PGDE Research Methods PDF

POST-GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION EDU 509: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF GHANA FACULTY OF EDUCATION EDU 509: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION (3 CREDITS) LECTURER: MR ALFRED KURANCHIE COURSE DESCRIPTION The course introduces students to issues in educational research. It seeks to equip them with the techniques in conducting research to improve educational practices. The course examines the various stages in educational research and how to write research report. At the end of the course, students are expected to be able to (i) write a good research proposal (ii) design appropriate instruments, (iii) describe stages involved in conducting educational research and (iv) write a cogent research report. COURSE OUTLINE UNIT 1: Nature of Research - Meaning of research - Meaning and features of educational research - Classification of educational research - The role of research in education - Means of acquiring knowledge UNIT 2: Research Process - Research problem – sources, features and statement - Review of related literature - Research questions and hypotheses UNIT 3: Methodology - Scope - Population, sample and sampling procedures - Instrumentation - Administration of research instruments UNIT4: Analysis of Data and Discussion of Results - Data analysis - Interpretation and discussion of results - Summary, conclusions and recommendations UNIT 5: Appendices - Citation - References/Bibliography - Others UNIT 6 Research Plan - Research report writing - Research ethics Mode of Assignment Class Test - 20% Group Project - 20% End of Semester Exams - 60% SUGGESTED READING LIST Amedahe, F. K. (2000). Notes on educational research. University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast. Best, J. W. and Khan, J. V. (1993). Research in education (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Creswell, J. W. (1993). Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative research. New Jersey: Merill/Prentice Hall. Fraenklin, J. R. and Wallen, N. E. (1991). Educational research: A guide to the process. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gay, R. L. (1992). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application (4th ed.). New York: Merill/Macmillan Kusi, H. (2012). Doing qualitative research: A guide for researchers. Accra: Emmpong Press. Nwadinigwe, I. P. (2002). Fundamentals of research methods and statistics (2nd ed.) Lagos: Sibon Books Limited Opoku J. Y. (2005). A short guide to research writing in the social sciences and education (2nd ed.). Accra: Ghana Universities Press. Oppenheim, A. N. (1996). Questionnaire design and attitude measurement. London: Heinemann Books What is Research? Research is the process of searching for or looking for information about something or an issue to arrive at the truth or otherwise of it. Research is usually used in two main senses – that is, in the layman’s sense and in a scholarly sense. In a layman’s view, research is searching for information and writing them down. This means that the layman uses the term research as fact finding. For instance, when a student goes to the net or library to look for some pieces of information, then that person can be described as doing research in the layman’s sense. Even though searching for information forms part of the research process, scholars do not use the term research for fact finding exercise. To the scholar, research goes far beyond fact finding since it entails identification of a problem, gathering of data, organisation, analysis and interpretation of the results obtained with the view to solving the identified problem. This connotes that in the scholarly sense looking for information (fact finding) forms part of the research process, but fact finding per se does not constitute research. Research in a scholarly sense also entails scientific method or activities. The purpose of the scientific method is to describe, explain, control and predict phenomenon. Research is the manner in which men solve perplexing problems in their attempt to push back the frontiers of ignorance regarding certain things or issues (Leedy, 1974). It is the means through which we can solve some of the problems that confront us in terms of describing, understanding and explaining phenomena. Franklin and Wallen (2000) define research as a careful, systematic, patient studying and investigating in some fields of knowledge undertaken to discover or establish facts and principles. Gay (1992) also defines research as a formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of problems. It is a scientific inquiry used to find answers to the issues that happen around us so as to have a fair and better understanding of them. Research is an objective, systematic, controlled and critical activity, planned and directed towards the discovery and development of dependable knowledge (Kerlinger, 1976). Research is a cyclical process of steps that critically begins with identifying a research problem or issue to study, reviewing literature, specifying purpose of the study, collecting and analysing data and interpreting the information obtained. These culminate in a report (Creswell, 2002). Generally, research is a systematic investigation to increase knowledge and understanding of a phenomenon, and help to advance theory. It is the search for an answer to an unresolved and perplexing questions using scientific approach. That is, it is a scientific tool designed to unravel the mysteries facing man and it permeates all strata of human activities including educational issues. Educational research is a systematic study designed to help educators to have effective means of achieving educational goals. It is concerned with the application of scientific methods to solve educational problems that confront educators and other stakeholders in education. This type of research is the formal and systematic application of the scientific method to the study of educational problems. Osuala (2001) posits that any systematic study designed to promote the development of education as a science can be considered educational research. He adds that the term educational research should also be limited to systematic studies designed to provide educators with more effective means of attaining worthwhile educational goals. The thrust of educational research is to find means to student learning. There are myriad of issues in education that are of particular concern to educators and other stakeholders in education and can only be understood very well and appropriate answers found through the application of scientific method. Some of the problems are truancy and absenteeism of students and teachers, indiscipline, ineffective teaching and learning, motivation of teachers, teacher attrition and retention, mainstreaming of children with disability, corporal punishment and child abuse, the use of teaching and learning resource in the classroom, leadership styles of heads, conflict management among staff, riot of students, involvement of students in school administration etc. Educational research helps to increase our knowledge and understanding of educational issues and how to improve upon educational practices which should eventually lead to improving student learning and development. Characteristics of Research 1. It must begin with a problem, an issue or a question. The researcher must have in mind a problem to solve, an issue to explain or a question to answer. This usually arises out of observations that baffle him/her. 2. Research requires a plan. For a research to be meaningful, there must be a plan for it to be carried out purposefully. The plan otherwise and technically known as research proposal gives direction and procedure for the research activity. By developing the plan, the researcher gets to know what specific questions to answer, what data to collect, how to analyse the data and what conclusions to draw. However, certain issues may come accidentally which is termed as serendipity. 3. Research requires a clear statement of the problem. A meaningful research starts with a clear statement of the issue of concern. This justifies the need to undertake that exercise and thus helps readers to comprehend what exactly one is studying. 4. Research deals with the main problem through sub-problems. It demands that one breaks down the bigger problem into sub-problems. These usually take the form of specific research questions and hypotheses that help the researcher to achieve his/her objectives. 5. Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses or research questions. The research problem is translated into research questions and/or hypotheses and the entire work revolves around these themes. 6. Research deals with facts and their meanings. In research, the relevant data collected are organised into meaningful aggregate, analysed and interpreted. The analysis can take the form of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics. This implies that after the data had been collected, they need to be organised to make meaning. 7. Research is circular – In undertaking research, one does not finish with one stage and move on to the other without necessarily going back to review the earlier ones. Thus, the stages involved in research work are not in isolation but they are actually interrelated. The research cycle begins with a problem through formulation of research questions, collecting, organising, summarising and analysing the data to the interpretation of the results. Features of Scientific Inquiry The following are some essential characteristics of science method of arriving at dependable solutions to problems: objectivity, control of bias, willingness to change beliefs, verification, induction and truth. (i) Objectivity – this means that in conducting a scientific study, one should not be influenced by personal beliefs or feelings but everything should be based on real facts. The researcher should be objective in choosing respondents, selecting instruments and data collection method, gathering data collection as well as reporting the results of the study. There should be rigorous and disciplined attempt to look as objectively as is humanly possible at the issues since the key to science is found in its approach to data. In a scientific study, the researcher must look at issues critically and should take a neutral stand. He should show neutrality in the collection and analysis of data. (ii) Control of bias – the researcher is expected not to support or oppose issues in an unfair way by allowing personal opinions to influence his/her judgment. The process of the study or the results should not be influenced by personal prejudices, beliefs and attitudes. Researchers should not allow their beliefs and culture to shape an intended research and after the study the results should be reported objectively in order to advance theory or enhance understanding of the issue(s) studied. Bias tendency of researchers reflects in the choice of respondents, research design, research design, data collection procedure and interpretation of results. In view of that, research approach should be devoid of subjective feelings and personal biases. (iii) Willingness to change beliefs – when discovered