GST 112 - Nigerian People's and Culture PDF

DIRECTORATE OF GENERAL STUDIES PROGRAMME GST 112-Nigerian People’s and Culture Prepared by Dr. Kabir Umar Musa, Dr. Mubarak Ahmad Mashi, Mal. Bala...

DIRECTORATE OF GENERAL STUDIES PROGRAMME GST 112-Nigerian People’s and Culture Prepared by Dr. Kabir Umar Musa, Dr. Mubarak Ahmad Mashi, Mal. Bala Abdullahi Hussaini, Mal. Abubakar Sani Tambai & Mal. Muhammad Muhammad Department of Political Science Umaru Musa Yar’adua University Katsina THE EMERGENCE OF NIGERIAN STATE AS A POLITICAL UNIT From the very beginning, it is pertinent to note that prior to the arrival of the white men into the continent of Africa there were no countries as we have today like Nigeria, Ghana, Mali Morocco among others. What had existed were traditional political societies living under empires, chiefdoms and caliphates. These African traditional societies could be easily remembered with the Mali empire; Songhai empire, Benin empire, Oyo empire, Kanen-Borno empire and Sokoto caliphate among others. Furthermore, all these traditional African political 1 institutions were well established sophisticated systems of administrations enjoyed by Africans before their basterdization by the European colonial capitalist invasion. Colonialism began in African continent around the 14th century when the Portuguese started coming through the coastal areas with trading missions. Later on other European capitalists nations trooped in and started trading particularly with the coastal chiefs. Countries such as Italy, Belgium, France, Germany and Britain were all involved in the colonial exploitations of the black men continent. In the case of Nigeria, the fierce competition that ensued between and among the various Europeans capitalists companies made George Taubman Goldie (regarded as the father of modern Nigeria) to brought all the British companies together to form a very strong company that can gobble the other smaller ones to avoid competition. This idea brought to the fore the establishment of Royal Niger Company which later continued to administer the Niger area after signing a charter with her majesty the queen of England. Indeed, that agreement was one of the instruments which gave the British government an upper hand to possess Nigeria while parcelling out the continent of Africa during the famous Berlin Conference in Germany. In fact, the Royal Niger Company had sold out Nigeria to her majesty the queen of England for about four million pounds. Thus, what was to become Nigeria was the product not only of events on the ground in West Africa, but of politics in Europe and London. In 1884–5 Otto von Bismarck, the power and brains behind the German Empire, masterminded a conference in Berlin designed to reconcile European rivalries in Africa (The conferees also enunciated the principle, known as the “dual mandate,” that the interests of both Europe and Africa would best be served by maintaining free access to the African continent for trade and by providing Africa with the benefits of Europe’s civilizing mission). He himself wanted to open the continent to the traders and investors of the rising economy of imperial Germany. So, Berlin was the scene of a major diplomatic victory by Britain over France, for the Niger territories were granted to 2 Britain, even though neither state could be said to occupy them. This was a key moment in what was called ‘the scramble for Africa’ – an extraordinary late burst of European expansion – when even little Belgium came away with an enormous chunk of central Africa. King Leopold II’s bogus ‘International Association of the Congo’ made off with a region of a million and a half square miles, stretching from the Atlantic to the Great Lakes, which he would rule with unprecedented cruelty until 1908. Goldie’s company had become unpopular with the palm oil traders and growers in the Niger – keeping out European competitors, ending profits for local African traders and middlemen and charging high prices for alcohol and guns. In December 1894 its headquarters at Akassa in the Delta were attacked by the Brass, a people who had been pushed to the edge of starvation by company’s cruel exploitations. There was looting and destruction, and some company employees were eaten in a ritual aimed at stopping smallpox. Nonetheless many in West Africa, and among the more knowledgeable in London, recognised that the way the company was run was at least partly to blame. Mr. Chamberlain, then Secretary of State for the Colonies, decided that the forces of the Royal Niger Company were inadequate to control the region. They were also unlikely to deter the French who were trying to establish themselves on the upper Niger, threatening British sovereignty. He made the fateful decision to create the Royal West African Frontier Force, under Colonial Office orders, and gave the command to Lord Frederick Lugard in 1897. More so, Lugard, who had played a key role in bringing Uganda under British authority, was a late Victorian figure not easily imaginable in any other era. He was convinced of British virtues, passionate for trade, a scourge of slavery, courageous, authoritarian and yet prepared to marry an equally strong-willed person in Flora Shaw. When he was older he mentored a young academic, Margery Perham, who repaid the compliment in two magisterial books of biography, which appeared when the empire was becoming an embarrassment and starting to fade into history. Hence, for Chamberlain, 3 Lugard seemed ideal – a doer, a colonel with a brain, and with a strong imperial CV from East Africa where he had successfully ridden out controversy over harsh methods he had employed on behalf of the Imperial British East Africa Company. By 31 December, 1899 the Royal Niger Company had been abolished, and Colonel Lugard was made High Commissioner of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate on 6 January 1900. He was given the Northern Nigerian Regiment – a force of 2,000–3,000 Africans and some 200 British officers from the West African Frontier Force that he had himself raised – with which to take control. He wrote that, for Europeans, the ‘greater part’ was ‘quite unexplored’ and that probably only a tenth was currently secured, and he drew the future provinces on a map. In 1901 he decreed the abolition of slavery, and banned raiding and trading in slaves. He also appreciated the well-organized societies he met especially in the Northern Nigeria. This is how he said it:...the region contained some of the most highly developed and civilised Muslim states of tropical Africa centred upon walled cities and defended by armies of horsemen. It should be noted that with little money, and in a situation where a third of his British officers and NCOs were either sick or on home leave; Lugard proceeded to build a civil administration and conquer the Fulani emirs. Consequently, Kano was captured in 1903 and in 38 days, marching from Kano, he took Sokoto, Katsina and Zaria because the British had control of machine guns on their side. It also seems likely that not all the Hausa soldiers were enamoured (in love with) of the Fulani emirs who ruled them. This was because the forces used were prisoners who were incarcerated by the emirs before the coming of the white-men whom they recruited into the Constabulary Force formed by George Taubman Goldie. At this juncture it is pertinent to note that Lugard inherited the already established Constabulary Force which later transformed to West African Frontier Force employed in conquering the emirs who were not in line with British colonial exploitative imperial 4 ideology. Thus, Lugard’s forces fought Sokoto caliphate and brought it to its knees, but in the battle only a hundred Sokoto men and one British carrier were killed: essentially the Sultan’s forces ran away. When Lugard arrived five days later he accepted the surrender of the emirs and oversaw election of a new Sultan. It was therefore with meagre resources of his own, and considerable respect for the societies he had captured, that Lugard set up and operated his administration. Maintenance of Islam, and therefore discouragement for Christian missionaries and their western-style education were fundamental elements of what he called ‘indirect rule’ in the north. Emirs were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the King. They said, ‘I swear in the name of Allah, and of Mahomet his Prophet, to well and truly serve His Majesty King Edward VII and his Representative, the High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria, to obey the laws of the Protectorate, and the lawful commands of the High Commissioner and the Resident, provided that they are not contrary to my religion…’. On 1 January 1914, the mixture of peoples in a huge part of West Africa became ‘One Nigeria’. The announcement in the humid city of Lagos, which had been a British colony since the Treaty of Annexation was agreed in 1861 between Great Britain and Oba Dosunmu, King of Lagos, was made by Frederick Lugard. He was now Governor-General of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, and he never liked Lagos. The name ‘Nigeria’ had been coined by his wife and admirer, Flora Shaw, colonial editor of The Times, in a letter she wrote to her paper in January 1897. She used it to define the territories abutting the River Niger that were then being traded in or claimed by the Royal Niger Company. In his speech, Lugard argued that the key reason for the amalgamation of the Southern and Northern Nigerian Protectorates with the Lagos Colony was to provide a unified railway policy (Ayandele, 1979; Alulo, 2003). It is instructive to note that various Governors-General were appointed to administer the newly colonially established country-Nigeria. For instance, after the serious agitations by the 5 Nigerian nationalists