Personality PDF

4 PERSONALITY DEFINED Personality is: The set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual Organized and relatively enduring  5 PERSONALITY DEFINED 2 Personality: Influences our interactions with, and...

4 PERSONALITY DEFINED Personality is: The set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual Organized and relatively enduring  5 PERSONALITY DEFINED 2 Personality: Influences our interactions with, and Loading… @ R adaptations to, the u b b environment including e r B the, a l l Intrapsychic, / Courage is an example of a A l physical, and social a psychological trait, activated only m y under particular circumstances S environment t o c k P h o t  © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 6 PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAITS Characteristics that describe how people are different from each other Personality researchers are interested four questions: How many traits there are How the traits are organized The origins of the traits The correlations and consequences of the traits Psychological mechanisms are like traits but refer more to processes of personality Inputs Decision rules Outputs 7 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS Psychological mechanisms are like traits but refer more to processes of personality Three essential ingredients Inputs Decision rules Outputs Traits and mechanisms of personality that are typical of our species and possessed by nearly everyone 8 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS 9 WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL Personality is something that a person carries with themselves over time Personality is also organized Mechanisms are linked to one another in a coherent fashion Enduring but influenced by environments or significant others in our lives Traits and mechanisms are linked to one another in a coherent fashion 10 THE INDIVIDUAL’S INTERACTIONS Interactions with situations include perceptions, selection, evocations, and manipulations The environment poses challenges for people Impact of environment is frequently determined by personality Intrapsychic environment involved  THREE LEVELS OF 11 PERSONALITY ANALYSIS Murray (1948) states that every human being is: 1. Like all others (the human nature level); 2. Like some others (the level of individual and group Loading… differences); 3. Like no others (the individual uniqueness level)  THREE LEVELS OF 12 PERSONALITY ANALYSIS Table 1.1 Three Levels of Personality Analysis Level of Analysis Examples Human Nature Need to belong Capacity for love Individual and Group Variation in need to belong (individual Differences differences) On average, females are higher in agreeableness than males (group difference) Individual Uniqueness Seiko’s unique way of expressing their love Darren’s unique way of expressing aggression 13 HUMAN NATURE How we are “like all others” Traits and mechanisms of personality that are typical of our species and possessed by nearly everyone 14 INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP DIFFERENCES How we are “like some others” Individual differences refer to ways in which each person is like some other people e.g., extraverts, sensations-seekers, high self-esteem persons Differences among groups refers to common features within a group that make that group of people different from other groups (e.g., different cultures, different age groups) © E r i c A u d r a s / G e t 15 INDIVIDUAL UNIQUENESS How we are “like no others” Individual uniqueness refers to the fact that Every individual has personal and unique qualities not shared by any other person in the world Individuals can be studied nomothetically or ideographically  © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 16 CLASS EXERCISE In small groups: Find an example for each of the three levels of analysis for the need for safety: 1. Human Nature 2. Individual and Group Differences 3. Individual Uniqueness 17 A FISSURE IN THE FIELD Gap within personality psychology has not yet successfully bridged — The gap between the human nature level of analysis The analysis of individual and group differences 18 A FISSURE IN THE FIELD 2 This translates into a gap between Grand theories of personality Human nature level of analysis Contemporary research in personality Individual and group differences level of analysis  GRAND THEORIES OF 19 PERSONALITY Attempt to provide universal account of the fundamental psychological processes and characteristics of our species Statements about the universal core of human nature lie at the center of grand theories of personality e.g., Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory  CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH 20 IN PERSONALITY Most current personality research addresses ways in which individuals and groups differ, not human universals Personality psychologists specialize in a particular domain, such as Biological aspects of personality How culture impacts personality  SIX DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE 21 ABOUT HUMANS NATURE Domain of knowledge is a specialty area of science and scholarship Psychologists focus on learning about specific and limited aspects of human nature This specialization is reasonable We must however, strive to integrate diverse domains of knowledge to get the “big picture” of personality 22 SIX DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE 1. Dispositional 2. Biological 3. Intrapsychic 4. Cognitive-Experiential 5. Social and Cultural 6. Adjustment 23 DISPOSITIONAL DOMAIN Deals with ways in which individuals differ from one another and, therefore, cuts across all other domains Focus on number and nature of fundamental dispositions Interested in the origin of individual differences and how these develop over time  24 BIOLOGICAL DOMAIN Core assumption Humans are collections of biological systems These systems provide building blocks for behaviour, thought, and emotion @ G r e g W o o d / A F Psychologists study twins to determine P / whether some aspects of personality are G e influenced by genetics t t y I m a g  25 BIOLOGICAL DOMAIN 2 Behavioural genetics of personality Psychophysiology of personality Evolutionary personality psychology 