facts do not agree with existing beliefs, the researcher must be willing to alter his/her beliefs and accept the new idea. The essence of scientific inquiry is to discover the truth so when a belief is supported by evidence, it must be whole-heartedly embraced. So after a rigorous and systematic study, we must accept the fact of the situation and must be willing to change our initial thoughts, feelings and stands in view of the evidence gathered. (iv) Verification – the process and findings of scientific study are subject to replication by others. The results of a study can be replicated by other researchers to verify for themselves the authenticity and objectivity of the results. So the research should be conducted in a way that it would be possible and easy for others interested in the area to replicate it. (v) Induction – this involves drawing conclusions from specific observations. Since it is not possible at all times to use all members of a target group in some studies, a segment of the population is randomly selected, and data collected on them are summarized and generalised on the whole group. (vi) Truth – the main aim of a scientific inquiry is to arrive at the truth yet the conclusions are tentative. When new evidence emerges and contradicts an earlier one, the conclusion is changed to reflect the facts on the ground. The Sequence of Steps in Scientific Study (a) Identification of a problem – in the use of scientific method to obtain data, there must be a problem to begin with. The problem must be an issue that bothers the researcher and that needs explanation or investigation. (b) Clarification of the problem – the researcher has to take steps to precisely define the identified problem. This makes the problem clearer and exact as to what the purpose of the study is. Well defined objectives indicate the research questions and hypotheses to be formulated to guide and direct the study. (c) Determination of information needed to solve the problem – when the focus of the study is made clear, there is the need to determine the information relevant to be collected and how to collect them. The information may be quantitative or qualitative. The type of information and the characteristics of the participants of a study determine how to obtain the data. The data to be collected and how they would be collected are very important in determining the credibility of the results of the study. (d) Organisation of the data – in a scientific study, there is the need to decide how the data will be organised so that it will be easy to make sense out of the data collected. That is, how the data will be summarised and analysed must be decided in advance. (e) Interpretation of the results – the results that emerge from a study, that is, after organising, summarising and analyzing, the data must be interpreted. The data and the results must be interpreted to enable conclusions to be made. The Role of Research in Education The varied vital roles that research plays in the educational enterprise can broadly be grouped into four: adding to our existing knowledge about educational issues; improving practices in education; informing important policy issues; and building and sharpening students’ research knowledge and skills. (i) Increasing knowledge and understanding of educational issues. Educators embark on research in order to contribute to existing information about issues of interest to the education enterprise. This exercise helps us to broaden our understanding of those phenomena. In our quest to have continuous improvement in what we do as educators and in the upbringing of students entrusted in our care, research has to be taken very seriously. Research enables teachers to discover the strengths and weaknesses in the way they teach, to know the views of people on educational issues and to realise how people react to certain developments. Through all these means, educational researchers contribute to our knowledge and understanding on educational issues and practices. (ii) Improving educational practices. Educational research findings, most often than not, furnish readers and educators with new ideas to consider when executing their jobs. Research provides teachers and other stakeholders of education with basic knowledge to find solutions to educational problems. They also get new ideas and practices that have been tried in other settings. Recommendations are also given after research as a way to improve on the issues studied. Not all, research helps to evaluate various methods of doing things in educational setting. These facts underscore why research is important to education and that it should be undertaken by every educator from time to time. (iii) Improving important policy issues. Research informs and guides the formulation of educational policies in a country. It is prudent that all meaningful educational policy frameworks be solidly based on credible information. Research creates the necessary conditions for discussion about important issues to realise the stances taken by the discussants or participants. Research also helps to modify existing educational policies. The decision to alter existing policies should be based on an existing knowledge generated from a well conducted research or be based on data evidence. This connotes that research is the most reliable means of providing information needed to formulate educational policies or modify the existing ones. (iv) Building and sharpening students’ research knowledge skills. When students undertake research course, they acquire research skills and knowledge that help them to conduct meaningful studies to solve educational problems. The course thus equips students with skills in conceptualising issues, skills of evaluating studies reported in literature, skills of writing and organising ideas and skills in interpreting data. It also impacts on the thinking of the students so as to make informed decisions and choices on educational issues. Assumptions, theories and research There are various assumptions in life and scientific inquiry similarly makes use of assumptions. That is, every event or action is believed to have resulted from an antecedent cause. The main idea of science is to find out what causes what. Educationists, like other scientists, proceed on the assumptions that cause and effect relationships prevail in educational settings. For instance, educationists assume that students do not simply become indiscipline but there are causes. Also, they assume that under identical conditions, the cause will always produce the same effects. However, assumptions underlying research should not be false or wrong. Scientists also believe that truth is not a matter of belief but of reality that can be empirically tested. It is assumed that data can be gathered and analysed by means of careful observation and meticulous measurement to find out the truth or otherwise of an issue. A theory is a general framework or perspective that provides an explanation for a specific phenomenon. It is also said to be a statement or set of statements that explain and predict phenomenon. Theory is said to be a coherent group of general propositions used to explain events, forces, materials, ideas or behaviours in a comprehensive manner. It also shows a relationship between two or more variables. Theory guides researchers to work effectively since it is needed to design the study and guide the analysis of the data. Implicit in this stand is that theory defines the focus of the research matter, the type of data to collect, the concepts to develop to organise the data etc, Its value becomes solid when it is confirmed by facts and helps scientists to attain greater objectivity. Theory inspires research that can confirm or disprove it. That is why theories are said to be tentative and can be confirmed or disconfirmed. Theories can be tested to ascertain their relevance in the education enterprise. Research provides findings that make us to accept, reject or modify our theoretical formulation and simultaneously challenges us to craft new and better theories. It is deduced from the above that theory and research are complementary. Means of acquiring knowledge/knowing Man has, throughout the years, developed several means of gaining knowledge to find answers to certain developments. These sources of knowledge overlap with and complement one another. Each of them also has its strengths and weaknesses. The sources of knowing include personal experience, tradition, authority, logic and reasoning, and scientific method/research. Personal experience – this is the means of gaining knowledge by an individual through doing, seeing, feeling and things that happen which have effects on individuals. Man gains great amount of knowledge through experience based on one’s self-conscious interaction with his environment or intuition. We depend on direct experience to know how things work and that man becomes more knowledgeable and effective through doing and practice. In its various forms, experience can provide a good source of problem for scientific investigation. This source of knowing has limitations which include: (a) inability to provide an in-depth explanation of what is observed (b) incapable of providing specialised knowledge (c) it is subject to mistakes and biases (d) it is not systematic (e) it is not everything that individuals can experience. Tradition – man gains knowledge from beliefs, principles or ways of doing things that people in the society followed for a long time. People strongly hold on to certain beliefs in their communities sometimes with intense emotional commitment and deep-seated conscious conviction. Actions of the people, therefore, are based on popular views and beliefs which are passed on from one generation to another as an acceptable “truths”. The people have known those ideas to be the truth and would want its perpetuation. Its limitations are that it avoids the need to search for knowledge and understanding of issues. It also makes it difficult to accept new knowledge. Furthermore, people cannot question existing practices in the society. Authority – we do gain some valuable knowledge from experts or people of recognised positions who have experience or unique expertise in some things and are able to provide useful insights into some issues. Such knowledge emanates from sources or people who are very much respected. They provide knowledge based on their expertise, experience or positions which carry a high degree of public acceptance and respect. Some professionals, books, oragnisations etc are considered custodians of indisputable truth. Its limitations are (a) different people can provide different and sometimes conflicting explanations to the same issue (b) an expert’s objectivity may be inhibited due to narrow area of knowledge (c) it can hinder our quest to search for knowledge (d) they can also be biased. Reasoning/logic – it is a particular way of reasonable thinking based on good judgment. It is a means of reasoning out the truth about an issue. That is, reasoning is used to arrive at knowledge. It is considered as the beginning of the scientific process where hypotheses are proposed. There are two main kinds of reasoning which are deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, conclusions