to be included in the management of their affairs, Lugard was replaced with Sir Hugh Clifford who expands the Nigeria Council to a larger legislative chamber in Lagos in 1922. It was the constitution which allowed for the first elective principle in the country where it allowed for the election of four Nigerians into the legislative assembly being 3 elected from Lagos, and 1 from Calabar. Clifford ruled the country for almost 24 years until 1946 when he was replaced with Sir Author Richard in 1946. Under Richard constitution the country was divided into 3 regions which precipitated the establishment of political parties with ethnic colourations. They were the Northern People Congress (NPC led by Sir Ahmadu Bello Sardauna of Sokoto) which emanated from JAM’IYYAR MUTANEN AREWA, Action Group (AG led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo) in the western region which also rooted out from the Yoruba tribal organization known as OMO EGBE ODUDUWA, and the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC led by Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe) which was again birthed from IGBO UNION. Furthermore, in 1951 Sir Macpherson’s replaced Richard as Governor-General of the country thus came up with a new constitution which was promulgated after series of consultations with Nigerians from ward levels, villages, districts up to regional and national levels. Likewise, in 1954 Oliver Lyttleton, who was the then Secretary of State for British colonies, promulgated another constitution which gave the new country a kind of federal outlook. All these constitutional engineering were geared towards the gate of Nigeria’s independence. Thus, on the verge of independence another constitutional code was enacted to the country known as the independence constitution of 1960 (Ayandele, 1979). This development brought about the achievement of independence on the 1st of October 1960. Immediately after achieving freedom from the colonial capitalist establishment, the country engulfed into series of political crises which led to the collapse of the First Republic after assassination of some political leaders who were majorly from the northern part of the country. This massacre 6 was perpetrated by some young military Igbo officers led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogu. The Premier of Northern region Sir Ahmadu Bello Sardauna of Sokoto, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Chief Ladoke Akintola the Premier of Western region, Chief Ekotie Eboh, Sir Kashim Ibrahim and many more were all killed. Moreover, this made it mandatory for General Aguiyi Ironsi to become the Military Head of State in January 1966. Eventually, the wave of military coups and counter coups became the new norm in the Nigerian political space for instance there was a coup in July the same year which brought to the fore General Yakubu Gowon into the highest office in the country after assassinating Gen. Ironsi in July 1966. The coup was said to be a revenge for the killings of the northern politicians by the Igbo officers on the 15th of January 1966. General Gowon spent 9 years in power before he was toppled by General Murtala Ramat Muhammad who became the new Commander-in-Chief. Still, the regime of General Murtala was short-lived by another military interregnum where he was assassinated on the 13th of February 1976 by a group of military officers led by Lt. Colonel Bukar Suka Dimka. The then Chief of General Staff General Olusegun Obasanjo who was the second in command took over the mantle of leadership as the new Head of State. He continued with the transition program started by late General Murtala which later brought the country back to the new civilian regime of Alhaji Shehu Aliyu Shagari under the Second Republic on October 1st 1979. Unfortunately, the government was also toppled by another military coup in December 1983 which brought a new military regime of General Muhammadu Buhari before it was toppled after 2 years by General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida in August 1985. Babangida who was popularly known as IBB, Maradona or the Evil Genius ruled for 8 years after series of unending attempts to hand over power to a new civilian administration. But he later handed over power to an Interim National Government with Chief Ernest Shonekan as the head. 7 The Interim Government was also brought to its knees by late General Sani Abacha who died in office after 5 years. This development led to the emergence of General Abdussalami Abubakar as the new Commander-in Chief who quickly handed over power to a new civilian government headed by Chief Olusegun Obasanjo in 1999 under the Fourth Republic. The regime lasted for 8 years and handed over to late Alhaji Umaru Musa Yar’adua who also died in office in 2010. The then Vice President Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan became the new President and completed the term started by Yar’adua and later re-elected in 2011. In the general elections of 2015 Dr. Jonathan lost election to President Muhammadu Buhari which brought about the first opposition party to win election in the political history of Nigeria. President Buhari was later re-elected for a second term in office in 2019. After completing two terms Buhari handed over to President Ahmed Bola Tinibu who won election in 2023. It is pertinent to note that there were series of political crises in the country right from the post- independence period down to the various succeeding regimes which will be discussed below. NIGERIA AND THE CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING Military Intervention in Nigerian Politics Who are the Military? Military are professional individuals who are well trained for the protection and safeguarding the territorial integrity and sovereignty of a particular nation from any external or internal attack. In Nigeria, the military is composed of the Army, Air force and the Navy. GEN. JTU AGUIYI IRONSI’S REGIME 1966 It is important to note that Major Gen Ironsi was not part of the coup that brought him into power. He was the highest-ranking military officer that was shy. None of the five majors who were led by Nzeogwu who executed the coup was able to take over. Maj Gen Ironsi saw an 8 opportunity and rallied his troops to frustrate the coup and take over. Nzeogwu was arrested by Ironsi after inviting him to Lagos and Ironsi quickly announced himself as head of state. Ironsi was however killed in a counter-coup in July 1966 (Six months after being in office). The attempt to make Nigeria a unitary state by signing into law Decree 34 of may 1966 contributed to the overthrow of Ironsi's regime. GEN. YAKUBU GOWON’S REGIME 1966-1975 On the 29th of July 1966, Major Gen Ironsi was abducted and killed in the coup. Others killed were Lt Col. Adekunle Fajuyi. It was a bloody coup. Lt Col. Yakubu Gown (the most senior officer from the north) was installed as head of state. One of the first things he did was to revert decree 34 thereby reinstalling the federal system of government with its 4 regions. Gowon then split the country into twelve states. He formed a federal executive council (FEC) and included civilian commissioners (Ministers) who were mainly notable politicians with strong support in their home constituencies replacing the permanent secretaries who were FEC members during Ironsi's regime. His regime lasted for 9 years (1966-1975) and was promoted to General. The Supreme Military Council (SMC) was the highest ruling body in the country during his regime. The Nigerian Civil War 1967-1970 The Nigerian civil war lasted from 6 July 1967 to 15 February 1970. On 15 February 1970, Major General Philip Effiong, the Biafran chief of general staff, signed Biafra’s formal surrender at Dodan Barracks, Lagos. Remote causes of the civil war 1. Several constitutions had been fashioned to govern Nigeria but none of these had been able to really unite the various peoples of Nigeria. 9 2. Political parties in Nigeria were often based on ethnic considerations. 3. It was impossible to conduct free and fair elections in Nigeria. 4. Census was used as a tool for political competition by politicians. Thus, the exercise was always attended by malpractices and discrepancies (Refer to Census crisis of 1962/1963). 5. There was a competition between the various ethnic groups for wealth and power. 6. The military had also been politicized and divided along ethnic lines. Immediate Causes of the Nigerian Civil War 1. Majority of the political and military leaders killed in the February 1966 coup were from the Western and Northern Regions. No prominent Eastern leader was killed. The ensuing distrust, disaffection and retaliation led to the massacre of the Igbo in the North between September and October 1966. 2. Those who led the coup were forced to surrender, which prevented the initiators of the coup from implementing their policies. 3. The coup of January 1966 was regarded as sectional because the leaders were mainly Igbo military officers. General Ironsi, himself an Igbo, was expected to bring the young officers to book for killing Northern and Western leaders, but he did not. 4. The July countercoup of 1966 was organized by military officers from Northern Region. General Ironsi, an Igbo and head of state was killed. 5. Lt Colonel Gowon who took over government from Ironsi was not acceptable to Colonel Ojukwu since Gowon was not the most senior military officer then. 6. The creation of twelve states by Colonel Gowon on 27 May 1967 specially to break the East made Ojukwu announced the secession of the East three days after. 10 7. After their massacre in the North, indigenes of the Eastern Region were recalled home to their region because of their insecurity in other parts of Nigeria. 