Pathophysiology PDF

Test Plan The test plan for the Pathophysiology Test is as follows: Disease Process & Terminology (includes cancer & neoplasms)​ 12% 1. Key Disease Terminology ​ ​ Pathophysiology: The study of the functional changes that occur in the body due to a disease. ​ ​ Etiology: The...

Test Plan The test plan for the Pathophysiology Test is as follows: Disease Process & Terminology (includes cancer & neoplasms)​ 12% 1. Key Disease Terminology ​ ​ Pathophysiology: The study of the functional changes that occur in the body due to a disease. ​ ​ Etiology: The cause or origin of a disease (e.g., genetic, infectious, environmental). ​ ​ Pathogenesis: The development or progression of a disease. ​ ​ Prognosis: The likely course or outcome of a disease. ​ ​ Acute vs. Chronic: ​ ​ Acute: Rapid onset, short duration (e.g., pneumonia). ​ ​ Chronic: Slow progression, long-term (e.g., diabetes). ​ ​ Idiopathic: Disease of unknown cause. ​ ​ Iatrogenic: Disease caused by medical treatment or intervention. ​ ​ Neoplasia: New, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. 2. General Disease Processes ​ ​ Inflammation: Body’s response to injury or infection. ​ ​ Signs: Redness, swelling, heat, pain, loss of function. ​ ​ Key players: Histamine, cytokines, white blood cells. ​ ​ Infection: Invasion by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi. ​ ​ Local vs. systemic infection (e.g., sepsis). ​ ​ Importance of immune response. ​ ​ Cell Injury: Causes include hypoxia, toxins, infections, and trauma. ​ ​ Reversible: Swelling, fatty changes. ​ ​ Irreversible: Necrosis, apoptosis. ​ ​ Hypoxia: Lack of oxygen to tissues. Common causes: Ischemia, anemia. 3. Cancer & Neoplasms A. Cancer Basics ​ ​ Definition: Uncontrolled cell growth due to genetic mutations. ​ ​ Causes (Carcinogenesis): ​ ​ Genetic mutations (e.g., BRCA1/2). ​ ​ Environmental factors: Smoking, radiation, chemicals. ​ ​ Viral links: HPV (cervical cancer), HBV (liver cancer). B. Classification ​ ​ Benign: Non-invasive, slow-growing, no metastasis (e.g., lipoma). ​ ​ Malignant: Invasive, fast-growing, metastasizes (e.g., carcinoma). C. Types of Tumors ​ 1.​ Carcinoma: Cancer of epithelial cells (e.g., skin, lungs). ​ 2.​ Sarcoma: Cancer of connective tissues (e.g., bones, muscles). ​ 3.​ Lymphoma: Cancer of the lymphatic system. ​ 4.​ Leukemia: Cancer of blood-forming tissues (e.g., bone marrow). D. Stages of Cancer ​ ​ TNM Staging: Tumor size (T), Node involvement (N), Metastasis (M). ​ ​ Grading: How abnormal the cancer cells look (low vs. high grade). E. Cancer Terms ​ ​ Metastasis: Spread of cancer cells to distant sites. ​ ​ Angiogenesis: Formation of new blood vessels to supply the tumor. ​ ​ Oncogene: Gene that promotes tumor growth. ​ ​ Tumor Suppressor Genes: Genes that protect against uncontrolled cell growth (e.g., p53). F. Common Treatments ​ ​ Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, targeted therapies, immunotherapy. 4. Neoplasms ​ ​ Definition: New, abnormal tissue growth (can be benign or malignant). ​ ​ Examples: ​ ​ Benign: Fibroma, adenoma. ​ ​ Malignant: Melanoma, osteosarcoma. ​ ​ Precancerous Conditions: Dysplasia, carcinoma in situ. 5. Study Tips ​ 1.​ Key Concepts: Focus on understanding terminology and processes, not just memorizing. ​ 2.​ Diagrams: Learn to identify stages of cancer or inflammation through diagrams. ​ 3.​ Common Examples: Know a few cancers and their key features (e.g., lung cancer – smoking risk, cervical cancer – HPV link). ​ 4.​ Practice Questions: Apply knowledge with practice scenarios about diagnosis and treatment. Let me know if you’d like this in flashcard format or if you need further clarification on any topic! Body Systems​ ‣ Integumentary​ 8% For the 8% of your pathophysiology test on the Integumentary System, here’s a detailed breakdown of what to study. This section will likely account for 8 questions on your test, so focus on the key functions, common diseases, and pathological processes. 1. Functions of the Integumentary System ​ ​ Protection: Acts as a barrier against pathogens, UV radiation, and physical injury. ​ ​ Sensation: Contains sensory receptors for pain, temperature, touch, and pressure. ​ ​ Thermoregulation: Regulates body temperature via sweat glands and blood vessels. ​ ​ Excretion: Eliminates waste products through sweat. ​ ​ Vitamin D Synthesis: Converts sunlight into vitamin D for calcium absorption. ​ ​ Immune Defense: Contains immune cells like Langerhans cells to fight infection. 2. Structure of the Integumentary System ​ ​ Epidermis: Outer layer; contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, and Langerhans cells. ​ ​ Keratinocytes: Produce keratin for waterproofing. ​ ​ Melanocytes: Produce melanin for pigmentation and UV protection. ​ ​ Dermis: Middle layer; contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands. ​ ​ Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer): Fat and connective tissue; provides insulation and cushioning. 3. Common Diseases and Disorders A. Skin Disorders ​ ​ Dermatitis: Inflammation of the skin. ​ ​ Contact Dermatitis: Allergic reaction to irritants. ​ ​ Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema): Chronic, itchy inflammation linked to allergies. ​ ​ Psoriasis: Autoimmune disorder causing rapid skin cell turnover and scaly patches. ​ ​ Acne Vulgaris: Inflammation of sebaceous glands caused by blocked pores, bacteria, or hormones. ​ ​ Rosacea: Chronic redness and swelling, often on the face. B. Infections ​ ​ Bacterial: ​ ​ Cellulitis: Infection of the dermis and subcutaneous layer. ​ ​ Impetigo: Highly contagious bacterial infection, often in children. ​ ​ Fungal: ​ ​ Tinea (Ringworm): Fungal infection of the skin (e.g., athlete’s foot). ​ ​ Candidiasis: Fungal infection in warm, moist areas (e.g., under breasts). ​ ​ Viral: ​ ​ Herpes Simplex: Cold sores (HSV-1) or genital herpes (HSV-2). ​ ​ Varicella-Zoster Virus: Causes chickenpox and shingles. C. Skin Cancer ​ 1.​ Basal Cell Carcinoma: Most common; slow-growing, rarely metastasizes. ​ 2.​ Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Can metastasize if untreated; caused by UV exposure. ​ 3.​ Melanoma: Dangerous, aggressive cancer of melanocytes; linked to severe sunburns. D. Burns ​ ​ First Degree: Affects only the epidermis (e.g., sunburn). ​ ​ Second Degree: Affects epidermis and dermis; causes blisters. ​ ​ Third Degree: Destroys all layers, including nerves; requires grafting. E. Wounds and Healing ​ ​ Stages of Healing: ​ 1.​ Inflammation: Blood clot forms, immune response activated. ​ 2.​ Proliferation: New tissue (granulation) and blood vessels form. ​ 3.