are based on the truth of the major and minor premises. Deductive logic goes from general to specific. For example, all men are mortal; Kwame is a man; therefore, Kwame is mortal. Since the first two statements are true, the third one must be true. However, when there is a faulty relation and hasty conclusion, the argument becomes invalid. For example, all soldiers are quick-tempered; Kofi is a soldier that is why he is quick-tempered. The reasoning is based on false premise and that the conclusion is erroneous. So the major limitation of logic as a source of knowledge is that when the general premise is wrong, the conclusion will be wrong. Inductive reasoning begins with specific observation and based on the observation, a generalisation is made. Inductive logic goes from specific facts to general statements. Scientists reason inductively and arrive at a hypothesis which explains their observation. This means that facts observed eventually lead to theoretical generalisation. It is assumed that what one observes is a fair or representative sample of a whole. Its limitations are that (a) conclusions based on inductive extrapolation are tentative and can be disconfirmed later (b) inductive reasoning can lead to hasty generalisation since it is based on few cases. Research/scientific method – this means of acquiring knowledge essentially involves testing or generating data to explain certain phenomena. This helps to utilise the strengths of deductive and inductive reasoning and also to overcome their respective weaknesses. Thus, the inductive-deductive reasoning approach provides the operational basis for the modern scientific research approach. This method enables us to put guesses to rigorous test to see if they hold up under certain conditions. Scientific research helps to explain natural phenomena, to understand relationship between variables, and then to predict and influence behaviour as a result. This process involves several steps and it is a very orderly process of knowing or acquiring knowledge. The use of this method is objective, systematic, testable and relatively uninfluenced by personal beliefs, opinions and feelings. Classification of Educational Research The different types of educational research can be identified in terms of how they are conducted and what they hope to achieve. They are classified generally as purpose and method. Gay (1992) postulates that using purpose as a criterion, educational research can be classified into five categories which are basic research, applied research, evaluation research, research and development and action research. Using method as a criterion, educational research can be classified essentially as experimental research and non-experimental research. Purpose as a criterion for classification 1. Basic research is also known as pure or fundamental research. This kind of research is fashioned to our understanding of things or contributes to formulating or modifying theories. It is basically to gain understanding of processes involved in educational phenomena. It explains how certain phenomena work or how variables relate. A study to find out why students forget what they learn at school or how do people forget what they learn can be termed as basic research. This type of research is not concerned with practical applicability. 2. Applied research is a type of research which is concerned with the application of theories or issues to solve a problem. This research is conducted for the purpose of applying theory or evaluating its usefulness in solving educational problems. This research can be conducted to test the effects of different methods of teaching or strategies in a classroom. It may also be applied or conducted to solve a problem in a school or a classroom. Applied research has a quick and direct impact on practices than basic research which aims at gaining knowledge and understanding issues of interest. 3. Action research is a type of applied research concerned with application of intervention or immediate solution to local problems. It is an aspect of applied research and has a small jurisdiction or scope of operation. It is usually limited to a school or a classroom and does not warrant generalisation of findings. Professional like teachers conduct action research to address and improve issues they are confronted with in their schools and classroom. Specifically, action research is conducted in school to bring about changes, improve professional practices and to promote knowledge. It must be well planned and conducted through the application of scientific method in a form of intervention. Since the main aim of action research is to solve local problems, it does not contribute to general knowledge. Three stages are involved in action research which are pre-intervention stage, intervention stage and post-intervention stage. The pre-intervention stage indicates what was done to unravel the problem that the researcher wanted to find a solution to. This is a preliminary research carried out to ascertain the problem which goes a long way to suggest the intervention(s) that could be applied to solve the problem. The results of the preliminary study form the basis or warrant the study. It must be noted that the researcher may not necessarily do the preliminary study him/herself but can use the results of someone’s study as basis for the current research. The intervention stage talks about the real application of a scientific method to solve the identified problem. At this stage, the processes involved or the full intervention is clearly shown so that any change in the situation can be rightly attributed to the intervention. The final stage which is the post-intervention stage indicates what is done to find out the results of the intervention. It is instructive to fully describe all the stages very well to show what was done at each stage of the action research. 4. Evaluation research is a type of research which involves systematic gathering of data to evaluate or find out the worth or effectiveness of strategies, actions or education programmes. Decisions are made after such the study to ascertain whether the programme worths its cost or not, or to find out how it has achieved its objectives. In this research, a standard is used as basis for the evaluation. The standard could be the objective(s) of the action or programme being evaluated. Evaluation research also involves value judgment. After some years of the implementation of the School Feeding Programme in the public sector schools, a nationwide study could be conducted to assess its worth. Very brilliant objectives were set for the programme and such a study, devoid of political inclination, would make the nation know whether it was a good venture or otherwise/whether the well stated objectives are being achieved or not. The Computerised School Selection and Placement System (CSSPS) introduced into the educational system to supposedly perfect the admission system into Senior High School (SHS) could be evaluated through this kind of research. Evaluation research can also be done to find out the worth or effectiveness of two or more alternative actions. In this situation, the researcher would be embarking on a comparative study. 5. Research and development is a kind of research directed at the development of effective products such as teaching and learning materials to be used in schools. The process of developing such materials constitutes the research since they have to be first developed, field tested and revised until a pre-specified level of effectiveness or quality is achieved. The validity of the materials is ascertained before they are put in schools for use. In Ghana, the Curriculum, Research and Development Division (CRDD) of the Ghana Education Service (GES) is entrusted with this responsibility. They conduct series of research before coming out with teaching and learning materials. Method as a criterion for classification 1. Experimental research involves determining the causal relationship between two or more variables by direct manipulation of factors that influence the variables. It is a type of research which a researcher can use to determine a cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. It is also used to determine effectiveness of a treatment on organisms. This research calls for control of other variables that can affect the outcome of the manipulation. To ascertain the effect of a treatment, the researcher has to control all other factors that can influence the outcome of the experiment or the occurrence of a change. In experimental study, the control group is not exposed to the intervention. This enables the researcher to compare the two groups and determine the impact of the intervention. The three kinds of experimental studies are pre-experimental, quasi-experimental and true experimental. 2. Non-experimental research is also concerned with describing and explaining a phenomenon of interest without manipulating factors that influence the phenomenon. In this study, it is not useful in describing cause and effect relationship. This type of research can take forms such as descriptive, content analysis, causal comparative etc. Research is also classified as quantitative, qualitative or mixed method using design as the basis. Quantitative Research (Deductive) Quantitative research tends to describe or explain phenomenon numerically. It adopts deductive approach and it is used to test theories. It emphasises numbers and measurement, experiment and numerical relationships. The emphasis is on measurement of variables, assessing relationships or impacts of variables, testing hypotheses and applying results on a large number of people but not narrative. The typical methods used for primary data collection in quantitative study are mainly survey using questionnaire, structured interview and/or structured observation. Secondary data are collected from government statistics, school authorities, national, regional and district educational directorates etc. Both primary and secondary data are all quantifiable. The data have to be quantified and multivariate. Due to the large numbers usually involved in quantitative research, the findings of the study warrant generalisation. It is also instructive that with quantitative, the researcher does not need to be present in the field of the study. Qualitative Research (Inductive) Qualitative research provides description of phenomena with words that enhance understanding. It focuses on meaning through verbal narratives and observations rather than numbers. It adopts the inductive approach and helps to develop theories. This type of research entails field work and tends to emphasis description of people, situation, and events in their natural settings. The study usually takes place in the socio-cultural context of the participants. It is contextual often based on a single case study and its particular circumstances rather than replication and generalisation. Qualitative research involves learning about views of people, assessing a process over time, evaluating texts and making judgments, obtaining information about some people etc. This type of research seeks to discover meanings of social issues and it involves interpretation and critical approach