8. The divergent interpretations given to the Aburi meeting held in Ghana early in 1967 and its non-implementation further stalled peace moves. Moves to Prevent the War When prominent Nigerians failed to broker any peace agreement, General Ankrah, then Ghanaian Head of State arranged a meeting of the military governors of each region and the Head of State, Yakubu Gowon, in Aburi, Ghana. Unfortunately, while the parties to the conflict came to some agreement in Ghana, they came back to Nigeria to make conflicting demands on each other. Adetokunbo Ademola, the then Chief Justice of the federation, on 5 May 1967 went to Enugu with Chief Jereton Mariere (of the Mid-west) and Chief Obafemi Awolowo (of the Western Region) in the name of the National Conciliation Committee. The group with the aim of reconciling the Eastern Region leaders with the federal government got the backing of the latter on its mission which, however, yielded no fruitful result (Italoye, 2019). Consequences of the Nigerian Civil War 1. It led to the creation of more states. 2. Very many people lost their lives or became disabled during the war, especially eastern Nigerians. 3. Many Nigerians, especially the Igbo, lost landed property and many other valuable properties when they fled to their home region. Many survivors were unsuccessful in claiming back their property after the war. 11 4. There was a waste of great national resources that could have been used to develop the country. 5. It led to serious suffering of the people, especially the poor. 6. Many people, citizens and non-citizens, fled Nigeria. 7. It led to the disruption of education, economic activities and general normal life in the eastern part of the country. 8. It caused a general feeling of insecurity and fear of bomb attacks all over Nigeria. 9. It created a greater gulf between Nigerians than existed before. 10. After the war, it opened new political alliances between the north and the southeast. Achievements 1. Establishment of the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) in 1974 to promote unity and integrity 2. Formation of ECOWAS 3. Preservation of Nigeria's unity which was threatened by Biafra Secession. GEN. MURTALA/OBASANJO REGIME 1975-1979 Another coup happened on 29th July 1975. This coup was announced by Col. Joseph Garba. The coup happened in Gen. Gowon's absence when he went to an Organisation of African Union (OAU) summit in Kampala, Uganda. Gen. Murtala Muhammed was declared the new head of state and Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo was made chief of staff. On 13th February, Gen Murtala Mohammed was assassinated in a failed coup attempt led by Lt Col. B.S Dimka and Gen Obasanjo was installed head of State. 12 Achievements 1. Seven more states were created making a total of 19 states 2. 1979 constitution was formulated GEN. MUHAMMADU BUHARI’S REGIME 1983-1985 Gen Obasanjo handed over power to a democratically elected civilian president called Alhaji Shehu Shagari. The Shagari-led administration was overthrown on 31 st December 1983 by the military. Maj Gen Mohammed Buhari was installed Head of State with Maj. Gen Tunde Idiagbon as the chief of staff. Achievements 1. The War Against indiscipline (WAI) campaign was launched to tackle indiscipline 2. The regime clamped down on violent crime and drug trafficking GEN. IBRAHIM BADAMASI BABANGIDA’S REGIME 1985-1993 The military regime of Maj Gen Buhari was overthrown on 27th Aug 1985. A new military government headed by Maj Gen Ibrahim Babangida who was the Chief of Army Staff in the Buhari-led government was announced. Achievements 1. It made a serious effort to revamp the economy. 2. There was great emphasis on rural development thereby establishing the Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Development Infrastructure (DFRRI) 3. Successfully conducted a population census through the National Population Commission (NPC) 13 4. A federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC) was set up to tackle road accident problems in the country. GEN. SANI ABACHA’S REGIME 1993-1998 The Babangida-led military administration decided not to hand over power to the acclaimed winner of the June 12th general elections. This created a serious crisis in Nigeria. Gen Babangida handed over power to the interim national government led by Chief Ernest Shonekan on 26th August 1993 instead. On 17th November 1993, Gen Sani Abacha (the Secretary of Defence at the time) forced Chief Shonekan to resign and established a new military regime with himself as the Head of State and Lt. Gen Oladipo Diya became the Chief of General Staff. Achievements 1. The Nigerian Deposit and Insurance Corporation (NDIC) was established to enforce sanity in the banking sector 2. Some level of stability was achieved by the Naira 3. Succeeded in restoring democracy in Liberia and Sierra Leone. GEN. ABDULSALAMI ABUBAKAR 1998-1999 Following Abacha's death on 8th June 1998, the chief of Defence staff Maj. Gen Abdulsalami Alhaji Abubakar was made Head of State and promoted to full general. Gen. Abubakar initiated a 10-month transition programme to hand over power to a democratically elected civilian government which he handed over on May 29th 1999 to Chief Olusegun Obasanjo. Achievements 14 1. The Human Rights situation in the country was improved and political prisoners were released. 2. There was more press freedom 3. Power was transferred to civilian rule and Chief Olusegun Obasanjo was sworn in on 29th May 1999. 4. Nigeria regained the respect of international communities. The Collapse of the Second Republic General Murtala Muharnmed in a July 1975 coup took over power from General Yakubu Gowon. Then, General Muhammed announced a program of return to civil rule which was concluded by General Olusegun Obasanjo, his successor. The program included the drafting of a constitution, formation of political parties and holding of elections. A Federal Electoral Commission (FEDECO) was set up which registered five political parties, viz the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), the Nigeria Peoples Party (NPP), the Great Nigeria Peoples Party (GNPP) and the People’s Redemption Party (PRP). There were almost 2,000 seats contested in all, including about 1,350 seats in the 19 states’ houses of assembly, 449 in the federal House of Representatives, 95 in the senate, 19 state governorships and the presidency. The elections took place between 7 July and 11 August with the presidential election coming last on 11 August. All the elections took place in a general conducive atmosphere, but a great dispute arose on the presidential results. The electoral rule stipulated that a winning presidential candidate required not just the highest vote but at least 25 per cent of the votes in at least two thirds of the states of the federation. No candidate won 25 per cent in two-thirds of the states. Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the NPN 15 who was declared winner won 25% in only 12 states. Chief Obafemi Awolowo (of the UPN) who came second disputed this, claiming that since nobody scored 25 per cent in two-thirds of the 19 states, the two highest scorers should be made to go for a second election. This was contrary to FEDECO’s position and Chief Awolowo filed a petition at the electoral tribunal headed by Justice Kazeem. The mathematical riddle was: What was two-thirds of 19 states? NPN advocates posited 122/3, and they proved that apart from scoring 25 per cent in 12 states, Shagari still scored 25% in two thirds of at least one state. The electoral tribunal accepted this formula and upheld Shagari’s election. Chief Awolowo appealed to the Supreme Court headed by Chief Justice Atanda Williams which also upheld the decision of the tribunal. The case generated great public debate and discontent, involved scores of lawyers, and the eventual result based on mathematical calculation created a lot of acrimony between the NPN and UPN (and their supporters) in the federal legislature and beyond (Italoye, 2019). In a nutshell, the 1979 elections had five revamped political parties competed in national elections, marking the beginning of the Second Republic. The presidential succession from Obasanjo to a civilian, President Alhaji Shehu Shagari, was the first peaceful transfer of power since independence. Nigeria’s Second Republic was born amid great expectations. Oil prices were high, and revenues were on the increase. It appeared that unlimited development was possible. Unfortunately, the euphoria was short-lived. A number of weaknesses beset the Second Republic. First, the coalition that dominated federal politics was not strong, and in effect the victorious National Party of Nigeria (NPN) led by Shagari governed as a minority. Second, there was a lack of cooperation between the NPN-dominated federal government and the 12 states controlled by opposition parties. Third, and perhaps most importantly, the oil boom ended in mid-1981, precisely when expectations of continuous growth and prosperity. 