26 INTRAPSYCHIC DOMAIN Deals with mental mechanisms of personality Many of which operate outside conscious awareness Classic and modern versions of Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis, including Work on repression, denial, projection, and motives for power, achievement, and affiliation 27 COGNITIVE-EXPERIENTIAL DOMAIN Focuses on cognition and subjective experience, such as: Conscious thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and desires about oneself and others Self and self-concept: Goals we set and strive to meet Emotional experiences, in general and over time GOAL ATTAINMENT EXCERCISE  29 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DOMAIN Assumption that personality impacts, and is impacted by, cultural and social contexts Loading… Cultural differences between groups e.g., in social acceptability of aggression @ b l i c k w i n k e l / A l a  m 30 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DOMAIN 2 Individual differences within cultures How personality plays out in the social sphere, including: Sex and gender differences in personality processes, traits, and mechanisms  31 ADJUSTMENT DOMAIN Personality plays a key role in how we cope, adapt, and adjust to events in daily life © Personality linked to: P a t Health outcomes r i c Problems in coping and adjustment k S h e a n Personality relates to health by d e l influencing health-related l O ' behaviours (smoking) C a r r o l l  THE ROLE OF PERSONALITY 32 THEORY A good theory fulfills three purposes in science: 1. Provides a guide for researchers 2. Organizes known findings 3. Makes predictions Theories are not the same as beliefs because they are tested by systematic observations that can be replicated by others  STANDARDS FOR EVALUATION 33 PERSONALITY THEORIES Five standard scientific standards for evaluating personality theories: Comprehensiveness Heuristic value Testability Parsimony Compatibility and integration across domains and levels  STANDARDS FOR EVALUATION 34 PERSONALITY THEORIES Table 1.2 Five Standards for Evaluating Personality Theories Standard Definition Comprehensiveness Explains most or all known facts. Heuristic value Guides researchers to new discoveries. Testability Makes precise predictions that can be empirically tested. Parsimony Contains few premises or assumptions. Compatibility and Consistent with what is known in other domains; can be integration across coordinated with other branches of scientific knowledge domains and levels  IS THERE A GRAND ULTIMATE AND 35 TRUE THEORY OF PERSONALITY? An ultimate grand theory of personality psychology will have to unify all six domains. Field of personality psychology currently lacks a grand theory  36 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION Personality research is often informed by personality theory Theory has several key purposes: 1. Serves as a guide for researchers 2. Organizes known findings 3. Makes predictions about behaviour and psychological phenomena 37 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION 2 Scientific theories need to be distinguished from beliefs Beliefs are based on leaps of faith, not on reliable facts and systematic observations Theories are based on systematic observations that can be repeated by others to yield similar conclusions 38 COMING UP NEXT WEEK Self-Report Data (S-Data) Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Test-Data (T-Data) Life-Outcome Data (L-Data) Personality Assessment, Measurement, and Research Design Chapter 2 Dr. Linden-Andersen PSY101 Winter © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 1  Learning Objectives 1. Identify the sources of personality data. 2. Explain how personality measures are evaluated by researchers. 3. Describe the different research designs in personality. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 2  Sources of Personality Data 1. Self-Report Data (S-Data) 2. Observer-Report Data (O-Data) 3. Test-Data (T-Data) 4. Life-Outcome Data (L-Data) Loading… © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 3 Self-Report Data (S-Data) Information provided by a person, such as through a survey or interview Individuals have access to a wealth of information about themselves that is inaccessible to anyone else S-data personality tests Unstructured items—open-ended Structured items—response options provided Limitations of S-data People may not respond honestly People may lack accurate self-knowledge © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 4 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Observer-report data capitalize on various sources for gathering information about a person’s personality Friends Families Teachers Strengths: Loading… Observers have access to information not attainable through other sources Multiple observers (i.e., inter-rater reliability) © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 5 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) 2 Selecting observers: Professional personality assessors People who actually know the target person Often in better position to observe target’s natural behaviours than professional personality assessors Allows for assessment of multiple social personalities Because of relationship to target, observer may be biased, however © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 6 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) 3 Naturalistic vs. Artificial Observation Naturalistic observation: Observers witness and record events that occur in the normal course of lives of the participants Has the advantage of being able to secure information in realistic context, but at the cost of not being able to control events witnessed © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 7 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) 4 Naturalistic vs. Artificial Observation Artificial observation: Occurs in artificial settings or situations Has the advantage of controlling conditions and eliciting relevant behaviour, but at the cost of sacrificing realism © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 8 Test-Data (T-Data) Participants are placed in standardized testing situation to see if different people react differently to an identical situation