, humanity. 2.​ Xin – Integrity, faithfulness. 3.​ Yi – Honesty, duty. 4.​ Zhi – Love for learning. 5.​ Li – Proper conduct, respect, harmony. Superior Man ❖​ Embodies virtue and righteousness. ❖​ Ren must come from the heart, not just reason. ❖​ Good governance follows "Rectification of Names". Rectification of Names ❖​ People must live up to their roles (e.g., a ruler must rule justly). ❖​ Leadership is grounded in moral responsibility. Human Embodiment & Subjectivity What Does It Mean to Be Human? ​ Humanity is complex and mysterious, constantly evolving. ​ Man is an embodied subject, existing and acting within society. Subjectivity & Thinking (René Descartes) ​ Thinking is a subjective act, but truth must have an objective basis. ​ "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) proves existence. ​ Certainty is the standard of truth—only what is clear and indubitable can be considered true. Descartes' Concept of the Cogito 1.​ It is the objective reality of man – The foundation of human existence. 2.​ It is the only thing that is certain – Thinking proves one’s existence. 3.​ It is the source of meaning – All understanding stems from consciousness. Analysis of the Human Will (Paul Ricœur) ​ Language is central to human subjectivity and is inherently social. ​ The Will has three movements: 1.​ Deciding – Making choices. 2.​ Acting – Executing decisions. 3.​ Consenting – Accepting one's reality. ​ True freedom means acknowledging limitations and taking responsibility. Being-in-the-World (Martin Heidegger) ​ Dasein (there-being): Humans actively seek meaning and purpose in life. ​ Whatness vs. Thatness: ○​ Whatness – What something is (its nature/essence). ○​ Thatness – The fact that it exists in a specific situation. ​ Ahead-of-itself: Humans are "thrown" into the world and shape their own existence through choices. ​ Ontic vs. Ontological: ○​ Ontic – Simply existing as an object. ○​ Ontological – Having meaning and purpose beyond just physical existence. ​ Aletheia (Truth/Unveiling): Truth is revealed and hidden over time; humans discover meaning through experiences. ​ Man as the sole witness: Only humans can interpret reality and give it meaning. ​ Being: Includes Reality, Essence, Truth, Presence, Nature, Meaning, Existence, and Unfolding. Historical Action & Meaning (Ramon Reyes) ​ Life’s Meaning & Destiny: A person’s life meaning depends on how they navigate their destiny.​ 1.​ Physical Cross Point: One’s limitations in body and circumstances. 2.​ Social Cross Point: Every individual is shaped by culture. 3.​ Interpersonal Cross Point: A person is influenced by familial and social relationships. 4.​ Historical Cross Point: The past achievements of individuals and generations contribute to the progress of present society.