16 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Definition and Classification of Law The term ‘Law’ denotes different kinds of rules and Principles which exist in a given society. Law is an instrument which regulates human conduct/behavior. Law means Justice, Morality, Reason, Order, and Righteous from the view point of the society. Law means Statutes, Acts, Rules, Regulations, Orders, and Ordinances from point of view of legislature. Law means Rules of court, Decrees, Judgment, Orders of courts, and Injunctions from the point of view of Judges. Therefore, Law is a broader term which includes Acts, Statutes, Rules, Regulations, Orders, Ordinances, Justice, Morality, Reason, Righteous, Rules of court, Decrees, Judgment, Orders of courts, Injunctions, Tort, Jurisprudence, Legal theory, etc. First it is used to mean “legal order”. It represents the regime of adjusting relations, and ordering conduct by the systematic application of the force of organized political society. Secondly, law means the whole body of legal Percepts which exists in a politically organized society. Thirdly, law is used to mean all official control in a politically organized society. This lead to actual administration of Justice as contrasted with the authoritative material for the Guidance of Judicial action. Law in its narrowest or strict sense is the civil law or the law of the land. Law may be classified in various ways, e.g. criminal law and civil law, public law and private law, substantive law and procedural law, national law and international law, etc. Nigerian Judicial System The superior courts of records provided for under the constitution are: (a) The Supreme Court of Nigeria (b) The Court of Appeal 17 (c) The Federal High court (d) National Industrial Court (e) The high Court of Federal Capital Territory, Abuja (f) A High Court of a State (g) The Sharia Court of Appeal of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja (h) A Sharia Court Appeal of a state (i) The Customary Court of Appeal of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja (j) A Customary Court of Appeal of a State. The inferior courts of record that have been established or deemed established by the legislative bodies above are: (a)Magistrates’ Courts (b)Districts Courts (c) Sharia Courts (d)Area Courts (e) Customary Courts SUPREME COURT OF NIGERIA This is the apex court of the nation, Nigeria established under section 230 of the 1999 constitution. It consists of the chief justice of Nigeria who is the head of the court and such number of justices of Supreme Court, not exceeding twenty –one as may be prescribed by an act of National Assembly. The court has both original and appellate jurisdiction. 18 COURT OF APPEAL The Court of Appeal was established on 1st October, 1976. The Court was established to serve as an immediate court between the high court and other subordinates courts and the Supreme Court. Under the 1999 constitution, the Court of Appeal is established under Section. It is headed by the president of the Court of Appeal. The Court consists of the president and such number of justices of the court of appeal, not less than forty-nine of which not less than three shall be learned in Islamic law; and not less than three shall be learned in customary law, as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly. The court of Appeal has both Original and Appellate Jurisdiction as stated in the constitution. FEDERAL HIGH COURT The Federal High Court was initially established as the Federal Revenue Court in 1973. Now the Federal High Court under Section 249 of the 1999 constitution. The Court is headed by a Chief Judge of the Federal High Court. The Federal High Court consists of the Chief Judge and such number of Judges of the Federal High Court as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly. The Jurisdiction of the Federal High Court was originally provided under Section 7 of the Federal Revenue Court Act 1973. In terms of section 251(1) of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution, the Federal High Court shall have and exercise jurisdiction to the exclusion of any other court in civil cases and matters arising from State High Courts. STATE HIGH COURT By virtue of section 270 of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution, each of the 36 states of the Federation shall have its own High Court consisting of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be prescribed by a law of the House of Assembly of a state. The structure, organization and jurisdiction of the various state High Courts are generally uniform since they all derive their powers from a single source that is the constitution. 19 THE HIGH COURT OF THE FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY, ABUJA The Constitution provides for the establishment of a high court of the federal Capital territory Abuja. The High court of the FCT shall consist of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly. It has jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil proceedings in which the existence or extent of a legal right, power duty, liability, privilege, interest, obligation or claim is in issue or to hear and determine any criminal proceedings involving or relating to any penalty, forfeiture, punishment or other liability in respect of an offence committed by any person. NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL COURT Originally, the industrial court (NIC) was established in 1976 for the purpose of dealing with trade disputes and collective agreements. The court is now included in the lists of courts recognized under section 6 of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (third Alteration) Act of 2010. The Act provides for the establishment of the National Industrial Court, and states that the court shall consist of the president of National Industrial Court and such number of judges of the court as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly. An examination of the provision of section 254 C (1) of the 1999 Constitution (as amended) shown that the National Industrial Court enjoys a considerable Jurisdiction on a number of items relating to labor matters. There are innovations to this court.It has only one Jurisdiction and processes can be filed in one state and heard in another state. THE SHARIA COURT OF APPEAL The Constitution provides for the establishment of the Sharia Court of Appeal of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and of a State. The Court consists of Grand Khadi, and such number of Khadis as may be prescribed by the National assembly or House Assembly of a state as the 20 case may be. The Sharia Court of appeal is a superior court of Record which hears appeals from the Sharia Court and Area Court in cases involving Islamic personal law. THE CUSTOMARY COURT OF APPEAL The Constitution provides for the establishment of the Customary Court of Appeal of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and of the State. The Court consists of a president, and such number of the judges of Customary Court of Appeal as may be prescribed by the National Assembly or House of Assembly of a State as the case may be. The Customary Court of Appeal is a court of superior record, and shall exercise appellate and supervisory jurisdiction in civil proceedings involving questions of customary law, or such other jurisdiction as may be conferred upon it by the National Assembly or the State house of assembly as the case may be. ELECTION TRIBUNALS The 1999 Constitution (as amended) states that there shall be established for the each State of the Federation and the Federal Capital Territory, one or more Election Tribunals to be known as National and State Houses of Assembly Election Tribunals which shall, to the exclusion of any court or tribunal, have original jurisdiction to hear and determine petitions as to whether- (a) any person has been validly elected as a member of the National Assembly; (b) any person has been validly elected as a member of the House of Assembly of a state. Also there shall be established in each state of the federation, one or more tribunals to be known as the Governorship Election Tribunals which shall, to the exclusion of any court or tribunal, have original Jurisdiction to hear and determine petitions as to whether any person has been validly elected to the office of the Governor or the Deputy Governor of a state. MAGISTRATES COURTS AND DISTRICTS COURTS 21 Magistrates Courts are Courts of Summary Jurisdiction created by law of the House of Assembly of a State. They are called Courts of Summary Jurisdiction because matters are determined therein without pleadings or briefs by parties. AREA COURTS, SHARIACOURTS AND CUSTOMARY COURTS Area Courts and Customary Courts are established essentially for the administration of customary and native law in Nigeria. The term Area Court is used in Northern Nigeria while the term Customary Courts is used to denote same courts in Southern Nigeria. The various states in Southern Nigeria have Customary Courts. Customary Court is constituted by President and at least, two or other four members as the case may be. The courts are usually constituted by a judge called Area Court Judge sitting alone or with one or more members. It should be noted that Customary and Area Courts have jurisdictions only to Nigerians. Customary and Area Courts are subject to general supervision of High Court. Area and Customary Courts are not empowered to issue order of mandamus, certiorari, prohibition, injunctions and quo warranto. Fundamental Human Rights Chapter 4, Section 33-49 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, provided the following Rights to every Nigerian citizen because after the World War II (1 st Sept, 1939- 2nd Sept, 1945) human right has universal application. 1. Right to Life 2. Right to dignity of human persons 3. Right to personal liberty 4. Right to fair hearing 5. Right to private and family life 22 6. Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion 7. Right to freedom of expression and the press 8. Right to peaceful assembly and association 9. Right to freedom of movement 10. Right to freedom from discrimination 11. Right to acquire and own immovable property 12. Compulsory acquisition of property 13. Restriction on and derogation from fundamental human rights 14. Special jurisdiction of High Court and Legal aid RE-ORIENTATION, MORAL AND NATIONAL VALUES In developed, developing and underdeveloped societies moral and national values are key societal transformation and developmental component which are necessarily required at every stage of nation building and togetherness for the purpose of achieving overall national interest. Nigeria as the most populace black nation on earth with over 220 Million people and over 450 ethnic nationalities needs to foster these morals and national values in order to have a clear sense of direction and to have a morals and values oriented society where no man is oppressed. Nigeria as national builds its Morals and National values around Truth, Justice, hard-work and Tolerance. But is left for Nigerians to examine how Truthful, Justice and hard-working we are or we wanted to be? 23 The three R’s Policy 3Rs refer to the three principles of reconstruction, rehabilitation, and reconciliation introduced by General Yakubu Gowon’s Military administration in 1970. The policy was introduced after the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970). The 3Rs were designed to promote national unity, stability, and progress. The 3Rs policy has the following principles: Reconstruction: - Rebuilding and restoring damaged infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and buildings. - Revitalizing the economy and promoting economic growth. - Re-establishing essential services like healthcare, education, and sanitation. Rehabilitation: - Providing support and assistance to those affected by the war, including refugees, widows and orphans. - Encouraging the return of displaced persons to their homes. - Promoting social welfare programs and community development initiatives. Reconciliation: - Fostering national unity and promoting forgiveness and understanding among Nigerians. - Encouraging dialogue and reconciliation between former enemies. - Promoting a sense of shared citizenship and national identity which led to the establishment of NYSC Scheme. In summary the 3Rs policy was aimed to heal the wounds of the civil war, promote national cohesion, and lay the foundation for Nigeria's post-war development. While the implementation of the 3Rs faced challenges, the policy remained significant milestone in Nigeria's history and a testament to the country's resilience and determination to remain one united and stable state after the war. 24 Re-orientation Strategies Re-orientation strategies in Nigeria refer to the efforts aimed at changing the mindset, behavior, and attitudes of Nigerians towards national values, patriotism, and social cohesion in order to realize social, political and economic transformation that will lead to sustainable development. Some of these strategies include:  Value reorientation programs  Patriotism promotion initiatives  Social justice and equity advocacy  Economic development and self-reliance initiatives  Political education and awareness programs  Cultural renaissance and revitalization  Moral and ethical reorientation  Community engagement and participation  Education and curriculum reform  Media and communication strategies These strategies were initiated to address the challenges facing Nigeria’s social, political and economic developmental agenda, such as:  Ethnic and religious divisions  Corruption and indiscipline  Lack of patriotism and national pride  Social injustice and inequality  Economic dependency and underdevelopment  Political instability and leadership challenges  Cultural erosion and loss of identity  Moral decay and ethical decline 25 Through committed and resilient implementing these re-orientation strategies, Nigeria aims to achieve the following:  Promote national unity and integration  Foster patriotism and national pride  Encourage social justice and equity  Support economic development and self-reliance  Enhance political awareness and participation  Revitalize and promote Nigerian culture  Instill moral and ethical values  Engage communities and promote participation  Reform education and curriculum  Utilize media and communication effectively All these efforts aim to re-orient Nigerians towards a more positive, productive, and patriotic mindset, ultimately contributing to the country's development and progress. Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) was a nationwide agricultural program launched in May, 1976 by the military government of General Olusegun Obasanjo in Nigeria. The program lasted till the civilian government of Alhaji Shehu Shagari. Operation Feed the Nation initiative aimed to achieve the following:  Increase food production and self-sufficiency  Reduce reliance on food imports  Enhance rural development and employment  Improve nutrition and food security 26 Operation Feed the Nation has following components which were expected to facilited the implementation of the program:  Agricultural extension services  Input distribution (seeds, fertilizers, etc.)  Mechanized farming  Irrigation development  Rural infrastructure improvement  Farmer education and training Impact of Operation Feed the Nation program on Nigeria’s Agricultural sector and economy:  Significant increase in food production, especially maize, rice, and wheat  Improved food availability and reduced imports  Enhanced rural development and employment opportunities  Increased government revenue from agricultural exports Challenges and limitations of Operation Feed the Nation in Nigeria:  Overemphasis on mechanized farming, leading to environmental concerns  Inadequate infrastructure and logistics support  Limited access to credit and inputs for small-scale farmers  Political and economic instability affecting program continuity Legacy of Operation Feed the Nation in Nigeria  It laid the foundation for future agricultural development programs in Nigeria  It also help in demonstrating the potential for government-led initiatives to drive food security and rural development in Nigeria  Highlighted the need for sustainable and inclusive agricultural practices 27 Overall, "Operation Feed the Nation" was a significant initiative in Nigeria's agricultural and economic diversification history, with both achievements and lessons learned that continue to shape the country's agricultural policies and programs. Green Revolution The Green Revolution is an agricultural revolution in Nigeria which refers to set of initiatives aimed at transforming the country's agricultural sector and promoting food security in order to ensure food security and economic diversification. The Green Revolution was launched in April, 1980 by Shehu Usman Aliyu Shagari administration and the program specifically focused on:  Increasing crop production and productivity  Improving irrigation and water management  Enhancing rural infrastructure and transportation  Promoting the use of fertilizers and pesticides  Encouraging small-scale farming and agricultural entrepreneurship Goals of Green Revolution as a Policy in Nigeria  Achieve food self-sufficiency  Reduce dependence on food imports  Enhance rural development and employment  Improve nutrition and food security Key programs and initiatives incorporated into Green Revolution:  National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS)  Agricultural Development Programs (ADPs)  River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) Impacts of Green Revolution on Nigeria’s Agricultural sector and economy:  It significantly helped in increasing food production and availability 28   Improved agricultural productivity and efficiency  Enhanced rural development and employment opportunities  Reduced food imports and improved food security  Increased income for farmers and rural communities Some of the Challenges faced by Green Revolution initiatives:  Funding and resource constraints  Infrastructure and logistics challenges  Climate change and environmental concerns  Limited access to credit and markets for small-scale farmers  Political and economic instability The Green Revolution in Nigeria has had a lasting impact on the country's agricultural sector and economy, and its legacy continues to shape Nigeria’s agricultural policies and program administration after administration. Austerity Measures The Austerity Measures is the fiscal and monetary measures announced in May, 1984 aimed at drastically reducing domestic demand pressure. The Program was a set of economic policies implemented in 1984 by the military government of General Muhammadu Buhari. The program aimed to address Nigeria's economic crisis, instigated by following issues:  Falling oil prices in International Market  Nigerian Rising debt profile  High inflation  Large budget deficits Key components of Austerity Measures program:  Reduction in government spending  Increase in taxes 29   Reduction in subsidies  Privatization of state-owned enterprises  Trade liberalization  Currency devaluation Goals of the Program:  Reduce budget deficits  Stabilize the failing Nigerian economy  Promote economic growth to facilitated economic development  Increase market competitiveness Negative and Positive impact of the Program on Nigeria’s economy:  Initial success in reducing inflation and stabilizing the economy  Increased unemployment and poverty  Reduced access to social services  Higher cost of living  Negative impact on small businesses and entrepreneurs Challenges:  Political instability  Lack of popular support  Inadequacy in implementation strategies  Corruption and Mismanagement Some of the Legacies left by the Program:  Controversial and debated among Nigerians  Seen as a necessary evil by some  Criticized for its negative social impact  Influenced subsequent economic policies in Nigeria 30 The Austerity Measures Program in Nigeria was a significant event in the country's economic history, with both positive and negative consequences. Its impact and legacy continue to be discussed and debated among Nigerians and economists. War Against Indiscipline (WAI) The War Against Indiscipline (WAI) was a social reform and mass mobilization program initiated and implemented in Nigeria in March, 1984 by the military government of General Muhammadu Buhari and was in effect until September, 1985. The program aimed to address the following social problems in Nigeria’s society:  Indiscipline  Corruption  Inefficiency  Lack of patriotism The program specifically focused on:  Queue culture (encouraging people to form orderly queues)  Cleanliness (environmental sanitation)  Punctuality (promoting timely arrival and departure)  Respect for rules and laws  Nationalism (fostering a sense of national pride) War Against Indiscipline was known for its strict enforcement, which included sanctions like fines, imprisonment, and public humiliation for offenders. Although the program had some positive impacts, it was also criticized for its harsh methods and human rights abuses. The legacy of this policy continues to be debated among Nigerians, with some viewing it as a necessary intervention and others seeing it as an authoritarian excess. 