Classic example is Henry Murray’s bridge-building test S a m E d w a r d s / Who takes the leadership role when A G people work together is often a E function of personality. F o t o s © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited t 9 o  c Test-Data (T-Data) 2 Limitations Participants might try to guess what trait is being measured and then alter their behaviour to create certain impressions Difficult to know if participants define testing situation as intended by experimenter Researcher might influence how participants behave © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 10 Test-Data (T-Data) 3 Mechanical recording devices, e.g., “Actometer” used to assess children’s activity Activity level is stable over time and correlates with teacher ratings of vital, energetic, and active Strengths Loading… Not hampered by biases of human observer May be used in naturalistic settings Disadvantage Few personality dispositions lend themselves to mechanical assessment © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 11 Test-Data (T-Data) 4 Projective Techniques: Person presented with ambiguous stimuli Asked to describe what they see; assumption is that person “projects” personality onto ambiguous stimuli Strengths May provide useful means for gathering information about wishes, desires, fantasies that a person is not aware of and could not report Weaknesses Difficult to score, uncertain validity, and reliability © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 13 Life-Outcome Data (L-Data) Information can be gleaned from: Events, activities, and outcomes in a person’s life That are available in public record—e.g., C marriage, speeding tickets h r i Can serve as important source of “real s K life” information about personality n a Recognize that life outcomes may be influence p t by factors other than personality o n The tendency to have / A frequent temper outbursts in l childhood has been linked a with negative adult outcomes, m y such as increased likelihood S of divorce. t o c k P h o © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited t 14 o Issues in Personality Assessment Links among different data sources – do all data sources correspond? Fallibility of personality measurement All sources of data have limitations Results that replicate through “triangulation” are most powerful © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 15  Evaluation of Personality Measures 1. Reliability 2. Validity 3. Generalizability © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 16  Reliability Degree to which measure represents “true” level of trait being measured Types of reliability 1. Test-retest reliability 2. Internal consistency reliability 3. Inter-rater reliability Response sets Tendency for people to respond to questions on a basis that is unrelated to the question content Extreme responding Social desirability © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 17  Validity Degree to which test measures what it claims to measure Types of validity 1. Face validity 2. Predictive or criterion validity 3. Convergent validity 4. Discriminant validity 5. Construct validity © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 18 Generalizability Degree to which measure retains validity across different contexts, including different groups of people and different conditions Generalizability subsumes reliability and validity Greater generalizability not always better What is important is to identify empirically contexts in which a measure is and is not applicable © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 19  Research Designs in Personality 1. Experimental Methods 2. Correlational Studies 3. Case Studies © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 20  Experimental Methods Used to determine causality—whether one variable causes another Two key requirements: 1. Manipulation of variables 2. Counterbalancing Randomization ensures that there are no predetermined patterns linked with condition People who study alone in a library are likely to be introverted, whereas those who do their studying in groups tend to be extraverted. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 21 Correlational Studies Correlation is a statistical procedure for determining whether there is a relationship between two variables Designed to identify “what goes with what” in nature Not designed to identify causal relationships Major advantage It allows us to identify relationships among variables as they occur naturally © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 22 Correlational Studies 2 Correlation coefficient varies from –1.00 (perfect negative relationships) through 0 (no relationship) to +1.00 (perfect positive relationship) Correlation does not indicate causation Directionality problem Third variable problem © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 23 Case Studies In-depth examination of the life of one person Advantages Find out about personality in great detail Give insights into personality that is Useful to formulate a more general theory that is tested on a larger sample Provide in-depth knowledge about an outstanding figure, such as a political or religious figure Disadvantage Results based on the study of single person cannot be generalized to others © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 24 When to Use Experimental, Correlational, and Case Study Designs Each design has strengths and weakness; Strength of one is weakness of another A researcher’s design choice depends on The research question and the goal of research Taken together, three designs provide complementary methods for exploring personality © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 25 Summary and Evaluation Personality assessment and measurement start with identifying the sources of personality data Once sources of data have been selected, the researcher should evaluate their quality Researchers must select a particular design within which to use the measures There are no perfect methods or designs © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 26 Traits and Trait Taxonomies Chapter 3 Rylee Oram (PhD) University of Ottawa © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 1