​ Remodeling: Collagen strengthens the wound. 4. Pathophysiological Processes ​ ​ Skin Aging: Loss of elasticity, thinning, slower healing due to reduced collagen and decreased blood flow. ​ ​ Pressure Ulcers (Bedsores): Caused by prolonged pressure, leading to ischemia and tissue necrosis. ​ ​ Skin Inflammation: Mediated by histamines, cytokines, and prostaglandins during infections or injury. 5. Key Terms to Know ​ ​ Melanoma: Aggressive skin cancer arising from melanocytes. ​ ​ Lichenification: Thickened skin due to chronic scratching. ​ ​ Pruritus: Itching, a common symptom in skin disorders. ​ ​ Alopecia: Hair loss, can be genetic or autoimmune (e.g., alopecia areata). ​ ​ Eschar: Thick, black necrotic tissue seen in severe burns or infections. 6. Study Tips ​ ​ Focus on High-Yield Topics: Skin layers, common conditions (psoriasis, acne, burns), and skin cancers. ​ ​ Visual Aids: Study diagrams of the skin’s structure and stages of healing. ​ ​ Practice Scenarios: Review case studies, especially on burns, pressure ulcers, and infections. ​ ​ Key Symptoms and Treatments: Link disorders with their hallmark symptoms and treatments. ‣ Musculoskeletal​ 10% To prepare for the 10% of your pathophysiology test focused on the musculoskeletal system, you need to study the structure, function, common diseases, injuries, and pathophysiological processes of bones, muscles, and joints. This section will account for approximately 10 questions, so here’s what to focus on: 1. Functions of the Musculoskeletal System ​ ​ Support: Provides structural support for the body. ​ ​ Movement: Facilitates movement through muscles and joints. ​ ​ Protection: Protects internal organs (e.g., ribcage protects the lungs). ​ ​ Mineral Storage: Stores calcium and phosphorus. ​ ​ Hematopoiesis: Bone marrow produces red and white blood cells. 2. Structure of the Musculoskeletal System A. Bones ​ ​ Compact Bone: Dense and provides strength. ​ ​ Spongy Bone: Contains red bone marrow for blood cell production. ​ ​ Bone Cells: ​ ​ Osteoblasts: Build bone. ​ ​ Osteoclasts: Break down bone. ​ ​ Osteocytes: Maintain bone tissue. B. Joints ​ ​ Types: ​ ​ Fibrous: Immovable (e.g., skull sutures). ​ ​ Cartilaginous: Slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs). ​ ​ Synovial: Freely movable (e.g., shoulder, knee). ​ ​ Components: Cartilage, synovial fluid, ligaments, tendons. C. Muscles ​ ​ Types: ​ ​ Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones. ​ ​ Smooth: Involuntary, found in organs (e.g., intestines). ​ ​ Cardiac: Involuntary, found in the heart. ​ ​ Muscle Contraction: Involves actin, myosin, and calcium. 3. Common Musculoskeletal Disorders A. Bone Disorders ​ 1.​ Osteoporosis: ​ ​ Loss of bone density; bones become brittle and fracture-prone. ​ ​ Causes: Aging, postmenopausal estrogen loss, calcium/vitamin D deficiency. ​ ​ Symptoms: Fractures (e.g., hips, spine), kyphosis (hunchback). ​ 2.​ Osteomalacia (Rickets in children): ​ ​ Softening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency. ​ ​ Symptoms: Bone pain, deformities. ​ 3.​ Paget’s Disease: ​ ​ Excessive bone remodeling leading to weak, deformed bones. B. Joint Disorders ​ 1.​ Osteoarthritis: ​ ​ Degenerative joint disease; loss of cartilage in weight-bearing joints. ​ ​ Symptoms: Pain, stiffness, swelling, decreased mobility. ​ 2.​ Rheumatoid Arthritis: ​ ​ Autoimmune inflammation of synovial joints. ​ ​ Symptoms: Joint pain, deformities, systemic effects (e.g., fatigue). ​ 3.​ Gout: ​ ​ Uric acid crystal deposition in joints (often big toe). ​ ​ Symptoms: Sudden, severe joint pain, redness, and swelling. C. Muscle Disorders ​ 1.​ Muscular Dystrophy: ​ ​ Genetic disorders causing progressive muscle weakness. ​ ​ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Most common, affects young boys. ​ 2.​ Myasthenia Gravis: ​ ​ Autoimmune disease affecting acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions. ​ ​ Symptoms: Muscle weakness, difficulty swallowing/breathing. D. Bone Injuries ​ ​ Fractures: ​ ​ Types: Simple (closed), compound (open), comminuted (multiple pieces). ​ ​ Healing Stages: Hematoma → soft callus → hard callus → remodeling. ​ ​ Dislocations: Displacement of a bone from its joint. 4. Pathophysiological Processes A. Bone Remodeling ​ ​ Continuous cycle of bone resorption (osteoclasts) and formation (osteoblasts). ​ ​ Disruptions can lead to conditions like osteoporosis. B. Inflammation in Joints ​ ​ Inflammatory mediators (cytokines, prostaglandins) cause swelling, pain, and damage. ​ ​ Seen in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis. C. Muscle Atrophy ​ ​ Loss of muscle mass due to disuse, aging, or nerve damage. 5. Key Terms to Know ​ ​ Kyphosis: Hunchback due to spine curvature (common in osteoporosis). ​ ​ Lordosis: Excessive inward curvature of the spine. ​ ​ Scoliosis: Lateral curvature of the spine. ​ ​ Synovitis: Inflammation of synovial membrane (e.g., in rheumatoid arthritis). ​ ​ Tendonitis: Inflammation of tendons (e.g., rotator cuff injuries). 6. Study Tips ​ 1.​ Focus on Disorders: Osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and fractures are common test topics. ​ 2.​ Diagrams: Learn to label bones, muscles, and joints; understand types of fractures and joint injuries. ​ 3.​ Key Differences: Compare inflammatory (e.g., RA) vs. degenerative (e.g., OA) joint diseases. ​ 4.​ Practice Questions: Study case scenarios about bone injuries, joint pain, or muscle weakness. Let me know if you’d like flashcards or more clarification on any of these topics! ‣ Circulatory & Lymphatic​ 12% If 12% of your pathophysiology test focuses on the Circulatory & Lymphatic Systems, this section will account for about 12 questions. Below are detailed notes on what to study for these systems, including structure, function, and key diseases. 1. Functions of the Circulatory & Lymphatic Systems A. Circulatory System ​ ​ Transportation: Delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones to tissues; removes waste products. ​ ​ Regulation: Maintains body temperature, pH, and fluid balance. ​ ​ Protection: Carries immune cells and platelets for defense and clotting. B. Lymphatic System ​ ​ Fluid Balance: Returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream. ​ ​ Immune Defense: Houses lymphocytes (B and T cells) to fight infections. ​ ​ Lipid Absorption: Absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the intestines. 2. Structure of the Systems A. Circulatory System ​ 1.​ Heart: Four chambers (atria and ventricles), valves (tricuspid, mitral, aortic, pulmonary). ​ ​ Blood flow: Right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body. ​ 2.