31 War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (WAIC) "War Against Indiscipline and Corruption is social, political and administrative reform launched by General SaniAbacha, Nigeria's military head of state from 1993 to 1998. Abacha's regime was known for its authoritarian style, and this campaign was a key aspect of the administration rule. The Program aimed to achieve the following goals:  Promote discipline and order in society  Eradicate corruption in government and public life  Encourage patriotism and national pride Some of the Actions implemented:  Establishment of the "War Against Indiscipline and Corruption" task force  Introduction of decrees and laws to combat corruption and indiscipline  Public campaigns and propaganda to promote the program's goals  Strict enforcement, including arrests, detentions, and public humiliations Some of the Positive and Negative Impacts of the policy:  Initial success in reducing corruption and promoting order  Criticisms of human rights abuses, harassment of opposition figures, and selective enforcement  The policy eventually lost momentum and credibility due to perceived excesses and authoritarian nature of the regime Some of the Legacies of the Policy:  Abacha's regime remains controversial, and the program is often seen as a tool for political repression of perceived government enemies  However, some Nigerians still credit the program for promoting discipline and reducing corruption in Nigeria 32  The Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery Program (MAMSER) The Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery Program (MAMSER) was an exercise in political orientation in Nigeria undertaken by the former military government of General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida as one of the recommendation of the Political Bureau headed by Dr. Samuel Joseph Cookey. The Bureau’s task was to consult with thousands of Nigerians and recommend to the Armed Forces Ruling Council, a respectable and systematic transition program. The ruling council also wanted a national orientation to articulate the intellectual idea in its economic policy and promote value orientation. MAMSER was inaugurated on July 25th 1987 and was headed by Jerry Gana as a Director. Former President Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida’s MAMSER aimed to:  To promote self-reliance and economic recovery  To foster social justice and equity  To encourage grassroots participation and mobilization  To support economic development and industrialization Objectives of MAMSER:  Reduce dependence on foreign aid and imports  Increase food production and self-sufficiency  Improve infrastructure and social services  Enhance political awareness and participation  Support small-scale industries and entrepreneurship Strategies adopted:  Community mobilization and sensitization  Economic empowerment and skill development 33   Infrastructure development and rehabilitation  Social justice and human rights education  Political education and awareness Impact of MAMSER on Nigeria’s economic and political orientation strategy:  Increased political awareness and participation  Improved economic activity and entrepreneurship  Enhanced social services and infrastructure  Promoted self-reliance and reduced dependence on foreign aid  Fostered social justice and equity Some Challenges faced by the policy:  Funding and resource constraints  Political instability and leadership changes  Limited institutional capacity and corruption  Inadequate grassroots participation and engagement  Economic constraints and structural adjustment programs Some the Legacies of MAMSER Policy:  Contributed to Nigeria's economic recovery and growth  Fostered political awareness and participation  Promoted self-reliance and social justice  Informing subsequent development initiatives in Nigeria  Highlighting the importance of grassroots mobilization and participation in development Generally, MAMSER was a significant initiative in Nigeria's development history, aiming to promote self-reliance, social justice, and economic recovery. While it faced challenges, its impact and legacy continue to influence development efforts in Nigeria. 34 The National Orientation Agency (NOA) The National Orientation Agency (NOA) is a government agency in Nigeria responsible for promoting national values, patriotism, and social cohesion. Established in 1983 by General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida administration, NOA was established to:  Promote national unity and integration  Foster patriotism and national pride  Encourage social justice and equity  Support economic development and self-reliance  Enhance political awareness and participation NOA's organizational objectives include:  Value reorientation and promotion of national core values  Patriotism and national pride promotion  Social justice and equity advocacy  Economic development and self-reliance promotion  Political awareness and participation enhancement Some of NOA's activities and programs so far include:  National reorientation campaigns  Patriotism promotion programs  Social justice and equity advocacy  Economic development and self-reliance initiatives  Political education and awareness programs The National Orientation Agency (NOA) has implemented various initiatives which include but not limited to:  The "Change Begins With Me" campaign 35   The "National Values" promotion program  The "Patriotism Promotion" initiative  The "Social Justice and Equity" advocacy program  The "Economic Development and Self-Reliance" initiative NOA's impact includes but not limited to:  Promoting national unity and integration  Fostering patriotism and national pride  Encouraging social justice and equity  Supporting economic development and self-reliance  Enhancing political awareness and participation However, NOA faces challenges, which includes but not limited to:  Limited funding and resources  Political instability and leadership changes  Limited grassroots engagement and participation  Inadequate institutional capacity and infrastructure  Competing interests and priorities Despite the aforementioned challenges, National Orientation Agency (NOA) remains a vital agency in promoting national values, patriotism, and social cohesion in Nigeria. CURRENT SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS IN NIGERIA The Nigerian Constitutions Constitution can be seen as the fundamental principle, custom, norms, values, traditions, belief, rule and regulations according which a particular country is governed. It can also be defined as the basic principles and laws of a nation or state that determine the powers and duties of the government and guarantee certain rights to the people living in that particular political association. 36 Types of Constitution There are basically two (2) types of Constitution. Namely: i. Written Constitution: This type of constitution refers to the situation where the fundamental principle, custom, norms, values, traditions, belief, rule and regulations according which a particular country is governed are codified in a single document and the amendment procedures are very rigid in nature. ii. Unwritten Constitution; This type of constitution refers to the situation where the fundamental principle, custom, norms, values, traditions, belief, rule and regulations according which a particular country is governed are not codified in a single document and the amendment procedures are very flexible in nature. Throughout Nigerian history, we have two categories of constitution namely: i. Pre-independence Constitution: These are sets of constitution that existed prior to the independence of Nigeria in 1960 from British colonial masters. These constitutions include Clifford Constitution of 1922, Richard Constitution of 1946, Macpherson Constitution of 1951, Littleton Constitution of 1954 and the Independence Constitution of 1960. ii. Post-independence Constitution: These are sets of constitution that existed after the independence of Nigeria from British colonial masters. These constitutions include the Republican Constitution of 1963, 1979 Constitution, 1989 Constitution and the 1999 Constitution. Federalism and State Structures Jega (1992) observed that Nigerian federalism is peculiar and unique; it is a colonial creation with three (3) regionally based ethnic groups with over 250 ethnic minorities, it rely almost and if not all on oil export as a major source of national revenue, most of the federating units 37 are recent creation within the federation and it has irresponsible if not irrational and grossly unpatriotic ruling class. Nigerian Federalism is a system of government where power is constitutionally divided between the federal government, the 36 state government and the 774 local governments. The Nigerian federal system has three (3) governmental arms at the federal and state level while two at local government level. Federal Structures:  The Executive headed by the President and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces with Ministers.  