Period 1 Investigation Guide (2024-2025) (PDF)

NAME:_____________________________________ P.1 QUIZ DATE:________________ Investigation Guide Period 1 (1491-1607) _____________________________ 2024 - 2025 Department of Social Studies, AP U.S. History Tompki...

NAME:_____________________________________ P.1 QUIZ DATE:________________ Investigation Guide Period 1 (1491-1607) _____________________________ 2024 - 2025 Department of Social Studies, AP U.S. History Tompkins High School, Katy ISD Ferrari Developed and adapted using work by James L. Smith from the AP U.S. History Curriculum Framework, AMSCO, Jason Gigliotti’s Study Guides, John Irish’s Historical Thinking skills, Digital History, & the AP U.S. History Curriculum Framework  Period 1 Overview Reading Native American Society on the Eve of British Colonization In Renaissance times, Europeans were not the only ones accomplishing great things. No one can deny the beauty of Michelangelo's brushwork or the brilliance of Shakespeare's verse. But societies elsewhere also flourished. As the modern world turned 1600, it seems as though each corner of the globe had its own "renaissance." The Native American societies of North America were no different. They had diverse cultures and languages, much like Europe. When the British staked their claim to the east coast of the modern United States, they could not have dreamed of the complexity of the peoples they were soon to encounter. There are between 140 and 160 different AMERICAN INDIAN TRIBES. There is no single Native American language. It would be as difficult for the Mohawk Indians of the East to converse with Zuni Indians of the West as it would be for Germans to converse with Turks. Twenty-seven states derive names from Indian languages. Native Americans turned wild plants such as corn, potatoes, pumpkin, yams, and lima beans into farm crops for human consumption. More than half of modern American farm products were grown by Native Americans before British colonization. Medicine was not an unknown science in the Western Hemisphere. Most natural herbs used for medicinal purposes in the modern world had also been used by Native Americans before European contact. Archaeologists have learned that North American Indians made salt by evaporation and mined a great many minerals including copper, lead, and coal. Despite myths to the contrary, not all Native Americans were peaceful. Like Europe, the American continent faced tribal warfare that sometimes led to human and cultural destruction. In short, there is no simple way to tell the tale of a continent that had been peopled by diverse communities for thousands of years. Their tales are as complex as any others, their cultures as rich, and their knowledge as deep. British contact did not mark the replacement of established cultures by a better way of life, but rather the beginning of a new civilization based on a blend of diverse folkways. Diversity of Native American Groups Since 1492, European explorers and settlers have tended to ignore the vast diversity of the people who had previously lived here. It soon became common to lump all such groups under the term "Indian." In the modern American world, we still do. There are certain experiences common to the survivors of these tribes. They all have had their lands compromised in some way and suffered the horrors of reservation life. Language Stereotyping Indians in this way denies the vast cultural differences between tribes. First, there is the issue of language. The Navajo people of the Southwest and the Cherokees of the Southeast have totally unrelated languages. There were over 200 North American tribes speaking over 200 different languages. The United States used the uniqueness of the Navajo language to its advantage in World War II. Rather than encrypting radio messages, it proved simpler to use Navajos to speak to each other in their everyday language to convey high-security messages. It worked. Lifestyles varied greatly. Most tribes were domestic, but the LAKOTA FOLLOWED the buffalo as nomads. Most engaged in war, but the Apache were particularly feared, while the Hopis were pacifistic. Most societies were ruled by men, but the Iroquois women chose the leaders. Native Americans lived in WIGWAMS, HOGANS, IGLOOS, TEPEES, and longhouses. Some relied chiefly on hunting and fishing, while others DOMESTICATED crops. The Algonkian chiefs tried to achieve consensus, but the Natchez "Sun" was 2 an absolute monarch. The TOTEM POLE was not a universal Indian symbol. It was used by tribes such as the Chinook in the Pacific Northwest to ward off evil spirits and represent family history. It is important that students of history explore tribal nuances. Within every continent and geographic region, there is tremendous diversity. The tribal differences that caused the Apache and Navajo peoples to fight each other are not so different from the reasons Germans fought the French. Recognizing tribal diversity is an important step in understanding the history of America. Southwest: Southwest Settlements In the dry region that now includes New Mexico and Arizona, groups such as the Hokokam, Anasazi, and Pueblos evolved multifaceted societies supported by farming with irrigation systems. In large numbers they lived in caves, under cliffs, and in multistoried buildings. By the time Europeans arrived, extreme drought and other hostile natives had taken their toll on these groups. However, much of their way of life was preserved in the arid land and their stone and masonry dwellings. The ANASAZI managed to build glorious cities in the cliffs of the modern Southwest. Their rise and fall mark one of the greatest stories of pre-Columbian American history. Anasazi means "ancient outsiders." Like many peoples during the agricultural era, the Anasazi employed a wide variety of means to grow high-yield crops in areas of low rainfall. Their baskets and pottery are highly admired by collectors and are still produced by their descendants for trade. It is their cliff dwellings, however, that captivate the modern archeologist, historian, and tourist. Northwest: Northwest Settlements along the Pacific coast from what is today Alaska to northern California, people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses. They had a rich diet based on hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, and roots. To save stories, legends, and myths, they carved large totem poles. The high mountain ranges in this region isolated tribes from one another, creating barriers to development. Great Plains: Most people who lived on the Great Plains were either nomadic hunters or sedentary people who farmed and traded. The nomadic tribes survived on hunting, principally the buffalo, which supplied their food as well as decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing. They lived in tepees, frames of poles covered in animal skins, which were easily disassembled and transported. While the farming tribes also hunted buffalo, they lived perma­nently in earthen lodges often along rivers. They raised com, beans, and squash while actively trading with other tribes. Not until the 17th century did American Indians acquire horses by trading or stealing them from Spanish settlers. With horses, tribes such as the Lakota Sioux moved away from farming to hunting and easily following the buffalo across the plains. The plains tribes would at times merge or split apart as conditions changed. Migration also was common. For example, the Apaches gradually migrated southward from Can­ada to Texas. Midwest: Midwest Settlements East of the Mississippi River, the Woodland Amer­ican Indians prospered with a rich food supply. Supported by hunting, fishing, and agriculture, many permanent settlements developed in the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and elsewhere. The Adena-Hopewell culture, centered in what is now Ohio, is famous for the large earthen mounds it created, some as large as 300 feet long. One of the largest settlements in the Midwest was Cahokia (near present-day East St. Louis, Illinois), with as many as 30,000 inhabitants. Northeast: Northeast Settlements Some descendants of the Adena-Hopewell cul­ture spread from the Ohio Valley into New York. Their culture combined hunting and farming. However, their farming techniques exhausted the soil quickly, so people had to move to fresh land frequently. Among the most famous groups of American Indians in this region was the Iroquois Confederation, a political union of five independent tribes who lived in the Mohawk Valley of New York. The five tribes were the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk. Multiple families related through a mother lived in longhouses, up to 200 feet long. From the 16th century through the American Revolution, the Iroquois were a powerful force, battling rival American Indians as well as Europeans. Atlantic Seaboard: Atlantic Seaboard Settlements In the area from New Jersey south to Florida lived the people of the Coastal Plains. Many were descendants of the Woodland mound builders and built timber and bark lodgings along rivers. The rivers and the Atlantic Ocean provided a rich source of food. 3 The Algonquain Tribes When the British set foot on the North American continent at Jamestown, they encountered the Powhatan Indians. The Pequots and Narragansetts lived in New England as the Pilgrims and Puritans established a new home. William Penn encountered the Leni Lenape natives while settling "Penn's Woods." Although these tribes have great differences, they are linked linguistically. All of these tribes (or nations) speak an Algonquin language. These Algonkian (or Algonquian) groups were the first the English would encounter as these early settlements began to flourish. ALGONQUIAN and ALGONKIAN both refer to the Algonquin language or to the group of tribes that speak related dialects. Therefore, the Algonquian tribes (including the DELAWARE, the NARRAGANSETTS, the PEQUOT, and the Wampanoag) are so called because they all speak the Algonkin or Algonquin language. The Algonkians relied as much on hunting and fishing for food as working the land. These tribes used canoes to travel the inland waterways. The BOW AND ARROW brought small and large game, and the SPEAR generated ample supplies of fish for the Algonkian peoples. Corn and SQUASH were a few of the CROPS that were cultivated all along the eastern seaboard. As the first group to encounter the English, the Algonkians became the first to illustrate the deep cultural misunderstandings between British settlers and Native Americans. British Americans thought Algonquian women were oppressed because of their work in the fields. Algonkian men laughed at the British men who farmed — traditionally work reserved for females. Hunting was a sport in England, so British settlers thought the Algonkian hunters to be unproductive. The greatest misunderstanding was that of land ownership. In the minds of the Algonkians selling land was like selling air. Eventually this confusion would lead to armed conflict. The Powhatan Confederacy The POWHATAN organized a confederacy. Virginians were met with strong resistance as they plunged westward. In New England, WAMPANOAGS under the leadership of METACOMET fought with Puritan farmers over the encroachment west onto Indian land. The pacifist Quakers were notable exceptions. Pennsylvania refused to raise a militia against the Indians for as long as Quakers dominated the government. Unfortunately, the good times between the groups were few. The marriage of POCAHONTAS to JOHN ROLFE and the first THANKSGIVING with the Puritans did little to prevent the fighting. In most cases, each side regarded the other with fear and suspicion. The Iroquois Tribes The Iroquois people have inhabited the areas of Ontario and upstate New York for well over 4,000 years. Technically speaking, "Iroquois" refers to a language rather than a particular tribe. In fact, the IROQUOIS consisted of five tribes prior to European colonization. Their society serves as an outstanding example of political and military organization, complex lifestyle, and an elevated role of women. Governance and War Until the 1500s, the five tribes of the Iroquois devoted much energy toward fighting and killing each other. According to ORAL TRADITION, it was about this time that they came to their senses and united into a powerful confederation. The five tribes designed quite an elaborate political system. This included a bicameral (two-house) legislature, much like the British Parliament and modern U.S. Congress. The representatives, or SACHEMS, from the SENECA and MOHAWK TRIBES met in one house