​ Blood Vessels: ​ ​ Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except pulmonary arteries). ​ ​ Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart (except pulmonary veins). ​ ​ Capillaries: Site of gas and nutrient exchange. B. Lymphatic System ​ 1.​ Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph and trap pathogens (found in neck, armpits, groin). ​ 2.​ Lymphatic Vessels: Transport lymph fluid. ​ 3.​ Organs: ​ ​ Spleen: Filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and stores white blood cells. ​ ​ Thymus: Matures T lymphocytes. ​ ​ Tonsils: Trap pathogens entering through the mouth/nose. 3. Common Disorders A. Circulatory System Disorders ​ 1.​ Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): ​ ​ Causes: Genetics, obesity, high salt intake, stress. ​ ​ Complications: Stroke, heart attack, kidney damage. ​ 2.​ Atherosclerosis: ​ ​ Hardening of arteries due to plaque buildup. ​ ​ Can lead to coronary artery disease, heart attack, or stroke. ​ 3.​ Heart Failure: ​ ​ Heart cannot pump effectively. ​ ​ Types: Left-sided (pulmonary congestion) vs. right-sided (systemic edema). ​ 4.​ Arrhythmias: ​ ​ Abnormal heart rhythms (e.g., atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia). ​ ​ Can cause palpitations, fainting, or cardiac arrest. ​ 5.​ Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack): ​ ​ Blockage of coronary arteries, leading to tissue death. ​ ​ Symptoms: Chest pain, shortness of breath, nausea. ​ 6.​ Stroke: ​ ​ Ischemic: Blockage in blood flow to the brain. ​ ​ Hemorrhagic: Bleeding in the brain. B. Lymphatic System Disorders ​ 1.​ Lymphedema: ​ ​ Swelling due to lymphatic obstruction. ​ ​ Often occurs after surgery or radiation therapy. ​ 2.​ Lymphoma: ​ ​ Cancer of the lymphatic system (e.g., Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma). ​ ​ Symptoms: Swollen lymph nodes, night sweats, fever. ​ 3.​ Infections: ​ ​ Lymphangitis: Infection and inflammation of lymphatic vessels. ​ ​ Commonly caused by bacterial infections. ​ 4.​ Splenomegaly: ​ ​ Enlargement of the spleen due to infection, liver disease, or cancer. 4. Pathophysiological Processes A. Circulatory System ​ 1.​ Ischemia: Lack of blood supply to tissues, leading to hypoxia and cell death. ​ 2.​ Shock: Insufficient blood flow to organs. Types include: ​ ​ Hypovolemic Shock: Due to blood loss. ​ ​ Cardiogenic Shock: Heart failure to pump effectively. ​ ​ Septic Shock: Infection-induced drop in blood pressure. ​ 3.​ Blood Clot Formation: ​ ​ Involves platelets and clotting factors. ​ ​ Can lead to deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or embolism. B. Lymphatic System ​ 1.​ Immune Response: ​ ​ Activation of T and B lymphocytes in response to antigens. ​ ​ Production of antibodies to neutralize pathogens. ​ 2.​ Edema: ​ ​ Caused by increased capillary permeability, lymphatic obstruction, or heart failure. 5. Key Terms to Know ​ ​ Bradycardia: Slow heart rate (100 bpm). ​ ​ Thrombus: Blood clot attached to vessel wall. ​ ​ Embolus: Dislodged clot traveling through the bloodstream. ​ ​ Hematopoiesis: Formation of blood cells in the bone marrow. ​ ​ Lymphadenopathy: Enlarged lymph nodes due to infection or malignancy. 6. Study Tips ​ 1.​ Focus on High-Yield Topics: Hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart failure, and lymphoma are common exam questions. ​ 2.​ Diagrams: Study the blood flow through the heart and major blood vessels. Understand the role of lymph nodes and spleen in immunity. ​ 3.​ Key Differences: Be able to distinguish between types of shock, stroke, and lymphoma. ​ 4.​ Practice Clinical Scenarios: Prepare for case studies on chest pain (MI), swollen lymph nodes, or edema. Let me know if you’d like more clarification or additional resources for these topics! ‣ Respiratory​ 8% If 8% of your pathophysiology test focuses on the Respiratory System, this section will account for about 8 questions. Below is a comprehensive guide on what to study, including key functions, structures, disorders, and pathophysiological processes. 1. Functions of the Respiratory System ​ ​ Gas Exchange: Exchange of oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) between the lungs and blood. ​ ​ Ventilation: The process of inhalation and exhalation to move air in and out of the lungs. ​ ​ Acid-Base Regulation: Maintains pH balance through CO₂ elimination. ​ ​ Protection: Filters air and traps particles (cilia, mucus, immune cells). ​ ​ Speech: Facilitates sound production via the vocal cords. 2. Anatomy of the Respiratory System Upper Respiratory Tract ​ ​ Nasal Cavity: Warms, moistens, and filters air. ​ ​ Pharynx: Passageway for air and food. ​ ​ Larynx: Contains vocal cords and prevents food from entering the airway. Lower Respiratory Tract ​ ​ Trachea: Windpipe that connects the larynx to the bronchi. ​ ​ Bronchi and Bronchioles: Branching airways that lead to the alveoli. ​ ​ Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs; surrounded by capillaries. Lungs ​ ​ Right Lung: Three lobes; Left Lung: Two lobes (due to heart placement). ​ ​ Pleura: Membrane that covers the lungs and lines the chest cavity. 3. Common Respiratory Disorders A. Obstructive Disorders ​ 1.​ Asthma: ​ ​ Chronic inflammatory condition causing bronchospasm. ​ ​ Symptoms: Wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness. ​ ​ Triggers: Allergens, exercise, cold air. ​ 2.​ Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): ​ ​ Includes Emphysema (alveolar damage) and Chronic Bronchitis (airway inflammation). ​ ​ Symptoms: Persistent cough, dyspnea, sputum production. ​ ​ Risk Factor: Smoking. B. Restrictive Disorders ​ 1.​ Pulmonary Fibrosis: ​ ​ Scarring of lung tissue, reducing elasticity and gas exchange. ​ ​ Symptoms: Shortness of breath, dry cough, fatigue. ​ 2.​ Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): ​ ​ Severe inflammation and fluid buildup in the alveoli. ​ ​ Causes: Sepsis, trauma, pneumonia. C. Infections ​ 1.​ Pneumonia: ​ ​ Infection of the alveoli caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. ​ ​ Symptoms: Fever, cough, chest pain, dyspnea. ​ 2.​ Tuberculosis (TB): ​ ​ Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ​ ​ Symptoms: Persistent cough, night sweats, weight loss. ​ 3.​ Influenza: ​ ​ Viral infection causing fever, body aches, cough, and fatigue. D. Vascular Disorders ​ 1.​ Pulmonary Embolism (PE): ​ ​ Blockage of a pulmonary artery by a clot. ​ ​ Symptoms: Sudden chest pain, shortness of breath, tachycardia. E. Miscellaneous ​ 1.​ Pneumothorax: ​ ​ Collapsed lung due to air in the pleural space. ​ ​ Symptoms: Sudden chest pain, difficulty breathing. ​ 2.