to the social world. Qualitative research is theoretical or analytical and data for this study are often words from observation, documents, interviews and participation. Multiple methods can be used to gather extensive data on a research problem. Different forms of data collection tools are used for this kind of research, which include unstructured interview, participant observation, text analysis, documents, field notes, pictures etc. Qualitative research needs the presence of the researcher in the context of the participants. The sample size for qualitative study is also small and not chosen at random. The chosen of the sample is purposeful. Qualitative research includes case study, ethnography, action research etc. Mixed research method This method combines both the quantitative and qualitative research approach. It is the application of qualitative and quantitative research knowledge and skills to solve problems. The Research Process Research is organized into chapters and sections and that constitute the process of the study. It is usually organized into five main chapters. Even though some universities, faculties or departments use either four, five or six chapters for the final work, the Faculty of Education, CUCG, accepts five chapters for the final project work. Research Proposal Most research projects begin with a proposal that provides the rationale for the proposed research as well as describing in detail the methodology for conducting the study. Thus, the main purpose of research proposal is to show that the problem you propose to investigate is significant, and the method to use for the study is suitable and feasible. It should contain sufficient information in the major issues of interest, good and relevant literature and a sound methodology to be used to conduct the study. The proposal consists of the first three (3) chapters of the final paper except that it is written in future tense. It should address the questions of what one wants to accomplish, why one wants to do it, and how one is going to do it. The proposal should be convincing and self-explanatory with regard to its goal(s), objectives, significance, the resources needed to carry out the study etc. The proposal should be coherent, clear and compelling to demonstrate that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work plan to complete it. The candidate should avoid the use of first person pronoun like “I will use “instead, use third person pronoun like “the researcher will use”. The proposal should be written in future tense so that upon completion the tenses would be changed to past. Not all, the APA style should be used to cite all references within the text. Students should attach seriousness to their research proposals since they help the students to think about the topic; define the scope of the proposed research; and review the suitability of the methodology to use. The proposals also help the student’s supervisor to judge the feasibility of the project in terms of time, cost, materials and equipment; assess the likely success of the project; and the likelihood that the research would meet academic standards. It suffices to say that one’s research is only as good as one’s proposal and that a well written proposal is a half way through the entire work. Research proposal should contain: Chapter One: Introduction Background to the study, Statement of the problem, Objective of the study, Research questions/hypotheses, Significance of the study, Delimitation, Limitations, Definition of terms Chapter Two: Related Literature Review Introduction and appropriate sub-themes (provide those that suit the topic). The review should contain theoretical framework and/or conceptual framework and empirical evidence. Chapter Three: Methodology Introduction, Study Area, Study Type/Study Design, Population, Sample and Sampling techniques, Instrumentation, Data Collection Procedure, Data Analysis Plan, Ethical consideration Research Problem This is an important issue that needs investigation to help us understand it better or find solution(s) to. It is an area of concern to a researcher and that the researcher has to state, as clearly as possible, what he/she hopes to investigate. It is the desire to find a solution to a problem or investigate a problem which motivates a researcher to undertake a study. Franklin and Wallen (2000) posit that a research problem is the focus of a research investigation. A research problem may be contradictory views that one wants to find out which is which, a perplexing situation etc. Research problem should be researchable and should not be based on funny feeling or general issues. It must be original and should be of interest to the researcher to enable him/her do his/her best work on it. Research problem should merit the study and that it should be such that it can be investigated into by a scientific method. Characteristics of a good Research Problem 1. It should be researchable – the problem must lend itself to systematic process of gathering and analysing data. It should be possible to collect, organise and use data in order to come out with answer(s) or disprove by the collection of other evidence. Some philosophical, ethical or moral issues are not researchable because they are not readily to be investigated. It is a truism that some philosophical issues can be discussed but not to the extent where objective evidence can provide solution. 2. There should be at least 2 variables – a research problem must show the variables one is studying and how they relate. It must have both independent and dependent variables. An example is the study into factors influencing basic school teachers’ retention in the Sunyani municipality. This problem involves the relationship between the variables “factors” and “retention”. 3. The problem must be feasible – the topic should be of such magnitude that the researcher has the expertise, competence or ability to handle it and can be accomplished within the time and with the resources available to him/her. Data must also be available in the situation the researcher finds himself. 4. It should be significant – a research topic should have a practical or a theoretical significance. It must contribute to existing stock of knowledge or a discipline of study. The findings or solutions of the problem should contribute to extension, refinement or revision of a theory or contribute to improvement of practices in the area of study. 5. It should be devoid of ethical or moral issues – the problem or the question must not involve or cause psychological harm to the people or their social setting. The issue should not be too sensitive to make either data collection too difficult or the data not to reflect the true situation of the subjects/respondents. Any of these situations would defeat the aim of the study or would not allow the aim of the study to be met. 6. It should be clearly stated – the research problem should be clearly and unambiguously stated so that different people would not derive different meanings from it. Thus, every reader of the research must know precisely the issue that is being investigated. 7. It should be disciplined-based and address issues in that area. Research topics chosen by education students, for instance, should directly or indirectly address educational issues. This will help them contribute to educational process in terms of practice and/or policy. 8. It could be stated in a question form or in a statement form. 9. It should indicate the specific population – a good research problem should clearly show the population of the study. This makes it easy for every reader to know the group of people the researcher wants to study or the researcher would like to gather data from. Sources of Research Problem 1. Personal experience – Individuals’ interest, personal and practical experiences provide problems for investigation. They may be concerned about practices and policies in the researchers’ professions, places of work or communities. 2. Literature – Individuals’ reading of relevant and related literature or documents helps to find problems amenable to scientific investigation. Textbooks, journals, project reports, dissertations, theses etc are good sources of research problems. Recommendations of these reports are sources of research problem. 3. Educational theories – educational relevant theories can also be good sources of research problem. A theory can be used to develop a problem that is applicable to an educational setting. 4. Expert ideas and/or ideas from external sources – Experts are knowledgeable in certain issues and can guide others with regard to those issues. They have knowledge on topical and contemporary issues in their areas of specialisation. External agencies like USAID, DfID and other NGO’s can also give research topics for people to study. 5. Replication – a completed study can be replicated by other researchers. Thus, a study can be conducted to find out whether it will yield comparable results in a different setting or with different subjects. The study can also be conducted in the same area with the same respondents to check trends or changes over time. 6. Government policies and topical issues – on-going policies, programmes and contemporary educational issues that have generated public debate can be a good source of research problem for education students. Such issues must be researchable and feasible to study. Background to the Study The first chapter of a research should begin with background information on the topic under investigation. This helps to catch the attention of the readers and get them “turned on” about the subject. The background sets the stage for the paper/research and puts the topic in perspective. It should contain general statements or ideas about the topic and have relevant quotes to set the tone. It should be written in a manner that the reader would develop the interest to continue reading the whole discourse. A catchy background of a research whips the interest of readers of the work. Statement of the Problem/Problem Statement The problem under investigation should be comprehensively defined to elaborate on the information in the title of the study. It is the focal point of the research and indicates the need for the study. The statement should be persuasive and should show that the problem is important enough to study. All aspects of the problem must be discussed to enhance the understanding of the problem. It must be adequately defined and clearly stated. The assumptions leading to the problem and the nature of the problem must be clearly established. There should be a link between the background and the problem to be researched. It should also be possible to identify a statement that is depicting the problem statement or the thesis statement. Purpose and Objectives of the Study The purpose of the study concerns the aim of embarking on the study. It shows the need for the research and also serves as the focus of the work. It indicates what the study intends to accomplish. Usually, a study should have a single purpose which would take cognizance of the totality of what the study is about and the sub-purposes. The sub-purposes are considered as the objectives. This means that the objectives should be directly derived from the