and those of the ONEIDA and CAYUGA met in the other. The ONONDAGA sachems broke ties and had the power to veto decisions made by the others. There was an unwritten constitution that described these proceedings at least as early as 1590. Such a complex political arrangement was unknown in Europe at that time. 4 Although the tribes began to work together, they surely did not renounce war. They fought and captured other native tribes as well as wave after wave of European immigrants who presented themselves. They fought the early French and British settlers. During the French and Indian War they remained officially neutral, but would join either side to exploit an advantage. Both sides courted Iroquois support during the Revolution. As a result, there was a split in the CONFEDERACY for the first time in over 200 years. Iroquois fought Iroquois once more. Iroquois Society The LONGHOUSE was the center of Iroquois life. Archaeologists have unearthed longhouse remains that extend more than the length of a football field. Agriculture was the main source of food. In Iroquois society, women held a special role. Believed to be linked to the earth's power to create life, women determined how the food would be distributed — a considerable power in a farming society. Women were also responsible for selecting the sachems for the Confederacy. Iroquois society was MATRILINEAL; when a marriage transpired, the family moved into the longhouse of the mother, and FAMILY LINEAGE was traced from her. The Iroquois society proved to be the most persistent military threat the European settlers would face. Although conquest and treaty forced them to cede much of their land, their legacy lingers. Some historians even attribute some aspects of the structure of our own Constitution to Iroquois ideas. In fact, one of America's greatest admirers of the Iroquois was none other than Benjamin Franklin. Europe Moves toward Exploration Until the late 1400s, Americans and the people of Europe, Africa, and Asia had no knowledge of the people on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. While Vikings from Scandinavia had visited Greenland and North America around the year 1000, these voyages had no lasting impact. Columbus's voyages of exploration finally brought people into contact across the Atlantic. Several fac­tors made an oceanic crossing and exploration possible in the late 15th century. Improvements in Technology In Europe, a rebirth of classical learning prompted an outburst of artistic and scientific activity in the 15th and 16th centuries known as the Renaissance. Several of the technological advances during the Renaissance resulted from Europeans making improvements in the inventions of others. For example, they began to use gunpowder (invented by the Chinese) and the sailing com­pass (adopted from Arab merchants who learned about it from the Chinese). Europeans also made major improvements in shipbuilding and mapmaking. In addition, the invention of the printing press in the 1450s aided the spread of knowledge across Europe. Religious Conflict The later years of the Renaissance were a time of intense religious zeal and conflict. The Roman Catholic Church that had once dominated Western Europe was threatened from without by Ottoman Turks who were followers of Islam and from within by a revolt against the pope's authority. Catholic Victory in Spain In the 8th century, Islamic invaders from North Africa, known as Moors, rapidly conquered most of what is now Spain. Over the next several centuries, Spanish Christians reconquered much of the land and set up several independent kingdoms. Two of the largest of these king­doms united when Isabella, queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, king of Aragon, married in 1469. In 1492, under the leadership of labella and Ferdinand, the Spanish conquered the last Moorish stronghold in Spain, the city of Granada. In that year, the monarchs also funded Christopher Columbus on his historic first voyage. The uniting of Spain under Isabella and Ferdinand, the conquest of Granada, and the launching of Columbus signaled new leadership, hope, and power for Europeans who followed the Roman Catholic faith. 5 Protestant Revolt in Northern Europe In the early 1500s, certain Chris­tians in Germany, England, France, Holland, and other northern European countries revolted against the authority of the pope in Rome. Their revolt was known as the Protestant Reformation. Conflict between Catholics and Protes­tants led to a series of religious wars. The conflict also caused the Catholics of Spain and Portugal and the Protestants of England and Holland to want to spread their own versions of Christianity to people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Thus, a religious motive for exploration and colonization was added to political and economic motives. Expanding Trade Economic motives for exploration grew out of a fierce competition among Euro­pean kingdoms for increased trade with Africa, India, and China. In the past, merchants bad traveled from the Italian city-state of Venice and the Byzantine city of Constantinople on a long, slow, expensive overland route that reached all the way to the capital of the Chinese empire. This land route to Asia had become blocked in 1453 when the Ottoman Turks seized control of Constantinople. New Routes So the challenge to finding a new way to the rich Asian trade appeared to be by sailing either south along the West African coast east to China, or sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. The Portuguese, who realized the route south and east was the shortest path, thought this option seemed more promising. Voyages of exploration sponsored by Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator eventually succeeded in opening up a long sea route around South Africa's Cape of Good Hope. In 1498, the Portugnese sea captain Vasco da Gama was the first European to reach India via this route. By this time, Colum­bus had attempted what he mistakenly believed would be a shorter route to Asia. Slave Trading Since ancient times people in Europe, Africa, and Asia had enslaved people captured in wars. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began trading for slaves from West Africa. They used the slaves to work newly estab­lished sugar plantations on the Madeira and Azores islands off the African coast. Producing sugar with slave labor was so profitable that when Europeans later established colonies in the Americas, they used the slave system there. African Resistance Enslaved Africans resisted slavery in whatever ways they could. Though transported thousands of miles from their homelands and brutally repressed, they often ran away, sabotaged work, or revolted. And for generations they maintained aspects of their African culture, particularly in music, religion, and folkways. Early Explorations Changing economic, political, and social conditions in Europe shaped the ambi­tions of the Italian-born Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus Columbus spent eight years seeking financial support for his plan to sail west from Europe to the "Indies." Finally, in 1492, be succeeded in winning the backing of Isabella and Ferdinand. The two Spanish monarchs were then at the height of their power, having just defeated the Moors in Granada. They agreed to outfit three ships and to make Columbus governor, admiral, and viceroy of all the lands that he would claim for Spain. After sailing from the Canary Islands on September 6, Columbus landed on an island in the Bahamas on October 12. His success in reaching lands on the other side of the ocean brought him a burst of glory in Spain. But three subse­quent voyages across the Atlantic were disappointing-he found little gold, few spices, and no simple path to China and India. Columbus's Legacy Columbus died in 1506, still believing that be had found a western route to Asia. However, many Spaniards viewed Columbus as a failure because they suspected that he had found not a valuable trade route, but a "New World." Today, some people scoff at Columbus for having erroneously giving the people be encountered the name "Indians." Even the land that he had explored was named for someone else, Amerigo Vespucci, another Italian sailor. Columbus's critics also point out the many problems and injustices suffered by the natives of the Americas after Europeans arrived and took over their land. 6 Nevertheless, most historians agree on Columbus's importance. Modern scholars have recognized his great skills as a navigator and his daring commit­ment in going forth where nobody else had ever dared to venture. Furthermore, Columbus's voyages brought about, for the first time in history, permanent inter­action between people from all over the globe. He changed the world forever. Exchanges Europeans and the original inhabitants of the Americas had developed vastly different cultures over the millennia. The contact between them resulted in the Columbian Exchange, a transfer of plants, animals, and germs from one side of the Atlantic to the other for the first time. Europeans learned about many new plants and foods, including beans, corn, sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. They also contracted a new disease, syphilis. Europeans introduced to the Americas sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses, as well as the wheel, iron implements, and guns. Deadlier than all the guns was the European importation of germs and diseases, such as smallpox and measles, to which the natives had no immunity. Millions died (there was a mortality rate of more than 90 percent), including entire tribal communities. These exchanges, biological and cultural, would permanently change the entire world. Dividing the Americas Spain and Portugal were the first European kingdoms to claim territories in the Americas. Their claims overlapped, leading to disputes. The Catholic monarchs of the two countries turned to the pope in Rome to resolve their differences. In 1493, the pope drew a vertical, north-south line on a world map, called the line of demarcation. The pope granted Spain all lands to the west of the line and Portugal all lands to the east. In 1494, Spain and Portugal moved the pope's line a few degrees to the west and signed an agreement called the Treaty of Tordesillas. The line passed through what is now the country of Brazil. This treaty, together with Portuguese explorations, established Portugal's claim to Brazil. Spain claimed the rest of the Americas. However, other European countries soon challenged these claims. Spanish Exploration and Conquest: Spanish dominance in the Americas was based on more than a papal ruling and a treaty. Spain owed its expanding power to its explorers and conquerors (called conquistadores). Feats such as the journey across the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nufiez de Balboa, the circumnavigation of the world by one of Ferdinand Magellan's ships (Magellan died before completing the trip), the conquests of the Aztecs in Mexico by Hernan Cortes, and the conquest of the Incas in Peru by Francisco Pizzaro secured Spain's initial supremacy in the Americas. The conquistadores sent ships loaded with gold and silver back to Spain from Mexico and Peru. They increased the gold supply by more than 500 per­cent, making Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe. Spain's success encouraged other nations to turn to the Americas in search of gold and power. After seizing the wealth of the Indian empires, the Spanish instituted an encomienda system, with the king of Spain giving grants of land and natives to individual Spaniards. These Indians had to farm or work in the mines. The fruits of their labors went to their Spanish masters, who in turn had to "care" for them. As Europeans' diseases and brutality reduced the native population, the Spanish brought enslaved people from West Africa under the asiento system. This required the Spanish to pay a tax to their king on each slave they imported to the Americas. Britain in the New World: Most modern American citizens consider Great Britain to be their European "parent" country. However, by the time British arrived in the New World and established their first permanent settlement at Jamestown in 1607, much of the continent had already been claimed by other European nations. All of the modern southwest, including Texas and California, had been peopled by Spanish settlers for about a century. The entire expanse of land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains had at one point been claimed by France. Many factors contributed to Britain's tardiness. England