​ Cystic Fibrosis: ​ ​ Genetic disorder causing thick, sticky mucus production. ​ ​ Symptoms: Chronic lung infections, digestive issues. 4. Pathophysiological Processes A. Ventilation-Perfusion (V/Q) Mismatch ​ ​ Low V/Q: Poor ventilation but normal blood flow (e.g., asthma, COPD). ​ ​ High V/Q: Normal ventilation but poor blood flow (e.g., pulmonary embolism). B. Hypoxemia vs. Hypercapnia ​ ​ Hypoxemia: Low oxygen levels in the blood. ​ ​ Hypercapnia: Elevated CO₂ levels, often due to hypoventilation or obstructive disorders. C. Acid-Base Imbalance ​ ​ Respiratory Acidosis: Caused by CO₂ retention (e.g., COPD). ​ ​ Respiratory Alkalosis: Caused by excessive CO₂ loss (e.g., hyperventilation). D. Inflammatory Response ​ ​ Pneumonia and ARDS: Inflammatory cytokines increase capillary permeability, leading to fluid buildup in alveoli and impaired gas exchange. 5. Key Terms to Know ​ ​ Dyspnea: Difficulty breathing. ​ ​ Tachypnea: Rapid breathing. ​ ​ Hemoptysis: Coughing up blood. ​ ​ Cyanosis: Bluish discoloration of the skin due to low oxygen. ​ ​ Surfactant: Reduces alveolar surface tension; deficiency can cause neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. 6. Study Tips ​ 1.​ Focus on High-Yield Disorders: Asthma, COPD, pneumonia, ARDS, and pulmonary embolism. ​ 2.​ Diagrams: Understand the anatomy of the respiratory system, gas exchange in alveoli, and V/Q mismatch. ​ 3.​ Practice Clinical Scenarios: Be prepared for cases involving shortness of breath, cough, or chest pain. ​ 4.​ Key Differences: ​ ​ Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders. ​ ​ Bacterial vs. viral pneumonia. Let me know if you’d like flashcards or need help with practice questions! ‣ Digestive​ 12% If 12% of your 100-question test is on the digestive system, that means 12 questions will cover this topic. Here’s a focused outline of digestive system topics you should study and take notes on for pathophysiology: Digestive System Pathophysiology Notes 1. Basic Anatomy and Function of the Digestive System ​ ​ Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. ​ ​ Roles of digestion (mechanical and chemical) and absorption. 2. Common Disorders and Their Pathophysiology ​ ​ Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): ​ ​ Causes: Weak lower esophageal sphincter, hiatal hernia. ​ ​ Symptoms: Heartburn, regurgitation, chest pain. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Acidic stomach contents damage esophageal lining. ​ ​ Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD): ​ ​ Causes: H. pylori infection, NSAIDs. ​ ​ Symptoms: Epigastric pain, nausea, vomiting. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Damage to mucosal lining, leading to ulceration. ​ ​ Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): ​ ​ Causes: Unknown; linked to stress, gut-brain interaction. ​ ​ Symptoms: Abdominal pain, diarrhea/constipation. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Altered GI motility and hypersensitivity. ​ ​ Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD): ​ ​ Crohn’s disease: ​ ​ Affects any GI tract part (skip lesions). ​ ​ Granulomas, transmural inflammation. ​ ​ Ulcerative colitis: ​ ​ Affects only the colon and rectum. ​ ​ Mucosal layer inflammation, continuous lesions. ​ ​ Gallstones (Cholelithiasis): ​ ​ Causes: Imbalance in bile composition (cholesterol or bilirubin stones). ​ ​ Symptoms: RUQ pain, nausea, jaundice (if obstructive). ​ ​ Pancreatitis: ​ ​ Causes: Alcohol, gallstones. ​ ​ Symptoms: Severe epigastric pain, nausea, vomiting. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Autodigestion of pancreatic tissue by enzymes. 3. Liver Diseases ​ ​ Hepatitis: ​ ​ Causes: Viral (Hep A, B, C), alcohol, toxins. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Inflammation and damage to hepatocytes. ​ ​ Cirrhosis: ​ ​ Causes: Chronic alcohol use, hepatitis B/C. ​ ​ Symptoms: Jaundice, ascites, bleeding, portal hypertension. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Fibrosis and nodular regeneration disrupt normal liver function. ​ ​ Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD): ​ ​ Associated with obesity, metabolic syndrome. ​ ​ Leads to inflammation and potential fibrosis. 4. Gastrointestinal Motility Disorders ​ ​ Achalasia: ​ ​ Failure of lower esophageal sphincter to relax. ​ ​ Symptoms: Dysphagia, chest pain, regurgitation. ​ ​ Hirschsprung Disease: ​ ​ Congenital absence of ganglion cells in part of the colon. ​ ​ Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal distension. 5. Common Symptoms and Their Mechanisms ​ ​ Nausea and vomiting: Reflex involving medulla oblongata, vagus nerve stimulation. ​ ​ Diarrhea: Increased GI motility, decreased absorption. ​ ​ Constipation: Slowed GI motility, dehydration, or obstruction. 6. Key Diagnostic Tests ​ ​ Endoscopy (GERD, ulcers). ​ ​ Colonoscopy (IBD, colorectal cancer). ​ ​ Liver function tests (AST, ALT, bilirubin for hepatitis, cirrhosis). ​ ​ Imaging: Ultrasound for gallstones, CT scan for pancreatitis. Study Tips: ​ ​ Focus on pathophysiology: Understand “why” these conditions occur and their mechanisms. ​ ​ Use mnemonics for classification (e.g., VANDALISM for peptic ulcer causes: Vascular, Acid, NSAIDs, Drugs, Alcohol, Lifestyle, Infection (H. pylori), Smoking, Malignancy). ​ ​ Draw diagrams: GI tract anatomy and affected areas for major diseases. ​ ​ Prioritize high-yield topics like GERD, peptic ulcers, IBD, and liver diseases. Would you like more details on any specific section? ‣ Endocrine​ 8% If 8% of your 100-question test is on the endocrine system, 8 questions will cover this topic. Here’s an outline of high-yield topics you should study and make notes on for the endocrine system in pathophysiology. Endocrine System Pathophysiology Notes 1. Basic Endocrine Anatomy and Function ​ ​ Major Endocrine Organs: ​ ​ Hypothalamus, pituitary gland (anterior and posterior), thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads (ovaries/testes). ​ ​ Hormone Types: ​ ​ Peptide hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon). ​ ​ Steroid hormones (e.g., cortisol, aldosterone). ​ ​ Amine hormones (e.g., epinephrine, thyroxine). 2. Common Endocrine Disorders and Their Pathophysiology Pituitary Gland Disorders ​ ​ Hyperpituitarism (e.g., Acromegaly/Gigantism): ​ ​ Causes: Pituitary adenoma secreting growth hormone (GH). ​ ​ Symptoms: Enlarged hands/feet, facial changes, organomegaly. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Excess GH causes tissue growth and metabolic changes. ​ ​ Hypopituitarism: ​ ​ Causes: Tumors, trauma, ischemia (Sheehan syndrome). ​ ​ Symptoms: Fatigue, growth failure, hormonal deficiencies. Thyroid Disorders ​ ​ Hyperthyroidism (e.g., Graves’ Disease): ​ ​ Causes: Autoimmune stimulation of TSH receptors. ​ ​ Symptoms: Weight loss, heat intolerance, tachycardia, exophthalmos. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Increased thyroid hormone production speeds up metabolism. ​ ​ Hypothyroidism (e.g., Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis): ​ ​ Causes: Autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland. ​ ​ Symptoms: Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, bradycardia. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Reduced thyroid hormone production slows metabolism. Parathyroid Disorders ​ ​ Hyperparathyroidism: ​ ​ Causes: Parathyroid adenoma, chronic kidney disease. ​ ​ Symptoms: Hypercalcemia, bone pain, kidney stones. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Excess PTH causes bone resorption and increased calcium levels. ​ ​ Hypoparathyroidism: ​ ​ Causes: Surgical removal, autoimmune diseases. ​ ​ Symptoms: Hypocalcemia, tetany, Chvostek’s and Trousseau’s signs. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Reduced PTH leads to low calcium and high phosphorus levels. Adrenal Gland Disorders ​ ​ Cushing’s Syndrome: ​ ​ Causes: Cortisol excess (tumors, corticosteroid use). ​ ​ Symptoms: Weight gain, moon face, buffalo hump, hyperglycemia. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Chronic cortisol excess disrupts glucose metabolism and fat distribution. ​ ​ Addison’s Disease: ​ ​ Causes: Autoimmune destruction of adrenal cortex. ​ ​ Symptoms: Fatigue, hypotension, hyperpigmentation. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Deficiency of cortisol and aldosterone disrupts fluid/electrolyte balance. ​ ​ Pheochromocytoma: ​ ​ Cause: Tumor of adrenal medulla producing catecholamines. ​ ​ Symptoms: Hypertension, palpitations, sweating. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Excess catecholamines cause overactivation of the sympathetic nervous system. Pancreatic Disorders ​ ​ Diabetes Mellitus: ​ ​ Type 1 Diabetes: ​ ​ Cause: Autoimmune destruction of beta cells. ​ ​ Symptoms: Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, weight loss. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Absolute insulin deficiency leads to hyperglycemia and ketosis. ​ ​ Type 2 Diabetes: ​ ​ Cause: Insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. ​ ​ Symptoms: Similar to Type 1 but with obesity and gradual onset. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Impaired insulin action and secretion. Disorders of Growth and Development ​ ​ Gigantism: GH excess before epiphyseal plate closure. ​ ​ Dwarfism: GH deficiency during childhood. 3. Key Hormonal Mechanisms ​ ​ Negative feedback loops (e.g., HPA axis, TSH feedback on thyroid hormones). ​ ​ Insulin and glucagon regulation of blood glucose. 4. Common Symptoms and Diagnostic Features ​ ​ Hypercalcemia: Seen in hyperparathyroidism. ​ ​ Hypoglycemia: Often linked to insulin overproduction or cortisol deficiency. ​ ​ Fatigue: Common in hypothyroidism, adrenal insufficiency. ​ ​ Goiter: Associated with both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. 5. Key Diagnostic Tests ​ ​ Blood hormone levels: ​ ​ TSH, T3, T4 (thyroid disorders). ​ ​ ACTH, cortisol (adrenal disorders). ​ ​ Blood glucose and HbA1c (diabetes). ​ ​ Imaging: MRI for pituitary or adrenal tumors. ​ ​ Urine tests: Metanephrines for pheochromocytoma. Study Tips: ​ ​ Focus on hormonal feedback loops and their dysfunctions. ​ ​ Memorize high-yield diseases like diabetes, Cushing’s, Addison’s, and thyroid disorders. ​ ​ Use charts or tables to compare symptoms of hyper- vs. hypo- conditions (e.g., hyperthyroidism vs. hypothyroidism). ​ ​ Practice diagrams for HPA axis, thyroid hormone synthesis, and glucose regulation. Would you like more detailed notes on any specific endocrine disorder? ‣ Nervous & Senses 10% If 10% of your 100-question pathophysiology test covers the nervous system and special senses, you’ll encounter 10 questions on this topic. Below are notes to help you prepare. Nervous System & Special Senses Pathophysiology Notes 1. Nervous System Overview ​ ​ Divisions: ​ ​ Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord. ​ ​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic). ​ ​ Key Structures: ​ ​ Neurons (sensory, motor, interneurons). ​ ​ Glial cells (e.g., astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells). 2. Common Disorders of the Nervous System Neurodegenerative Diseases ​ ​ Alzheimer’s Disease: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles leading to neuronal death. ​ ​ Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, disorientation. ​ ​ Parkinson’s Disease: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra. ​ ​ Symptoms: Tremors, bradykinesia, rigidity, postural instability. ​ ​ Multiple Sclerosis (MS): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Autoimmune attack on myelin in the CNS, causing demyelination. ​ ​ Symptoms: Weakness, numbness, vision changes, coordination issues. Cerebrovascular Disorders ​ ​ Stroke: ​ ​ Ischemic Stroke: Blood flow blockage (e.g., clot, atherosclerosis). ​ ​ Hemorrhagic Stroke: Rupture of blood vessels. ​ ​ Symptoms: Weakness, speech difficulties, facial droop (FAST mnemonic). ​ ​ Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA): ​ ​ Temporary ischemia without permanent damage. ​ ​ Warning sign of future stroke. Seizure Disorders ​ ​ Epilepsy: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Abnormal electrical activity in the brain. ​ ​ Types: ​ ​ Focal seizures: In one brain area. ​ ​ Generalized seizures: Involves the whole brain. ​ ​ Symptoms: Convulsions, altered consciousness, sensory disturbances. Peripheral Nervous System Disorders ​ ​ Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Autoimmune attack on peripheral myelin. ​ ​ Symptoms: Ascending weakness, paralysis. ​ ​ Peripheral Neuropathy: ​ ​ Causes: Diabetes, alcohol, toxins. ​ ​ Symptoms: Numbness, tingling, pain in extremities. 3. Disorders of the Special Senses Vision ​ ​ Cataracts: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Clouding of the lens. ​ ​ Symptoms: Blurry vision, difficulty seeing at night. ​ ​ Glaucoma: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Increased intraocular pressure damages the optic nerve. ​ ​ Symptoms: Loss of peripheral vision (tunnel vision). ​ ​ Macular Degeneration: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Degeneration of the macula, leading to central vision loss. ​ ​ Types: Dry (more common) vs. wet (neovascularization). Hearing ​ ​ Conductive Hearing Loss: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Obstruction or damage to the outer/middle ear. ​ ​ Causes: Wax buildup, otitis media. ​ ​ Sensorineural Hearing Loss: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve. ​ ​ Causes: Aging (presbycusis), noise exposure. ​ ​ Meniere’s Disease: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Increased endolymph in the inner ear. ​ ​ Symptoms: Vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss. Taste and Smell ​ ​ Anosmia: Loss of smell (e.g., due to COVID-19, head trauma). ​ ​ Ageusia: Loss of taste (e.g., neurological damage, medication side effects). 