The Legislature is headed by the Senate President even though Nigerian Legislative system is bi-cameral at federal level with the House of Representatives as the lower chamber with 360 members elected from various constituencies across the country. The Senate serves as the Upper Chamber with 109 elected senators, three from each of the 36 states of the federation and one (1) from the Federal Capital Territory.  The Judiciary headed by the Chief Judge of the Federation who also equally serves as the chairman of the National Judicial Council. The judiciary comprises of courts each with it define jurisdiction from the Supreme Court down to the lower courts and the Supreme Court according to the constitution is highest court of the land. State Structures:  The Executive at state level is headed by the Executive Governor and his commissioners serving as members.  The Legislature at the state level is headed by the Speaker of the State House of Assembly because Nigerian Legislative system at state level is Uni-cameral (Single legislative house) with members elected from various constituencies across the state. 38   The Judiciary at the state level is headed by the Chief Judge of the State who also equally serves as the chairman of the State Judicial Service Commission. The judiciary comprises of courts each with it define jurisdiction from the State High Courts down to the lower courts. Local Government Structures: Unlike at the federal and states levels, at local government level Nigerian federal system provides for only two (2) arms at local government level.  The Executive at local government level is headed by the Executive Chairman and his Supervisory Councillors serving as members.  The Legislature at the local government level is headed by the Council Leader of the council with members elected from various wards across the local government. Key Political Institution and their Roles Key political institutions in Nigeria as well as other democratic countries are:  The Executive  The Legislature  The Judiciary The Executive: This is an arm of government constitutionally empowered to execute and implement laws, policies and programmes of the government. Other functions include:  Bill initiative  Budget Preparation  Appointment into government  Maintenance of Law and Order  Day to day administration and general business of the government 39   Coordinate and supervise government policy formulation  Sign bills initiative by the legislature into law The Legislature: The legislature is an independent arm of government constitutionally empowered to make laws for the country. Other functions of the legislature include:  Rectification of Appointment  Budgetary approval  Interest aggregation and articulation  Regulatory and oversight the functions of the executive arm of government through various committees  Constitutional amendment The Judiciary: The judiciary is another independent arm of government constitutionally empowered to interpret laws make by the legislature and execute by the executive arm of the government. Other functions of the judiciary include:  Role in law making  Protection and preservation of individuals right  Guardian of the constitution  Equity legislation  Power to get its decisions and judgement enforced  Running of judicial administration in the country  To conduct judicial inquiries Major Political Parties and their Ideologies Nigeria has Nine (19) registered political parties according to the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) which are: Accord (A), Action Alliance (AA), Action Democratic Party (ADP), Action Peoples Party (APP), African Action Congress (AAC), 40 African Democratic Congress (ADC), All Progressive Congress (APC), All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), Allied Peoples Movement (APM), Boot Party (BP), Labour Party (LP), National Rescue Movement (NRM), New Nigeria Peoples Party (NNPP), Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), Peoples Redemption Party (PRP), Social Democratic Party (SDP), Young Progressive Party (YPP) and Zenith Labour Party (ZLP). The outcome of the 2015, 2019 and 2023 general elections made All Progressive Congress (APC) and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) the dominant political parties in Nigeria’s political landscape. All Progressive Congress (APC) The All Progressive Congress (APC) was founded on 6 February 2013 from a merger of Nigeria's three major opposition parties namely the Action Congress of Nigeria ACN, Congress for Progressive Change CPC, All Nigeria Peoples Party ANPP, and some part of All Progressive Grand Alliance APGA. This is in anticipation of the 2015 elections. APC candidate Muhammadu Buhari won the presidential election by almost 2.6 million votes. This was the first time in Nigeria’s political history that an opposition political party unseated a ruling party in a general election and one in which power transferred peacefully from one political party to another. In addition, the APC won the majority of seats in the Senate and the House of Representatives in the 2015 elections, though it fell shy of winning a super-majority to over-ride the ability of the opposition People’s Democratic Party. The party was interpreted to be a move to hinder the successful coalition of the opposition parties, ahead of the 2015 general elections. It was reported in April 2013 that the party was considering changing its name to the All Progressive Congress of Nigeria (APCN) to avoid further complications (Odunsi Wale, 2013). 41 In November 2013, five serving Governors, along with Alhaji Atiku Abubakar, former Vice President of Nigeria, from the then governing PDP defected to the APC, as well as 49 legislators who joined the ranks of 137 legislators in the APC as a result of the prior merger of the smaller opposition parties. This initially gave the APC a slim majority of 186 legislators in the Lower House out of a total of 360 legislators. However, subsequent political wrangling and pressure from political factions and interests outside the National Assembly of Nigeria, gave the party only 37 additional legislators thus giving the APC a nominal majority of 172 out of 360 Legislators, as opposed to the PDP’s 171 though some smaller PDP-allied parties hold the balance of the other seats. This was further confirmed when the party seated 179 members on January 15th, 2015 when the House resumed after a long recess to finally affirm its majority. The governors who defected to the APC then were Rotimi Amaechi of Rivers State, Abdulfatah Ahmed of Kwara State, Rabiu Kwankwaso of Kano State, Murtala Nyako of Adamawa State and Aliyu Wamakko of Sokoto State. The political party, All Progressive Congress (APC), was inaugurated with Chief Adebisi Akande, as the interim National Chairman until 13th of June 2014 when he was replaced by Chief John Odigie Oyegun who was elected as the National Chairman, between 2014 to 2018, while Comrade Adams Aliyu Oshiomole, a former Governor of Edo State was elected from July 2018 to June 2020 when His Excellency, Mai Mala Buni, the current Governor of Yobe State was appointed as the national caretaker and extraordinary convention planning committee chairman, following the dissolution of the Oshiomole led national working committee on Thursday 25th June, 2020 (Muideen, 2020). On 26 March, 2022, the Party Organized National Convention after Wards, Local Governments and States Congresses, during which the former Governor of Nasarawa State, Senator Abdullahi Adamu was returned unopposed as Chairman at the party’s national convention held at the Eagle Square in Abuja, the nation's capital. However, in July, 2023, 42 Adamu Resign from his Position and Former Governor of Kano State Abdullahi Umar Ganduje was appointed as chairman and currently overseen the affairs of the party (Bakare, 2023). Ideologically speaking, Ononogbu (2019), contend that the All Progressive Congress (APC) is considered to be a party that favours controlled market economic policies, and a strong and active role for government regulations and control. People’s Democratic Party (PDP) The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) is a political party in Nigeria that was formed in 1998. The Party has a longer history. In 1997, Nigeria was transitioning from military rule to democracy, and various political groups and individuals began to unite into parties. Maja- Pearce, (1999), argued that the genesis of the PDP was the Institute of Civil Society (ICS) established in 1997 purposely to enlighten Nigerians about their “rights and obligations in a very militarized political atmosphere”. Kura (2011), argued that, the ICS later transformed into G18 (Group of 18) including Alex Ewueme, Jerry Ghana, Solomon Lar among others. Majority of them are Northern politicians and academics that strongly opposed General Abacha’s planned self-succession. The G18 group was later enlarged to G34 to include people from other regions equally opposed to Abacha military rule and particularly his self- succession political projects. After the death of Abacha in 1998, the G34, along with other political association, such as People’s Democratic Movement (PDM) headed by Atiku Abubakar, All Nigeria Congress (ANC), Social Progressive Party (SPP), South-South Group (SSG), New Era Alliance (NERA), National Centre Party (NCP), National League for Good Governance (NLGG), People’s National Forum (PNF), National Summit and Hope ’99, came together to form the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) with Ekwueme as its first chairman. The party was 43 formally registered on August 28, 1998 and its founding principles emphasized democracy, national unity, and economic transformation and development. It is pertinent to note that between 