purpose. This is so because objectives help researchers to achieve the purpose of the study. A well defined purpose focuses on the study to a specific area of knowledge in the subject. This helps to demonstrate the scope and the various aspects of the study. These objectives are translated into research questions and/or hypotheses. Research Questions and Hypotheses Research questions are the specific questions or interrogative statements that address the main issues or problems under investigation. They are usually derived from the problem statement and the purpose of the study. In research, we gather data to answer questions. Research questions are answered in a study and a success answering them results in achieving the objectives of the study. In addition to stating research questions, scientific investigation demands statement of hypotheses. Hypotheses are assumptions about relationships between factors that explain phenomena. They are speculative statements about relationship between two or more variables or factors. They seek to find out how one aspect of human behaviour influences or affects another. Usually, hypotheses are used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of experiments. If the outcomes are inconsistent with the hypotheses, then the hypotheses are rejected. On the other hand, if the outcomes are consistent with the hypotheses, the experiments are said to support the hypotheses. Hypotheses are stated as null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses. In view of that, if the null hypothesis is not supported by the evidence gathered and is thus rejected, the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Conversely, if the null hypothesis is supported by the evidence gathered and we fail to reject it, the alternative hypothesis is rather rejected. Significance of the Study This aspect of the study deals with the benefits that would be derived from the research. It actually indicates the extent of the benefits and also indicates those who will benefit from the findings and conclusions of the study. Thus, this section makes the purpose of the study worth pursuing and seeks to find answers to the questions: “why is the study important?”, “to whom is it important?”, “what benefit(s) will occur if the study is done?” Delimitations The scope within which the researcher will operate should be clearly indicated. Since one research cannot cover every aspect or every part of an educational issue being studied, the specific areas, parts or aspects that are covered in the current study need to be shown in the work. Limitations The problems that the researcher encounters during the investigation and are likely to affect the findings or the results of the study must also be indicated. The researcher should indicate the extent to which the limitations or constraints encountered during the exercise can affect the quality of the research. Operational Definition of Terms Certain pertinent terms and concepts must be given operational definitions to make them clearer to the readers. Terms that have unique meanings and are likely to be interpreted in several ways by different readers must be defined clearly in this section of the work. This makes it possible to clear possible ambiguities in the use of those terms and concepts. Researchers also have to define terms and concepts formulated for the study. Organisation of the Chapter This section describes the way the whole work is organized. Essentially, it shows the number of chapters that constitute the research report and what has gone into the various chapters. The major sections of the various chapters need to be indicated. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE It is very useful for researchers to review literature on the issues they want to investigate. Literature review is a systematic identification and analyses of documents containing information related to the research problem. In conducting research, it is imperative for the researcher to know what others have done and what no one has done in his/her area of study. This section of research shows what previous researchers have discovered in the area of study. It helps to find materials related to the problem and shows what has been done on it as well as the opinions of experts in the area of study. Literature review unearths relevant scholarly studies and information that would help refine the problem under study. This implies that the review should cite similar studies or in a relatively new area, it should cite similar areas of study or studies that lead to the current research. Identifying studies done in the area of study helps to reveal what needs to be done. The review assists the researcher to relate his/her study to earlier researches that have been conducted in the area of investigation. It also shows methods some researchers have used in conducting similar studies, population and sample used, variables examined, and statistical tools used and findings obtained. It helps to examine methods that have already been used in studying the issues and thus helps you to choose appropriate methods for your study. Literature review provides focus for the current study as well as helping develop a conceptual framework to guide the study. This will make you know how similar or different your findings will be from those of previous studies cited. It helps to compare the results of one’s study with the existing knowledge. Studies cited should indicate how they were conducted, techniques used, the outcomes realised and the strengths and weaknesses of the various aspect of the work. The review should identify gaps in the literature which the current study seeks to fulfill. If there are varying opinions and findings on an issue, they must be pointed out, and if possible, the reason(s) for the variation should also be given. If the intended study has underlying principles and theories, theoretical review must be done in those areas. It is instructive to note that most research topics have theories underpinning them and students have to identify and review them. Theoretical framework of the study should be included in the review. The various theories underlying the study must be comprehensively reviewed. That is, the literature may include theoretical positions related to the study which are not empirical in nature. Conceptual framework, indicating the main concepts and their sub ones, if any, could also be built for the review. Also, literature may contain empirical review which concerns works related to the topic and reported in journals and other sources. Often, relevant materials are obtained from magazines, journals, dissertations, theses, and other research reports, websites and online, conference papers and key notes addresses, committee’s reports. Two main sources of literature review are: primary and secondary sources. Both primary and secondary sources must be used to make the review very strong. Primary source is the description of an investigation written by the person who conducted the study. They are original articles and reports in which the researchers communicate directly to the reader the results of their study. In other words, these materials are a direct description of issues by someone who actually did the study. Since these materials come from the researchers, primary sources have high assurance of quality and useful information. Secondary sources, on the other hand, is a description of studies prepared by people other than the original researcher(s). These materials are not given by people who did not do the study. The review should always be relevant to the problem and should be comprehensive as well. Literature exposes and clarifies possible techniques that can be used in collecting data and also helps to eliminate a number of avoidable mistakes. The review should be analytical and organised into main sections and sub-sections. The review must be well-planned, well-structured and well-organised since it is not compendium of facts. Not all, the literature should be related to the problem under study. Students must do the citation well especially using the APA style. Names of authors and dates of publications have to follow the APA style. For instance, when the authors are more than 3, the researcher has to write all the authors’ names for the first citation and then subsequently, the name of the first author with “et al” is used. Also, quotations of issues which are more than 40 words are indented. Essentially, the review should indicate the areas that previous studies did not cover, the weaknesses and strengths of any aspects of the previous studies and what the current study seeks to do about them. The weaknesses, for instance, could be on the population, instrumentation, administration etc or a combination of some of these aspects of the work. A well literature review is a good source of research questions and hypotheses for the current study. Thus, research questions and hypotheses are derived from the literature so as to cover the uncovered areas of the previous studies, confirm certain assertions and findings etc. METHODOLOGY This is the section of a research proposal or research report that discusses in detail how one intends to carry out or carried out his/her study. Methodology as a concept refers to how the research will be done and how the data will be analysed, and interpreted to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. It essentially indicates what will be done from the beginning to the end of the study as well as indicating the sequence of activities with time. The methods or techniques to be used or used should be described in detail and must be very appropriate to address the problem. The section usually entails the study area, study design, population (subjects, participants or respondents), sample and sampling techniques. It also deals with research instrument, validity and reliability, data collection procedure, data analyzing plan and ethical issues. Study Area The locality or the institutional setting within which the intended research will be conducted should be described to make the reader to have some knowledge of where the study will take place. It usually indicates social, economic, and educational activities in the area as well as demographic characteristics related to the topic under investigation. Research design This is the specific strategy the researcher relies on in collecting, analysing, and reporting the research. Polit and Hunglar (1996) describe research design as an overall plan for gathering and analysing data including measures to enhance both internal and external validity. Amedahe (2000) also describes research design as the plan or blueprint that specifies how data relating to a given problem should be collected and analysed. The strategy must be appropriate to enable the researcher to carry out the study or enable him to gather relevant data to answer the research questions or test the hypotheses formulated. Gay (1992) contends that research design indicates the basic structure of the study, the nature of the hypotheses and the variables involved in the study. The problem at hand determines the design to be used. That is, the design should match the problem since inappropriate design could lead to misleading