4. Pain Pathophysiology ​ ​ Types of Pain: ​ ​ Nociceptive: Caused by tissue damage. ​ ​ Neuropathic: Caused by nerve damage (e.g., diabetic neuropathy). ​ ​ Referred Pain: Pain perceived in a location different from the source (e.g., shoulder pain in gallbladder disease). 5. Infections Affecting the Nervous System ​ ​ Meningitis: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Inflammation of meninges (viral, bacterial, fungal). ​ ​ Symptoms: Fever, neck stiffness, headache, photophobia. ​ ​ Encephalitis: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Brain inflammation (often viral, e.g., herpes simplex). ​ ​ Symptoms: Altered mental status, seizures, fever. 6. Common Symptoms of Nervous System Disorders ​ ​ Weakness or paralysis. ​ ​ Sensory loss (numbness, tingling, blindness, deafness). ​ ​ Cognitive changes (memory loss, confusion). ​ ​ Coordination issues (ataxia, tremors). 7. Key Diagnostic Tests ​ ​ Neuroimaging: ​ ​ MRI/CT scan (stroke, MS, tumors). ​ ​ PET scan (Alzheimer’s). ​ ​ Electrophysiology: ​ ​ EEG (seizures). ​ ​ Nerve conduction studies (neuropathy, GBS). ​ ​ Lumbar Puncture: ​ ​ Meningitis, MS diagnosis. Study Tips: ​ ​ Focus on high-yield conditions like stroke, MS, Parkinson’s, and seizures. ​ ​ Use mnemonics for stroke recognition (FAST: Face, Arms, Speech, Time). ​ ​ Study visual aids for the sensory systems (e.g., diagrams of the eye and ear). ​ ​ Understand mechanisms of vision and hearing loss (conductive vs. sensorineural). Would you like more details on any specific nervous system or sensory disorder? ‣ Reproductive​6% If 6% of your 100-question pathophysiology test covers the reproductive system, you’ll encounter 6 questions on this topic. Below are concise notes to help you focus your study. Reproductive System Pathophysiology Notes 1. Basic Anatomy and Function ​ ​ Male Reproductive System: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis. ​ ​ Function: Spermatogenesis, testosterone production. ​ ​ Female Reproductive System: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina. ​ ​ Function: Oogenesis, hormone production (estrogen, progesterone), menstruation, pregnancy. 2. Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System ​ ​ Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Enlargement of the prostate gland compresses the urethra. ​ ​ Symptoms: Urinary retention, weak stream, urgency. ​ ​ Diagnosis: Digital rectal exam, PSA test. ​ ​ Prostate Cancer: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Malignant growth of prostate cells. ​ ​ Symptoms: Similar to BPH, sometimes asymptomatic. ​ ​ Risk Factors: Age, family history, high-fat diet. ​ ​ Erectile Dysfunction (ED): ​ ​ Causes: Vascular (e.g., atherosclerosis), neurologic (e.g., diabetes), psychological. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Inadequate blood flow or nerve signals to the penis. ​ ​ Testicular Cancer: ​ ​ Most common in young males (15–35 years). ​ ​ Symptoms: Painless testicular lump, swelling. ​ ​ Diagnosis: Ultrasound, tumor markers (e.g., AFP, HCG). 3. Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System ​ ​ Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Hormonal imbalance (increased androgens) disrupts ovulation. ​ ​ Symptoms: Irregular periods, hirsutism, acne, infertility. ​ ​ Complications: Insulin resistance, obesity, Type 2 diabetes. ​ ​ Endometriosis: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. ​ ​ Symptoms: Chronic pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea, infertility. ​ ​ Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID): ​ ​ Causes: Bacterial infection (e.g., Chlamydia, Gonorrhea). ​ ​ Symptoms: Lower abdominal pain, fever, abnormal discharge. ​ ​ Complications: Infertility, ectopic pregnancy. ​ ​ Uterine Fibroids: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Benign smooth muscle tumors in the uterus. ​ ​ Symptoms: Heavy menstrual bleeding, pelvic pressure. ​ ​ Risk Factors: African descent, obesity, family history. ​ ​ Ovarian Cancer: ​ ​ Symptoms: Bloating, abdominal pain, early satiety, weight loss. ​ ​ Risk Factors: Family history, BRCA mutations. ​ ​ Cervical Cancer: ​ ​ Causes: Persistent HPV infection (high-risk strains like HPV 16, 18). ​ ​ Symptoms: Postcoital bleeding, abnormal discharge. ​ ​ Prevention: Pap smear, HPV vaccination. 4. Disorders of Pregnancy ​ ​ Preeclampsia: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Placental dysfunction causes hypertension and proteinuria. ​ ​ Symptoms: Headache, visual changes, swelling. ​ ​ Complications: Eclampsia (seizures), HELLP syndrome. ​ ​ Ectopic Pregnancy: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Fertilized egg implants outside the uterus (commonly in the fallopian tube). ​ ​ Symptoms: Severe abdominal pain, bleeding, rupture (emergency). ​ ​ Gestational Diabetes: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Insulin resistance due to pregnancy hormones. ​ ​ Symptoms: Hyperglycemia during pregnancy, large birthweight baby. 5. Menstrual Disorders ​ ​ Dysmenorrhea: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: Excess prostaglandins cause uterine contractions and pain. ​ ​ Symptoms: Severe menstrual cramps. ​ ​ Amenorrhea: ​ ​ Primary: No menstruation by age 16. ​ ​ Secondary: Absence of menstruation for 3+ cycles in a previously menstruating woman. ​ ​ Causes: Pregnancy, PCOS, hypothalamic dysfunction. ​ ​ Menorrhagia: ​ ​ Excessive menstrual bleeding (heavy or prolonged). ​ ​ Causes: Fibroids, hormonal imbalance, bleeding disorders. 6. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) ​ ​ Chlamydia: ​ ​ Symptoms: Often asymptomatic, discharge, dysuria. ​ ​ Complications: PID, infertility. ​ ​ Gonorrhea: ​ ​ Symptoms: Purulent discharge, dysuria. ​ ​ Complications: Disseminated infection, PID. ​ ​ Syphilis: ​ ​ Stages: ​ ​ Primary: Painless chancre. ​ ​ Secondary: Rash, mucous membrane lesions. ​ ​ Tertiary: Neurological and cardiovascular damage. ​ ​ Human Papillomavirus (HPV): ​ ​ Causes: Genital warts, cervical cancer. ​ ​ Prevention: HPV vaccine. ​ ​ Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV): ​ ​ Symptoms: Painful genital ulcers, recurrence. 