1999 and 2011, the PDP had won every presidential election in Nigeria, producing three presidents in Nigeria’s fourth republic democratic history in the persons of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, Mallam Umaru Musa Yar’adua, and Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan. The party also many state governors and majority of the members of the national assembly before its electoral defeat in the 2015 general elections. The party largely has a higher and quick turnover in the national leadership which gives it an edge over and above other political parties of the fourth republic. The PDP is undoubtedly the most insecure and crises-ridden party with low-internal cohesion in the Fourth Republic (Katsina, 2016). Between 1999 and 2023, the party was managed and governed by eighteen (18) national chairmen all of whom left office in a very contentious situation. Mr. Solomon Lar was the first and foundational chairman of the party but Mr. Barnabas Gamade was the first substantive chairman of the party who was elected at the party’s post 1999 general elections convention particularly in December 1999 (PDP, 2023). Other members of the party to hold the office of national chairman either on acting or substantive capacity include, Chief Sunday Awoniyi, Dr. Alex Akueme, Chief Audu Ogbeh, Chief Ahmadu Ali, Prince Vincent Ogbulafor, Dr. Okwesileze Nwodo, Dr. Bello Halliru Mohammed, Alh. Kawu Baraje, Dr. Bamanga Tukur, Alh. Adamu Mu’azu Prince Uche Secondus, Sen. Ali Modu Sheriff, Sen. Ahmed Makarfi, Uche Secondus, Sen. Iyorchia Ayu and the current national chairman of the party Amb. Iliya Damagum (Chronicle, 2021 and Cable, 2023). However, out of the seventeen (17) former national chairmen of the party, only Chief Barnabas Gamade and Chief Ahmadu Ali were able to finish their first terms. The rest were thrown out by internal crisis and even courts injunctions (Chronicle, 2021). 44 Ideologically speaking, the People’s Democratic Party (PPD) is considered to be a party that has Centre-right as it political position regarding how a state shall be administered and conservative liberalism as ideology. Major Economic Reforms and Policies Over the years both military and civilian administration in Nigeria initiated different economic reform policies and programmes in Nigeria in order to achieve economic growth and facilitate economic development. Some these economic reforms and policies in Nigeria include: 1. Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) (1986) 2. National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) (2004) 3. Vision 20:2020 (2009) 4. Transformation Agenda (2011) 5. National Industrial Revolution Plan (NIRP) (2014) 6. Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (ERGP) (2017) 7. Petroleum Industry Act (PIA) (2021) Key policies include: 1. Deregulation of key sectors (e.g., telecoms, banking) 2. Privatization of state-owned enterprises 3. Trade liberalization and tariff reforms 4. Foreign exchange and monetary policy reforms 5. Investment incentives and tax reforms 6. Infrastructure development and investment 7. Social protection and poverty reduction programs Reforms in specific sectors: 45 1. Petroleum: PIA, deregulation, and privatization 2. Power: Privatization, liberalization, and investment 3. Agriculture: Investment, mechanization, and value chain development 4. Manufacturing: Investment, incentives, and protection Boko Haram and Insurgency in the North-East Boko Haram insurgency in the North Eastern part of Nigeria began in July 2009, when the militant jihadist officially known as Jama’at Ahl as-Sunnah Lid-Dawah Wa’l-Jihad (Boko Haram) founded by Sheikh Mohammed Yusuf in 2002 started an armed rebellion against the government of Nigeria. The ultimate aim of the insurgents is to establish an Islamic state in the North Eastern Region of Nigeria. Boko Haram's ideology and goals: 1. Establishment of an Islamic state within Nigerian Federation 2. Implementation of Sharia law 3. Opposition to Western education and influence 4. Creation of an Islamic caliphate Some of the causes of Boko Haram insurgency in the North East: 1. Political and economic marginalization 2. Poverty and unemployment 3. Corruption and mismanagement 4. Ethnic and religious tensions 5. External influences and funding Effects of Boko Haram insurgency in the North East: 1. Humanitarian crisis: displacement, deaths, injuries 2. Destruction of infrastructure: schools, hospitals, roads 3. Economic devastation: trade, commerce, agriculture 46 4. Social cohesion: community relations, trust 5. Regional instability: neighboring countries affected Counter-insurgency efforts of Federal Government of Nigeria: 1. Military operations: Nigerian Army, regional forces 2. Intelligence gathering and sharing 3. Community engagement and dialogue 4. Economic development and empowerment programs 5. Regional cooperation and international support The Boko Haram insurgency in the North East has led to a severe humanitarian crisis, with millions displaced, thousands killed, and extensive destruction of infrastructure. Addressing the root causes, improving counter-insurgency efforts, and promoting inclusive governance and development are crucial to resolving the crisis. Banditry and Kidnappings in the North-West Banditry and kidnapping is an ongoing conflict between the Federal Government of Nigeria and various armed gang operating within the North Western region and North central part of Nigeria to some extent. The conflict have become significant security concerns in the North- Western part of Nigeria, particularly in states such as Zamfara, Kaduna, Katsina, Sokoto Niger, and Nasarawa State to some extent. Banditry and Kidnapping in Nigeria has led to: 1. Loss of lives and properties 2. Displacement of communities 3. Economic hardship 4. Food insecurity 5. Psychological trauma Causes and factors contributing to Banditry and Kidnapping in North Western Nigeria: 47 1. Poverty and unemployment 2. Corruption and mismanagement 3. Inadequate security presence and response 4. Ethnic and communal tensions 5. Proliferation of arms and ammunition 6. Porous borders and transnational criminal networks Efforts to address the problem: 1. Military operations and security deployments 2. Establishment of special task forces and commissions 3. Community engagement and dialogue initiatives 4. Economic empowerment and development programs 5. Strengthening of legal and judicial frameworks Banditry and Kidnapping in Nigeria requires a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach, involving government, security agencies, civil society, and local communities, to effectively address the security challenges and promote peace and development in the North Western region. Militancy in the Niger-Delta Militancy in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria refers to the violent campaigns waged by various groups against the government and oil corporations operating in the region, primarily to address grievances related to; environmental degradation and pollution, economic marginalization and poverty, lack of infrastructure and development, unfair distribution of oil revenues and cultural and ethnic rights. Notable militant groups in the region include: 1. Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) 2. Niger Delta People's Volunteer Force (NDPVF) 48 3. Niger Delta Liberation Front (NDLF) 4. Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) The activities of the militant groups and their impact: 1. Oil pipeline vandalism and sabotage 2. Kidnappings and hostage-taking 3. Attacks on security forces and government facilities 4. Disruption of oil production and exports 5. Humanitarian crises and displacement The Federal Government of Nigeria responded with the following: 1. Military operations and crackdowns 2. Amnesty programs and negotiations 3. Development initiatives and infrastructure projects 4. Establishment of the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) 5. Implementation of the 13% Derivation Fund The Niger-Delta militancy has led to significant economic, environmental, and humanitarian consequences, underscoring the need for a comprehensive and sustainable resolution that addresses the underlying issues and promotes peace and development in the region. References Adesanya, A. (2002). Threat to democracy in Nigeria. New York St. Martins Press. 49 Alulo, O. (2003). Ethnic nationalism & the Nigerian democratic experience in the fourth republic. Anonymous, (2008). Country profile: Nigeria, library of congress – federal research division. Awolowo, O. (1947). Paths to Nigeria freedom. London: Faber and Faber. Ayandele, E.A. (1979). Nigeria historical studies, Frank Cass &Company Limited, London. Azeez, A. (2004). The Dynamics of ethnic and democratic consolidation in Nigeria: A Bourne, R. (2015). Nigeria: A new history of a turbulent century. Zed books Ltd, London. Crowder, Michael (1973). 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Fourth Dimension Publishers, Enugu. Ogbu, E. (2004). Political violence in Nigeria politics. An unpublished B.Sc research project submitted to the department of political science. Enugu state university of science and technology. Oluniyi, A. E. (2014). Regionalism, ideology crises, party affliation and future of democracy in Nigeria. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Volume 5, No. 5.1. Oriji, J. N. (2011). Political organization in Nigeria since the late stone age: A history of the Igbo people. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Otite, O. (1990). Ethnic Pluralism and Ethnicity in Nigeria Ibadan. Shaneson C.I Ltd. 50  Prognosis in Duro et al (ed) Nigeria and Globalization: Discourses on Identity Politics in Nigeria, Anthropologist. Synge, R. (2000). Nigeria: Recent History in Africa South of the Sahara. London: Europa 51