results. This will indicate the appropriateness of the design to the solution of the proposed problem. In advance research, the strengths and weaknesses of the design are also discussed in the research report. The three main basic designs in education include experimental, quasi-experimental and non-experimental. Experimental research design Experimental design involves manipulation of factors that may affect respondents’ behaviour while simultaneously controls any other idea that may affect the respondents’ behaviour by confounding the results. Non-experimental design does not involve manipulation or control of factors that may influence the respondents’ behaviour. Examples of non-experimental design are Survey (descriptive and exploratory survey), correlational study, ex-post factor (causal comparative), case study and analytical research (historical and philosophical study). Content analysis, desktop/library research etc are other non-experimental design. Survey Survey is a method of gathering data about a population from a sample of individuals. It is an ideal method used in ascertaining opinion, attitudes, perception etc of respondents. This helps to gather data on what people think, feel, do about something, somebody, practices, policies etc. Survey is also used to explain the relationship and differences between variables. They main types of survey are cross-sectional survey and longitudinal survey. In cross-sectional survey data are gathered from a sample drawn from a population. It collects data at one point in time. Longitudinal survey, on the other hand, involves gathering data from respondents at different point in time in order to study changes. A survey study can also be census survey and sample survey. Census survey is where data is gathered from all the members of the target group and this is appropriate when the population size is small. Sample survey, on the other hand, is where some individuals in the target group are chosen to provide data/information and use it to generalise on the entire population. Sources of gathering data for survey studies include face-to-face interview, telephone interview, internet (skype, facebook – web survey), mail survey. The survey design has advantage of producing good amount of responses from a wide range of people. It also provides a meaningful picture of events and seeks to explain people’s views and behaviour on the basis of data gathered. It also helps to determine present status of a phenomenon. Descriptive survey This design is the process of collecting data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses concerning the current status of the subject of the study (Gay, 1992). Such a study reports the way things are in the real sense. The aim of this research is to observe, describe and document parts of a situation as they naturally occur. The researcher reports on already existing conditions. This design concerns conditions or relationships that exist such as determining practices, aptitudes and opinions that are held, processes that are going on or trends that are developing (Best & Khan, 1998). It deals with interpreting relationship among variables and describing the relationships. Ary, Jacobs and Razaviel (1990) opine that descriptive survey basically inquires into the status quo; it attempts to measure ‘what exists’ with regard to the variables and conditions in a situation. Study variables Variables are measureable traits or characteristics that are subject to change under different conditions or they are concepts that take on different values. Gender, occupation, income are examples of variables in a study. Variables could be dependent or independent. Independent variables are factors that cause changes in other factors. In other words, they are concepts that cause effects. On the other hand, dependent variables are factors that are influenced by the independent variables. They are the variables that measure the effects of the independent variables. In a research work, the variables of interest in the problem under investigation must be clearly stated. Furthermore, if the study seeks to find relationships of variables, dependent and independent variables must be clearly stated. That is, variables that are dependent and those that are independent must be indicated. Population Population in research refers to the target group that the researcher is interested in gaining information from to draw conclusion(s). Population is the entire aggregation of cases that meet a designated set of criteria (Polit & Hunglar, 1996). Population answers the question from whom do I seek information or gather data for the research. For example, the population of a study into the effects the rampant changes in the educational system in Ghana would be students, teachers, parents etc. This is the people or target group that the final results of the study will be generalised on. It has a broader dimension and in some disciplines like Botany, population can cover things like trees. The population of any study should be precisely defined to enable the reader to know the kind of people who would provide data for the research. Some questions are important when deciding on the population of a study: who are the people in the system?, what are the units of consideration/unit of analysis? and are they homogeneous or heterogeneous group of individuals? Accessible population is that part of the population that a researcher takes the sample for the study or accessible population is the pool of subjects for a study. Researchers usually sample from an accessible population and generalise the findings of the study on the entire population. Accessible population is thus the sub-set of population of a study that provided the relevant data for the exercise. The final number of people selected and used for a study is known as the sample size. In research activities, the total number of subjects or respondents who actually provided data for the study is indicated. There is no agreed number of respondents for educational research. However, some researchers work out a certain percentage like 5, 10 or 15 of the population and use as the sample size. This is possible when the total number of the target population is known. Sample and Sampling Techniques In conducting a study, one may obtain data/information from all the members of the target group (census survey) or data/information will be collected from some of the group members but in such a way that it will be representative of all the members (sample survey). Sample is, therefore, a carefully chosen part of a population for a study. That is, when it is not possible to use all the members of a group, part of it is used as a sample for the research. The researcher has to explain the nature of the sample with regard to age, status etc. The sample should have the characteristics of the entire population from which it is drawn. It should also be representative of the population as much as possible to permit generalisation of findings on the entire population of the study. It is pertinent to note that in research, conclusions should not be generalised beyond the group from which the sample is drawn. The number of respondents finally chosen for the study constitutes the sample size and the sample has to be systematically and carefully chosen or sampled to bring representativeness. Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of a population to represent the entire population. There are various sampling procedures or techniques that can be used to select a sample from a population for a study. The sampling technique(s) chosen for a study is/are very important since wrong sampling technique(s) could lead to difficulties in analysing the data hence making wrong inferences. Sampling plans may be grouped into probability and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling techniques include simple random, stratified, systematic and cluster sampling techniques while non-probability sampling techniques include convenience, purposive, quota and snowball sampling techniques. PROBABILITY SAMPLING It is a way of randomly choosing sample from a population for a study. As a random process, each member of the population has equal and independent chance of being selected. The kinds of probability sampling techniques include: simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling techniques. Simple Random Technique This is the method which gives all the elements of the target population an equal chance of being selected. Thus, this technique provides each and every member of the group an equal and independent opportunity to be part of the sample for the study. This method is used when the population of the study is similar in characteristics of interest. That is, simple random sampling technique is used when the individuals in the population are homogeneous. Simple random sampling technique is the basis of other probability sampling methods. It is done through lottery and random numbers methods. Systematic Sampling Technique It is the process of selecting the sample from a population list in a systematic rather than a random manner. The units in the population are arranged serially and then a random number is chosen to start the selection of the sample till the sample size is obtained. This connotes that in systematic sampling, the first number of the sample is selected randomly before the elements are systematically determined. Example, if the 5th interval is used in the selection, then the names in the 5th, 10th, 15th positions etc will be chosen for the study. Stratified Sampling Technique It is the process of grouping members of a population into homogenous sub-groups so that each stratum will contain subjects with similar characteristics. A number of strata will then be generated before some elements are selected from the strata. Simple random sampling method is then employed to select from each stratum members to represent that stratum. When a population has many different elements or individuals, the researcher puts similar elements or individuals into groups. The entire population is divided into meaningful strata and within each stratum a separate sample is chosen through randomization. This method is appropriate when there is the need to represent all groups of the target population in the sample or obtain views of each group. Cluster Sampling Technique This is the process of selecting members in succession from chosen groups or areas. With this technique, a group of units is selected from similar units at the start of the process. After that, simple random or systematic sampling technique is used to select some elements from each cluster. This is usually used when it is impossible to sample individual elements from the population as a whole. In this process, first groups of elements (clusters) are selected and then individual elements are selected from those chosen clusters. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING Non-probability sampling is a process whereby a sample for a study is selected by non-random means. In this case, it is not every member of the group who has the chance of being selected. The following are the major types of non-probability sampling: convenience, quota, purposive and snowball techniques. Convenience Sampling Technique It is the sampling technique that involves the use of elements of a target group or population that the researcher has access to or those who are available to serve as respondents. It is also termed as incidental sampling technique. With this sampling technique, all the elements or subjects who the researcher comes in contact with during the time of the research and are willing to provide the needed data are used for the exercise. This is appropriate when representativeness is not necessary for the study. Quota Sampling Technique This technique is the process where a researcher sets quota of respondents to be chosen from specific population groups. That is, when there is the need to have proportional representation of members from different groups, quota sampling is the best sampling technique to adopt. The numbers to be allocated to the sub-groups are based on the numerical strength of the various groups. Purposive Sampling Technique It is the process of selecting special people or sample on the basis of the researcher’s judgment of the respondents’ particular knowledge on the issue under investigation. The selection of the sample is based on the question who can answer the questions? This is called judgmental sampling because the subjects are chosen on the ground that they have opinions or special knowledge that is relevant to the research topic. The decision to select those who have relevant knowledge on the topic is made based on the researcher’s own judgment. Such respondents are deemed to symbolize the views and opinions of the group. Snowball Sampling Technique This is where the researcher identifies an individual or a small number of subjects who share the same characteristics to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the research. Thus, the researcher identifies or gets some respondents and asks them to recommend other people who meet the criteria for the study. This method is appropriate when there is lack of sample frame where the target population is unknown or the issue under investigation is very sensitive to approach the subject. This sampling technique is also appropriate to be used when it is difficult to approach the respondents in any other way. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS Data collection instruments basically are devices that are used in gathering data for a study. Research instruments or tools include: observation, interview, questionnaire, test, rating/ranking, attitude scales etc. The instruments are selected for a study based on the type of data one is seeking to collect. The researcher has to be clear in his/her mind as to the type of data or information he/she needs in order to meet the objectives of the study. The data intended to be gathered informs the types of instruments to develop. The data or information to be gathered could be secondary data (existing data) or primary data (collection of new data) and may require different tools to do so. In research activities, the researcher has to describe the type of instrument(s) that will be used to gather the data for the research. The instruments used in the data collection must be fully described including how their validity and reliability were ensured. The researcher must justify the choice of that instrument(s) and as well indicate their strengths and weaknesses. The items in the instruments should be well organised into parts or sections preferably based on the research questions or the objectives including bio-data or demographic characteristics of the respondents. Here, enough questions or items are raised for each and every research question or objective to exhaustively deal with the issues under investigation. Observation This is a means of watching respondents, listening and recording what a researcher observes rather than asking questions. The researcher has in mind the traits or behaviours of interest that he/she observes and records them as they occur during the period. This method allows the researcher to interact with the participants in the natural setting. He/she sees things as they occur and decide which data to gather. It is noteworthy that some behaviours or traits that were not intended for may be recorded if they emerge during the process and can help achieve the objectives of the study. This connotes that observational schedule contains certain traits and behaviours that the researcher intends to observe although unintended ones which are relevant to the study may be covered during the exercise. The extent of the observer’s participation in the setting differs from participation to non-participation. There are therefore two types of observation which are participant observation and non-participant observation. In the participant observation study, the researcher becomes part of the group to be observed. The researcher find him/herself in the group, gain the trust of the members of the group but tries to remain sufficiently detached as to be able to carry out the observation. In the process, the researcher observes what the group members do, the explanation they give to what they do, relationships among them and characteristics of the situation in which they find themselves. In the non-participation studies, the researcher is not part of the group studied. The researcher decides in advance the kind of behaviour relevant to the study. The observation may be structured or unstructured depending on the depth of information/data one intends to collect. Naturalistic observation – with this research method, the subjects are observed without interruption under natural circumstances. It entails observing behaviours in their natural environment and often involves counting behaviours number, frequency etc. Interview This is the means of generating data from respondents through dialogue. This process entails posing questions to respondents for answers in a face to face situation, by telephone, or by using more advanced computer technology like Skype. It could be administered on the respondents at their homes, workplaces, at the researcher’s office or at a neutral place. Wherever the interview will take place, the respondents should be made to feel comfortable to be able to speak freely without distractions. The interview may be structured or unstructured. With the structured interview, only the pre-determined questions on the interview schedule are asked during the data gathering exercise. There is little or no room is given to unanticipated questions and to digress from the pre-determined questions. It is instructive to note that data gathered from semi-structured and structured interview can analysed statistically as it with data gathered from structured questionnaire schedule. On the other hand, the unstructured interview which makes use of interview guide allows unanticipated questions in addition to pre-determined questions. In this case, when doing unstructured interview, the researcher creates room for probes and prompts. Relevant issues that would catch his/her attention or may emerge from the conversation are included. There is an opportunity for an interviewer to probe further into certain issues in the study. Clarification of these issues is possible here. Again, the respondents are also given the chance to give extra information in addition to the pre-determined questions. Respondents can be interviewed individually or in groups with the consent of the respondents and also depending on the type of data intended to be gathered. Suffice to say that personal and confidential data are not appropriate to be gathered from the respondents in groups. It is only appropriate to gather personal and sensitive data from respondents anonymously. Responses could be recorded with the permission of the interviewees. Questionnaire This is a collection of questions or items which are put together to answer research questions or test hypotheses. The list of questions or statements relates to the rationale of the study and elicits responses from the subjects. Questionnaires usually contain open-ended and close-ended items or questions. They can be administered by mail or by hand delivery. Other types of instruments like checklist, rating/ranking and attitude scales are always used as part of questionnaires. Questionnaires can be administered in different ways such as handling them out personally, posted by air-mail, as email attachment, on internet sites and administered to captive audience (people attending seminar, workshop or conference). Advantages – it allows the respondents to take their time to think about the questions before responding to them. The respondents express their views without the possible reaction of the researcher. Questionnaires ensure anonymity and thus engender genuine responses. It is cost effective and can be administered to a large group of people. It guarantees standardization of questions since all respondents answer the same set of questions. Disadvantages – it usually attract fairly low response rate. Some people do not answer all the questions. Some also do not answer the questionnaire very well. Caution – researchers need to advise their respondents to give socially accepted answers. They should also be encouraged to answer the questions as honestly as possible. Triangulation It is very imperative for researchers to take steps to validate research procedure and the findings that will emerge from the study. One of the steps that have gained currency in making findings of research is triangulation. Various methods such as instrument/method triangulation, data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation and respondents’ triangulation are used to improve the quality of the data to be obtained. Method triangulation – involves the use of multiple or many research instruments or methods to gather data in a study. Interview, observation, questionnaires could be used to gather for a single study. This means that variety of techniques is used to gather the relevant data from the respective respondents. That is, in a research, observation, interview and questionnaire could be used to generate the same data from the same respondents to authentic the findings. After that, the results are compared to ascertain consistency and inconsistencies with the bid to validate the findings. Data triangulation entails using data from different sources at different times or from different people. That is the findings are obtained from many sources. Triangulation as a means of deriving findings from many sources helps to strengthen findings obtained from a study. Investigator triangulation is the use of multiple researchers to gather and interpret research data. Adaptation and adaptation of instruments Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments Scientific method of inquiry demands that research results be both valid and reliable. Validity refers to the extent to which a measure truly reflects the idea under study (accuracy of measurement) while reliability refers to the extent to which a measure provides consistent results over time and even when used by different researchers. If a researcher is using an existing instrument, he/she must indicate the validity and reliability of the assessment tool. However, if a researcher is developing a new one, he/she must describe