7. Common Symptoms of Reproductive Disorders ​ ​ Pelvic or abdominal pain. ​ ​ Menstrual irregularities. ​ ​ Infertility or difficulty conceiving. ​ ​ Abnormal vaginal or urethral discharge. ​ ​ Masses or swelling (testicular, uterine). 8. Key Diagnostic Tests ​ ​ Pap smear: Cervical cancer screening. ​ ​ Transvaginal ultrasound: Detect fibroids, ovarian cysts, ectopic pregnancy. ​ ​ Hormone levels: FSH, LH, testosterone, estradiol (e.g., PCOS, menopause). ​ ​ Tumor markers: CA-125 (ovarian cancer), AFP/HCG (testicular cancer). ​ ​ STI testing: PCR for chlamydia, gonorrhea, HSV. Study Tips: ​ ​ Focus on high-yield topics like PCOS, PID, BPH, and pregnancy complications (preeclampsia, ectopic pregnancy). ​ ​ Understand hormonal feedback loops and their dysfunctions (e.g., in PCOS or amenorrhea). ​ ​ Use mnemonics for STIs (e.g., CATCH for PID causes: Chlamydia, Actinomyces, TB, Gonorrhea). ​ ​ Diagram the menstrual cycle to understand conditions linked to hormonal imbalances. Would you like to dive deeper into any specific reproductive condition? ‣ Urinary​ 6% If 6% of your 100-question pathophysiology test covers the urinary system, 6 questions will focus on this topic. Here are notes to help you prepare. Urinary System Pathophysiology Notes 1. Basic Anatomy and Function ​ ​ Organs: ​ ​ Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra. ​ ​ Functions: ​ ​ Filtration of blood (nephrons in kidneys). ​ ​ Regulation of fluid and electrolytes (e.g., Na+, K+, H+). ​ ​ Acid-base balance. ​ ​ Removal of metabolic waste (e.g., urea, creatinine). ​ ​ Hormone production: ​ ​ Erythropoietin (stimulates RBC production). ​ ​ Renin (blood pressure regulation via RAAS). ​ ​ Calcitriol (active vitamin D). 2. Common Disorders of the Urinary System Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) ​ ​ Causes: ​ ​ Prerenal: Decreased perfusion (e.g., hypovolemia, heart failure). ​ ​ Intrarenal: Damage to kidney tissue (e.g., glomerulonephritis, toxins). ​ ​ Postrenal: Obstruction (e.g., stones, enlarged prostate). ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Sudden decline in kidney function reduces filtration. ​ ​ Leads to accumulation of waste (urea, creatinine) and electrolyte imbalances. ​ ​ Symptoms: Oliguria, azotemia (elevated urea/creatinine), hyperkalemia. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) ​ ​ Causes: Diabetes, hypertension, chronic glomerulonephritis. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Gradual nephron loss leads to decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR). ​ ​ Waste accumulation, anemia (low erythropoietin), and bone disease (low calcitriol). ​ ​ Symptoms: Fatigue, uremia (itching, nausea), fluid retention, electrolyte imbalances. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) ​ ​ Causes: Bacterial infection (commonly E. coli). ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Bacteria ascend the urinary tract, causing inflammation. ​ ​ In severe cases, can progress to pyelonephritis (kidney infection). ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Lower UTI: Dysuria, frequency, urgency. ​ ​ Pyelonephritis: Fever, flank pain, nausea. ​ ​ Risk Factors: Catheters, pregnancy, female anatomy. Nephrotic Syndrome ​ ​ Causes: Diabetes, lupus, glomerular damage. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Increased glomerular permeability leads to massive protein loss in urine. ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Proteinuria (>3.5 g/day), hypoalbuminemia, edema, hyperlipidemia. Nephritic Syndrome ​ ​ Causes: Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, autoimmune conditions. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Inflammation of glomeruli causes hematuria and mild proteinuria. ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Hematuria (cola-colored urine), oliguria, hypertension. Kidney Stones (Nephrolithiasis) ​ ​ Types: Calcium oxalate (most common), uric acid, struvite. ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Crystals form in the urinary tract, often due to dehydration, high calcium/oxalate levels, or infection. ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Severe flank pain (renal colic), hematuria, nausea. ​ ​ Risk Factors: Dehydration, high-protein diet, family history. Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Genetic disorder causing fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys. ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Hypertension, kidney enlargement, hematuria, eventual kidney failure. ​ ​ Types: ​ ​ Autosomal dominant (adult onset). ​ ​ Autosomal recessive (pediatric onset). Bladder Disorders ​ ​ Urinary Incontinence: ​ ​ Types: ​ ​ Stress incontinence: Weak pelvic muscles. ​ ​ Urge incontinence: Overactive bladder. ​ ​ Overflow incontinence: Bladder obstruction. ​ ​ Causes: Aging, childbirth, neurological injury. ​ ​ Bladder Cancer: ​ ​ Risk Factors: Smoking, chemical exposure. ​ ​ Symptoms: Hematuria (painless), frequent urination. 3. Common Symptoms of Urinary Disorders ​ ​ Dysuria (painful urination). ​ ​ Hematuria (blood in urine). ​ ​ Proteinuria (protein in urine). ​ ​ Oliguria or anuria (reduced/absent urine output). ​ ​ Edema (fluid retention). ​ ​ Flank or lower abdominal pain. 4. Key Diagnostic Tests ​ ​ Urinalysis (UA): ​ ​ Proteinuria, hematuria, pyuria, casts, specific gravity. ​ ​ Blood Tests: ​ ​ BUN, creatinine (kidney function). ​ ​ GFR (kidney filtration rate). ​ ​ Electrolytes (e.g., K+, Na+). ​ ​ Imaging: ​ ​ Ultrasound: Detect stones, cysts, hydronephrosis. ​ ​ CT scan: Detect kidney stones. ​ ​ Cystoscopy: Visualize bladder. 5. Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalances in Kidney Disorders ​ ​ Hyperkalemia: ​ ​ Common in AKI and CKD due to reduced K+ excretion. ​ ​ Symptoms: Arrhythmias, muscle weakness. ​ ​ Hyponatremia: ​ ​ Seen in fluid overload (e.g., CKD). ​ ​ Metabolic Acidosis: ​ ​ Reduced acid excretion in CKD or AKI. Study Tips: ​ ​ Focus on high-yield disorders like AKI, CKD, UTIs, and kidney stones. ​ ​ Memorize symptoms of nephrotic vs. nephritic syndrome. ​ ​ Understand diagnostic values: normal GFR (>90 mL/min), elevated creatinine (>1.2 mg/dL). ​ ​ Study risk factors and causes of conditions like UTIs, BPH, and PKD. ​ ​ Diagram the nephron and urinary tract to understand where dysfunction occurs. Would you like detailed notes on any specific urinary condition? ‣ Mental Disorders​ 8% If 8% of your 100-question pathophysiology test covers mental disorders, you can expect 8 questions on this topic. Below are comprehensive notes tailored for studying the pathophysiology of mental disorders. Mental Disorders Pathophysiology Notes 1. Overview of Mental Disorders ​ ​ Mental disorders involve disturbances in cognition, emotion regulation, and/or behavior. ​ ​ Can result from neurotransmitter imbalances, structural brain changes, and/or genetic and environmental factors. 