was not the most powerful European nation in the 16th century. Spain was most influential. Along with Portugal, Spain dominated New World exploration in the decades that followed 7 Columbus. France, the Netherlands, and Sweden all showed greater interest in the Western Hemisphere than England did. Roanoke: Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to ROANOKE did not fare much better. In 1585, Raleigh's men settled on the small island off the coast of modern-day North Carolina. Relations with the Native American inhabitants were peaceful at first, but as the colonists' supplies dwindled, amity dwindled too. The colonists left in 1586 after beheading the local Indian chief, WINGINA. Raleigh arranged for GOVERNOR JOHN WHITE and a group of families to return to live in peace with the natives in 1587. Violence, however, is not easily forgotten. Within one month, hostilities resumed, and White was forced to return to England to ask Raleigh for reinforcements. Time was not on White's side. When the war with Spain erupted, White could not return to the colony for three years. When he set foot on Roanoke Island in August 1590, he searched frantically for the settlers, including his daughter and granddaughter, the first English New World baby, named VIRGINIA DARE. All that could be found was the remains of a village and a mysterious word, "CROATOAN," engraved on a tree. White concluded there must be a connection between the word and a nearby Indian tribe, but before he could investigate, a violent storm forced him out to sea and back to England. This lost colony remains one of the greatest mysteries of the colonial period. French Claims: The French monarchy first showed interest in exploration in 1524 when it spon­sored a voyage by an Italian navigator, Giovanni da Verrazano. Hoping to find a northwest passage leading through the Americas to Asia, Verrazano explored part of North America's eastern coast, including the New York harbor. French claims to American territory were also based on the voyages of Jacques Cartier (1534-1542), who explored the St. Lawrence River extensively. Like the English, the French were slow to develop colonies across the Atlan­tic. During the 1500s, the French monarchy was preoccupied with European wars as well as with internal religious conflict between Roman Catholics and French Protestants known as HUGUENOTS. Only in the next century did France develop a strong interest in following up its claims to North American land. The first permanent French settlement in America was established by SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN in I 608 at Quebec, a fortified village on the St. Lawrence River. Champlain's strong leadership won him the nickname "Father of New France." Other explorers extended French claims across a vast territory. In 1673, Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored the upper Mississippi River, and in I 682, Robert de La Salle explored the Mississippi basin, which he named Louisiana (after the French king, Louis XIV). Dutch Claims: During the 1600s, the Netherlands also began to sponsor voyages of explo­ration. The Dutch government hired Henry Hudson, an experienced English sailor, to seek westward passage to Asia through northern America. In 1609, while searching for a northwest passage, Hudson sailed up a broad river that was later named for him, the Hudson River. This expedition established Dutch claims to the surrounding area that would become NEW AMSTERDAM (and later New York). The Dutch government granted a private company, the Dutch West India Company, the right to control the region for economic gain. 8 Spanish Settlements in North America: Spanish settlements developed slowly in North America, as a result of limited mineral resources and strong opposition from American Indians. Florida After a number of failed attempts and against the strong resis­tance of American Indians in the region, the Spanish established a permanent settlement at ST. AUGUSTINE in 1565. Today, St. Augustine is the oldest city in North America founded by Europeans. New Mexico Santa Fe was established as the capital of New Mexico in 1610. Harsh efforts to Christianize the American Indians caused the Pueblo people to revolt in 1680. The Spanish were driven from the area until 1692. Texas In between Florida and New Mexico, the Spanish established settle­ments in Texas. These communities grew in the early 1700s as Spain attempted to resist French efforts to explore the lower Mississippi River. California In response to Russian exploration from Alaska, the Spanish established permanent settlements at San Diego in 1769 and San Francisco in 1776. By 1784, a series of missions or settlements had been established along the California coast by members of the Franciscan order. Father Junipero Serra founded nine of these missions. European Treatment of Native Americans Most Europeans looked down upon Native Americans. The Europeans who col­onized North and South America generally viewed Native Americans as inferior people who could be exploited for economic gain, converted to Christianity, and used as military allies. However, Europeans used various approaches for controlling Native Americans and operating their colonies. SPANISH POLICY: The Spanish who settled in Mexico and Peru encountered the highly orga­nized Aztec and Inca empires. Even after diseases killed most natives, millions remained in these empires that the Spanish could incorporate as laborers in their own empire. Many natives who did not die from disease died from forced labor. Because few families came from Spain to settle the empire, the explorers and soldiers intermarried with natives as well as with Africans. The latter were cap­tured in Africa and forced to travel across the ocean to provide slave labor for the Spanish colonists. A rigid class system developed in the Spanish colonies, one dominated by pure-blooded Spaniards. Bartolome de Las Casas One European who dissented from the views of most Europeans toward Native Americans was a Spanish priest named Bar­tolome de Las Casas. Though he had owned land and slaves in the West Indies and bad fought in wars against the Indians, he eventually became an advocate for better treatment for Indians. He persuaded the king to institute the New Laws of 1542. These laws ended Indian