the steps he/she is taking to assess its validity and reliability. Validity and reliability of research instruments are checked by subjecting the instruments into critical review and statistical analysis. This is to ensure content validity and internal consistency of the results. Checking of reliability of an instrument is usually done through pilot study or pre-testing. Pilot testing of research instrument is the administration of the instrument on a small group who share similar characteristics of the target group. During the exercise, the respondents can be made to comment on the questions, the format/order of the questions and any other thing that can help improve the instrument to for the main study. Polit and Hunglar (1993) regard pilot study as a small-scale version or trial run done in preparation for a major study. Borg and Gall (1984) recommend preliminary trial of research measures and techniques for less-experienced researchers. Pilot study also helps to standardise the instruments to facilitate implementation of the main research and to establish the reliability of the instruments. Data Collection Procedure The procedure that the researcher will follow to collect data or how the research instruments will be administered to obtain the data for the exercise should carefully and unambiguously be described. The time the study will be done, where it will be done, who will do it, how it will be done including the period of time or duration that the respondents will have to respond to the instruments should be clearly indicated. This will help the researcher to systematically conduct the study and also allow easy replication of the study by another researcher. Data Analysis Plan The process that one intends to use to organise the data to be collected must succinctly be explained. Howard and Sharp (1983) describe data analysis as ordering and structuring of data to produce knowledge. The knowledge so generated gives meaning to the data collected. The explanation of how the data will be analysed should include the software that will be used to do the analysis, the statistical tools that will be used and their justification. The research questions should be addressed one after the other and describe the type of statistical test that will be performed to answer each research question. If hypotheses will be tested, the statistical tools that will be used for the analysis should also be stated. Research Ethics It is very important for researchers to observe the ethics of research during their work. It is ethical for researchers to solicit the consent of the respondents before embarking on the data gathering activity. In the proposal, researchers have to indicate whether they will present informed consent form or seek oral permission and to whom they will do that. It is also expected that researchers should not mislead their respondents involved in a research project as to the purpose for which that research is being conducted. The respondents must also not be exposed to substantial risk of personal harm in the research process and have to protect their rights and dignity. If children are used as respondents, their parents and/or guardians/care givers must consent to it. Researchers also need to seek the consent of the respondents before recordings are made and after it should be played back for the respondents to know exactly what they said. In all circumstances, researchers have to respect the right and dignity of their respondents. Again, all responses given by the respondents should be held confidential. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The fourth (4th) chapter of a research report, especially in education, is devoted to the results of the study conducted. This chapter should show the findings from the analysis of the data gathered and discuss them. The data is also interpreted by relating it to relevant literature. That is, the findings should be related to the issues and empirical data in the literature by showing whether the new findings support or reject those cited in the literature. The researcher needs to explain why the similarity or differences in the current findings and the old ones. Thus, the researcher has to present plausible reason(s) why the results might have turned out the way they did. This section must be presented logically to reflect the issues at stake. In view of this, the findings must address the research questions and the hypotheses one after the other. When tables or figures are used to report the results, one table or figure should deal with each central item. The tables and figures must be numbered consecutively, organised into rows and columns, the title of each table and figure should encapsulate the information contained in it and it should follow the APA style. If both primary and secondary data are analysed and discussed, it must be indicated under the tables and figures. That is, the sources of the data must be indicated under the tables and figures. This helps readers to know which data is from the field (primary data) and which one is from documents (secondary data). Primary data does not exist but is collected by the researcher him/herself from the respondents during the research. However, secondary data is an existing data which is obtained from documents, records etc. All research questions must be answered, hypotheses tested, and appropriate answers provided. This implies that no research question or hypothesis should be left unattended to in the discussion section of the research report. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This portion of the research report presents the overview of the entire study. It indicates the main ideas that emanated from the exercise, the conclusions drawn from the findings and the recommendations the researcher makes for practice. In most research reports, and as accepted by the Faculty of Education, CUCG, this part constitutes chapter five and the final chapter. Summary This part should present the summary of the study which should include the problem studied, population, sample, sampling procedure(s), instrument(s) used and the main findings that emerged from the study. The findings must be written in a concise and precise form and every information in this part of the report should be only ideas that are found in the preceding chapters. Conclusions This section concerns the reflection of the overall answers to the research questions and the hypotheses, and the inferences drawn. The conclusions should only be those ideas that are reasonable and relevant in the circumstances. They must come from the findings of the study and that no personal opinions are entertained. Thus, the conclusions should be consistent with the findings that emanated from the study. Recommendations This deals with the appropriate and relevant recommendations based on the issues investigated with regard to policy implications and/or implications for practice. They are actions that the researcher recommends to be taken based on the data gathered. In view of this, the recommendations should not be outside the findings of the study but rather be based on the findings and conclusions drawn. Implicit in this line of reasoning is that recommendations of a study should not be based on personal beliefs, opinions or biases that are not specifically supported by the data obtained. Recommendations are also made to specific relevant personalities, bodies, agencies and institutions that can address the issues raised. Not all, recommendations could be made to other researchers to carry out a study in a related area that the current study could not cover or an outcome of the study which needs further investigation. REFERENCES AND APPENDICES References Research reports should contain the list of references cited in the report and other relevant materials that are not included in the report to preserve the purity of the report. List of references is the list of books, journals, magazines, and other sources that are referred to in the main work. All citations in the report (in-text) must necessarily appear in the reference list. In other words, all citations should be acknowledged by listing them at the reference section of the research report. The references must be accurate in terms of names, spellings and years of publication as cited in the report. It must also be arranged alphabetically using the surname of the authors and their initials. The title of the book is italicised if the reference or the source is from a book. Conversely, with references or articles from journals, magazines etc, the titles of the journals are italicised and the volume, the number and the pages of the articles must be indicated. The following are examples of references from books and journals respectively: 1. Nwadinigwe, I. P. (2002). Fundamentals of research methods and statistics (2nd ed.). Lagos: Sibon Books Limited. 2. Opare, J. A. and Kuranchie, A. (2008). Parents’ preferred locus of responsibility for funding secondary education: A test of four models. International Journal of Educational Research, 4 (1), 27-36. Appendices These contain materials that when placed in the main text would make the report clumsy. All such materials are placed at the appendix column so that references could be made to them when the need arises. Also, copies of questionnaires, interview guides and other materials that were developed and used in the data gathering process appear at this section. These items are usually grouped, labeled, lettered and listed in the table of contents. ABSTRACT AND ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS Abstract The preliminary section of a research report should provide abstract of the study. Abstract is a brief summary of the study or the research work and as such gives a concise description of the research. Essentially, it briefly states the problem studied or the rationale for the study, the population, the sample and sampling technique (s) used. It should also contain the instrument(s) used in the data gathering, the main findings of the study, the conclusions drawn and the recommendations given. Acknowledgements In scholarly works, it is usual that other people who lend a helping hand in one way or the other are acknowledged for their contributions toward the completion of the work. Thus, it is very appropriate to show one’s gratitude or appreciation to all individuals, authorities and institutions whose inputs culminated into making the research experience a success. It is also not out of place to acknowledge the authors whose works provide information for the study. The entire research report has three main components namely the preliminary section, the main body and the reference materials. Below is the synopsis or outline of a complete research report and especially as accepted by the faculty. a) Preliminary section The title page The declaration The abstract Acknowledgements Dedication Table of contents List of tables List of figures b) The main body Chapter One: Introduction Chapter Two: Literature review Chapter Three: Methodology Chapter Four: Results and discussion Chapter Five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations c) The reference materials The references The appendices

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