2. Common Mental Disorders and Their Pathophysiology A. Mood Disorders ​ ​ Depression: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Reduced levels of serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and norepinephrine (NE) in the brain. ​ ​ Increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis → elevated cortisol levels. ​ ​ Structural changes: Reduced hippocampal volume. ​ ​ Symptoms: Persistent sadness, anhedonia, fatigue, sleep disturbances. ​ ​ Bipolar Disorder: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Dysregulation of monoamine neurotransmitters (DA, NE). ​ ​ Alterations in calcium signaling and mitochondrial function. ​ ​ Symptoms: Alternating episodes of mania and depression. B. Anxiety Disorders ​ ​ Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Hyperactive amygdala and dysfunctional prefrontal cortex. ​ ​ Altered GABAergic (inhibitory) and serotonergic systems. ​ ​ Symptoms: Chronic worry, restlessness, muscle tension, sleep disturbances. ​ ​ Panic Disorder: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Dysregulation of the brain’s fear network (amygdala, hypothalamus). ​ ​ Abnormal sensitivity to CO2 levels and hyperventilation. ​ ​ Symptoms: Sudden, intense fear, palpitations, chest pain, dizziness. ​ ​ Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Hyperactivity of the amygdala and reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex. ​ ​ Dysregulated HPA axis → abnormal cortisol levels. ​ ​ Symptoms: Intrusive memories, nightmares, hypervigilance. C. Psychotic Disorders ​ ​ Schizophrenia: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Excessive dopamine activity in the mesolimbic pathway (positive symptoms). ​ ​ Reduced dopamine activity in the mesocortical pathway (negative symptoms). ​ ​ Structural changes: Enlarged ventricles, reduced gray matter. ​ ​ Possible role of glutamate and NMDA receptor dysfunction. ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Positive symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech. ​ ​ Negative symptoms: Apathy, social withdrawal, flat affect. D. Neurodevelopmental Disorders ​ ​ Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Abnormal synaptic pruning during brain development. ​ ​ Imbalances in excitatory/inhibitory neurotransmission. ​ ​ Genetic and environmental factors play significant roles. ​ ​ Symptoms: Impaired social interaction, restricted/repetitive behaviors. ​ ​ Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Deficits in dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways in the prefrontal cortex. ​ ​ Reduced brain volume in the prefrontal and cerebellar regions. ​ ​ Symptoms: Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity. E. Neurocognitive Disorders ​ ​ Dementia (e.g., Alzheimer’s Disease): ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles. ​ ​ Neurodegeneration and synaptic loss, particularly in the hippocampus. ​ ​ Reduced levels of acetylcholine. ​ ​ Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, disorientation. ​ ​ Delirium: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Acute dysfunction of neurotransmitter systems (e.g., reduced acetylcholine). ​ ​ Often caused by underlying illness, medications, or substance withdrawal. ​ ​ Symptoms: Sudden confusion, attention deficits, fluctuating consciousness. F. Substance Use Disorders ​ ​ Alcohol Use Disorder: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Chronic alcohol use alters GABAergic and glutamatergic systems. ​ ​ Withdrawal: Overactivity of excitatory neurotransmitters (glutamate) due to GABA downregulation. ​ ​ Symptoms: ​ ​ Acute: Slurred speech, ataxia, sedation. ​ ​ Chronic: Liver damage, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (thiamine deficiency). ​ ​ Opioid Use Disorder: ​ ​ Pathophysiology: ​ ​ Binds to opioid receptors (mu, kappa, delta) in the brain, altering pain perception and causing euphoria. ​ ​ Withdrawal: Flu-like symptoms, agitation, cravings. ​ ​ Symptoms: Respiratory depression, sedation, constipation. 3. Symptoms Common to Many Mental Disorders ​ ​ Cognitive impairment (e.g., memory loss, poor concentration). ​ ​ Emotional dysregulation (e.g., mood swings, irritability). ​ ​ Behavioral changes (e.g., withdrawal, aggression). ​ ​ Physical symptoms (e.g., insomnia, fatigue, somatic complaints). 4. Key Diagnostic and Assessment Tools ​ ​ Mental Status Examination (MSE): ​ ​ Appearance, behavior, thought process, mood, affect, cognition. ​ ​ Imaging: ​ ​ MRI/CT: Structural changes in schizophrenia, dementia. ​ ​ Laboratory Tests: ​ ​ Thyroid function (rule out hypothyroidism in depression). ​ ​ Toxicology screens (substance use disorders). ​ ​ Psychometric Tools: ​ ​ Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) scale. 5. Treatment Approaches ​ ​ Medications: ​ ​ Depression/Anxiety: SSRIs, SNRIs, benzodiazepines. ​ ​ Schizophrenia: Antipsychotics (typical and atypical). ​ ​ Bipolar Disorder: Mood stabilizers (lithium, valproate). ​ ​ ADHD: Stimulants (methylphenidate, amphetamines). ​ ​ Psychotherapy: ​ ​ Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). ​ ​ Lifestyle Modifications: ​ ​ Sleep hygiene, exercise, diet. ​ ​ Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Severe depression or refractory disorders. Study Tips: ​ ​ Focus on high-yield disorders like depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and PTSD. ​ ​ Memorize neurotransmitter roles (e.g., serotonin for mood, dopamine for psychosis). ​ ​ Understand the HPA axis and its role in stress-related disorders. ​ ​ Know key symptoms and distinguishing features (e.g., positive vs. negative symptoms in schizophrenia). ​ ​ Review structural brain changes (e.g., hippocampal shrinkage in depression, enlarged ventricles in schizophrenia). Would you like me to expand on any specific mental disorder or provide more detail about treatments? Sample Test Questions What area of pathophysiology study is concerned with the examination of the whole tissue? A. Cytopathology B. Forensic pathology C. Hematopathology D. Histopathology Which type of shock is caused by a severe allergic reaction? A. Anaphylactic B. Cardiogenic C. Hypovolemic D. Neurogenic What neurotransmitter is produced insufficiently in a patient with Parkinson's disease? A. Aldosterone B. Dopamine C. Gamma globulin D. Prednisone