slavery, baited forced Indian labor, and began to end the encomienda system which kept the Indians in serfdom. Conservative Spaniards, eager to keep the encomienda system, responded and successfully pushed the king to repeal parts of the New Laws. Juan Gines de Sepulveda was a humanist lawyer born in 1490 in Spain, and was an important figure in the court of Charles V where he served as the Emperor’s chaplain and his official historian. He believed that the Spanish had a right to conquer the North America and the people on it. He wrote the “Democrates Alter”, the most important text of the era supporting Spanish conquest. Valladolid Debate The debate over the role for Indians in the Spanish colonies came to a head in a formal debate in 1550---1551 in Valladolid, Spain. On one side, Las Casas argued that the Indians were completely human and moral.ly equal to Europeans, so enslaving them was not justified. On the other side, another priest, Juan Gines de Sepulveda, argued that Indians were less than human. Hence, they benefited from serving the Spaniards in the ENCOMIENDA SYSTEM. Neither side clearly won the debate. Though Las Casas was unable to gain equal treatment for Native Americans, he established the basic arguments on behalf of justice for Indians. From the works of Bartolome de las Casas and other philosophers we see the emergence of THE BLACK LEGEND. The Black Legend is a style of propaganda that criticizes the Spanish Empire. The legend infers that no good came of the period of exploration except for the gains of the Spanish. 9 ENGLISH POLICY: Unlike the Spanish, the English settled in areas without large native empires that could be controlled as a workforce. In addition, many English colonists came in families rather than as single young men, so marriage with natives was less common. Initially, at least in Massachusetts, the English and the American Indians coexisted, traded, and shared ideas. American Indians taught the settlers how to grow new crops such as corn and showed them how to hunt in the forests. They traded various furs for an array of English manufactured goods, including iron tools and weapons. But peaceful relations soon gave way to conflict and open warfare. The English had no respect for American Indian cultures, which they viewed as primitive or "savage." For their part, American Indians saw their way of life threatened as the English began to take more land to support their ever-increasing population, and cash crop production. The English occupied the land and forced the small, scattered tribes they encountered to move away from the coast to inland territories. The English expelled the natives via war and conquest rather than enslaving them as the Spanish had. FRENCH POLICY: The French, looking for furs and converts to Catholicism, viewed American Indians as potential economic and military allies. Compared to the Spaniards and the English, the French maintained good relations with the tribes they encountered. Seeking to control the fur trade, the French built trading posts throughout the St. Lawrence Valley, the Great Lakes region, and along the Mississippi River. At these posts, they exchanged French goods for beaver pelts and other furs collected by American Indians. To secure that trade relationship the French would intermarry with the Native tribes they did business with. Because the French had few colonists, farms, or towns, they posed less threat to the native population than did other Europeans. In addition, French soldiers assisted the Huron people in fighting their traditional enemy, the Iroquois. NATIVE AMERICAN REACTION: North American tribes saw themselves as groups distinct from each other, not as part of a larger body of Native Americans. As a result, European settlers rarely had to be concerned with a unified response from the Native Americans. Initially the European goods such as copper pots and guns had motivated the natives to interact with the strangers. After the decimation of their peoples from the violence and disease of the Europeans, the Native Americans bad to adopt new ways to survive. Upon observing the Europeans fighting each other, some tribes allied themselves with one European power or another in hopes of gain-ing support in order to survive. A number of tribes simply migrated to new land to get away from the slowly encroaching settlers. Regardless of how they dealt with the European invasion, Native Americans would never be able to return to the life they had known prior to 1492. 10  Key Concepts (Broad Essential Information) A. As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America, over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. B. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource utilization, and social structure. C. Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. D. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. E. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. F. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent world views regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. Significant Topics (Must Know) 1.Native Societies in North America The spread of maize (corn) cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies. Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles. In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages. Societies in the Northwest and present-day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean. 2.European Expansion into North America European nations’ efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. The Columbian Exchange brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism. Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas. 3. Spanish Settlement in the New World Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas. In the encomienda system, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources. European traders partnered with some West African groups who practiced slavery to forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining. The Spanish developed a caste system that incorporated, and carefully defined the status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire. 4. Changes Resulting from Contact between Native American, Europeans, and Africans Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture. As European encroachments on Native Americans’ lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance. Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans. Developed and adapted using work by James L. Smith from the AP U.S. 11 History Curriculum Framework, Jason Gigliotti’s Study Guides, John Irish’s Historical Thinking skills, Digital History, & the AP U.S. History Curriculum Framework  Period 1 Supporting Evidence for the Significant Topics 1491 – 1607 In a Nutshell: 1491 – 1607 On a North American continent controlled by American Indians, contact among the peoples of Europe, the Americas, and West Africa created a new world. Beginning & End points: Pre-Columbian North American to The Eve of the English Colonization at Jamestown Supporting Evidence for Significant Topics (Specific and Relevant Content) Native Societies in Pre-Columbian North America (match with the map on the following page) A. Southwest (present-day southwestern United States) Pueblo (sometimes called the Anasazi people) - a name for the Native Americans of the present-day southwestern United States. Pueblos were also multi story, apartment-like structures made of adobe and mud that formed the “towns” of the Pueblo people. These communities were very complex and technologically advanced. - environmental conditions in the 13th and 14th centuries forced the Pueblo to disperse across the region thus weakening them on the eve of European contact B. Northwest (present-day Washington and Oregon) Chinook - Native Americans living in the Pacific Northwest of present-day United States - had a very high degree of economic development and social stratification (rigid caste system) - ultimately, some of the Natives that Lewis and Clark encountered in 1805 C. Great Basin (present day Nevada and large parts of Utah) Shoshone people, the Piute people, and the Ute people - the three large groupings of native peoples in the Great Basin - also referred to as the “Desert Culture” peoples due to the desert like conditions and lack of natural resources in the Great Basin D. Great Plains (vast territory stretching from west Texas north to Canada) Plains Indians (Sioux, Blackfoot, Arapaho, Cheyenne) - most commonly stereotyped in images of Indians in American popular culture - very dependent upon the buffalo for survival - the introduction of horses by the Europeans dramatically changed the Plains Indians way of life E. Atlantic Seaboard and Northeast (present-day east coast of United States into the Great Lakes region) Algonquian Peoples - truly a language group encompassing hundreds of American Indian tribes from the Great Lakes to northern New England - eventually had a tremendous amount of contact, interaction, and conflict with British colonists in the original 13 colonies Iroquois League or Iroquois Confederation - originally a group of five and later six Iroquoian-speaking peoples in present-day New York State - an extremely powerful and influential group of natives both before European contact and in later years with British colonists 12 Gigliotti's Supporting Evidence 13 Gigliotti's Supporting Evidence European Colonization of North America (in general) A. Contributing Factors to European Exploration and Conquest Technological Advances - the compass, astrolabe, and sextant all revolutionized navigation of the seas allowing sailors to plot direction, determine speed, and assess latitude more accurately - shipbuilding (e.g. the caravel, a quick and sturdy sailing ship, developed by the Portuguese) The European Renaissance (14th-17th century) and Gutenberg’s Printing Press (mid 1400s) - created a worldly view that stimulated curiosity and interest in new discoveries The Protestant Reformation (16th century) and the Catholic Counter-reformation (16th, 17th century) - renewed European religious zeal and a desire to spread their respective sects of Christianity in the New World New business models (e.g. Joint Stock Companies) - businesses owned by shareholders that invested in exploration and colonization in the New World thus spreading the risk involved among multiple investors. - joint stock companies were embraced by many European nations especially the British B. Impact of European Exploration and Conquest Columbian Exchange - the exchange of people, plants, and animals between Europe, Africa, and North America that occurred after Columbus’s arrival in the Western Hemisphere. 14 Gigliotti's Supporting Evidence Economic and Demographic Impact on Europe - precious metals brought from the New World back to Europe transformed the European economy and helped facilitate the transition from feudalism to capitalism - new crops and livestock brought from the New World back to Europe improved the meager diets of Europeans and ultimately contributed to a population boom Widespread Epidemics (e.g. smallpox) - smallpox is an infectious disease brought to America by the Spanish that devastated native populations (roughly 90% of the native populations were wiped out by 1600) C. Primary Countries/Individuals involved in European Exploration and Conquest (1491-1607) Christopher Columbus - led a voyage to the present-day Bahamas in 1492 and claimed the land he explored for the King and Queen of Spain. By 1504, Columbus had made four voyages to America Juan Ponce de León - claimed Florida for the King of Spain in 1513 St. Augustine, 1565 - Pedro Menédez de Avilés established a colony for the Spanish that has become the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in the United States Conquistadors - Spanish soldiers who conquered Native Indian civilizations (e.g. Cortes with the Aztecs and Pizarro with the Incas) - The 3 Gs (Gold, God, and Glory) were motivating factors for all Europeans but especially the Spanish Conquistadors Walter Raleigh - Englishman who sponsored the failed attempt to establish an English colony at Roanoke Roanoke, 1586 - first attempt by the English to establish a colony in America. The settlers on Roanoke Island, which is located off the coast of North Carolina, managed badly and when an expedition with supplies arrived in 1590, the colonists were gone. What happened to the colonists remains a mystery to present day. The Spanish Conquest of the New World A. Subjugating (bringing under domination or control) the Native Population Spanish Catholic Mission System - established in the Americas by the Spanish Empire from the 16th to 19th centuries in areas extending from Mexico and Southwestern portions of the present day United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile. - Catholic missions were established throughout the Americas in an effort to pursue gold, silver, and other resources in an orderly fashion. The goal was to convert native Americans to Christianity by requiring them to learn the Spanish languages, as well as Christian teachings. Casta System - a Spanish colonial system that determined a person’s importance by different racial categories Peninsulares - a Spaniard born in Spain (full Spanish blood) Creoles - a Spaniard born in the New World (full Spanish blood) Mestizo - A term used by the Spanish that referred to a people whose ancestors were both European and American Indian. - In the Spanish Casta System, the ancestors were Spanish men and American Indian women 15 Gigliotti's Supporting Evidence  Mulatto - A person who had one parent who was white and another parent who was black. If mulattos were born into slavery in a Spanish colony (e.g. their mother was a slave), they would be slaves also, but if their mother was free, they were free. - In the Spanish Casta System, the ancestors were Spanish men and African women Metis - A person of mixed race who had one white parent and another parent who was American Indian. Zambo - A term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of African and American Indian ancestry. Encomienda system - Spanish system to regulate and control Native Americans. The Spanish crown granted Spanish colonists a specified number of natives for whom they were to take responsibility. This system was ultimately a way for the Spanish to exploit the labor of native peoples and extract gold and silver. In many ways, the encomienda system resembled Old World Feudalism with Encomenderos functioning similar to feudal lords. This system eventually was criticized for its brutal exploitation and the Spanish crown was forced to issue a series of reforms. Juan de Sepúlveda - Spanish Priest who supported the Spanish Empire’s right of conquest and colonization in the New World. Sepúlveda was in favor of the Christianization of native Americans. He also argued that natives were natural slaves and violence was necessary to control and convert them. Bartolomé de Las Casas - Spaniard who fought against the enslavement and colonial abuse of native Americans. He argued against the brutal nature of the encomienda system which helped lead to a series of reforms in 1549 known as the Repartimiento. de Las Casas criticisms indirectly led to replacing American Indians with African slaves. He later condemned all forms of slavery. Native American Resistance of Spanish Conquest A. Rebellion and the Response Acoma Pueblo Uprising - In December, 1598, a party of Spanish soldiers seeking food arrived at Acoma. Initially, they were welcomed and treated in a friendly manner until the soldiers turned aggressive and began to demand grain from the Acoma storehouses, which was needed for the tribe to survive the winter. Provoking a furious reaction, the Acoma attacked the soldiers, killing 13 of them, including their commander, Juan de Zaldivar, who was a nephew of Juan de Oñate. Juan de Oñate - Spanish Conquistador and governor of the Spanish province of New Mexico. In the Acoma Pueblo uprising of 1598 his soldiers killed over 800 native Americans. The surviving natives were put on trial. 500 were eventually enslaved and roughly 80 men over the age of 25 had one of their feet cut off. Spanish Conquistadors - successfully conquered huge Native empires of the New World with the help of superior military technology and the spread of European disease which weakened indigenous resistance - once an area was conquered, it was partitioned into encomiendas which further contributed to Spanish subjugation of the native inhabitants 16 Gigliotti's Supporting Evidence Africans in the New World (early years of the slave trade) A. Maintaining Autonomy in the face of Involuntary Servitude Maroons - African refugees who had escaped slavery in the Americas and developed their own communities in Brazil and the Caribbean. Often these communities were formed by slaves who were the first generation brought out of Africa thus preserving African traditions in the New World. Arguably the most significant maroon was named Palmares which was established in Brazil in the early 1600s. African American Religion - African slaves mixed African beliefs and practices with Catholic rituals and theology, resulting in the formation of entirely new religions such as vaudou in Haiti (later referred to as "voodoo"), Santeria in Cuba, and Candomblé in Brazil. 17 Gigliotti's Supporting Evidence Notes Period 1: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 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__________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Ferrari APUSH 26 Thematic Learning Objectives (TLO): Ferrari APUSH 34 Key Historical Benchmark Events from Period 1: 1492 Columbus arrives -begins Columbian Exchange -Spain sends conquistadors & Armada -Spain sets up encomienda’s (missions like in CA & others) 1587 Roanoke Colony -disappeared by 1590 “Lost Colony” -Sir Walter Raleigh 1588 England defeats Spanish Armada -England becomes superpower (begins colonization soon after) 1607 Jamestown -Joint Stock Company -investor-backed -backer company -Virginia Company Helpful Websites: Gilder Leherman Institute Use the following link to access short audio/video summaries by Period of study. These short summaries (approximately 6-12 minutes would be great to utilize prior to cumulative tests) http://ap.gilderlehrman.org/ APPrehend Use the following link to access study terms by Period of study. A useful tool not only throughout the year but also in preparation for the AP Exam. http://apprend.io/apush/ The American YAWP Use the following linke to gain access to a free and online, collaboratively built, open American history textbook designed for college-level history courses. http://www.americanyawp.com/about.html Crash Course Use the following link to access entertaining, fast paced summaries of 48 different topics in United States History https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMwmepBjTSG593eG7ObzO7s Ferrari APUSH 35