Module 2 Movement Enhancement PDF

Module 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Based OVERVIEW Hi class! Did you know that Proper nutrition is vital to good health and is linked by scientific studies to overall health and well-being. Nutrition is the science of food. Food is essential to...

Module 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Based OVERVIEW Hi class! Did you know that Proper nutrition is vital to good health and is linked by scientific studies to overall health and well-being. Nutrition is the science of food. Food is essential to the good health of all people of all ages. The body uses food for energy, growth and the repair of body tissues. Food helps strengthen the body to fight against stress and disease. Proper nutrition sustains life by promoting good health. This means that one’s diet supplies all the essential nutrients the body needs to carry out normal growth of tissue, repair and maintenance. Proper diet provides enough substrates that give energy to the body to become active in work, physical activities and relaxation. LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Demonstrate different types of joint movements. 2. Performed the different types of stretching LET US EXPLORE UNIT 2 Physical Activity and Nutrition What is PHYSICAL ACTIVITY? WHO (World Health Organization) defines physical activity as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. Physical activity refers to all movement including during leisure time, for transport to get to and from places, or as part of a person’s work. Both moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity improve health. Regular physical activity is proven to help prevent and manage noncommunicable diseases such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and several cancers. It also helps prevent hypertension, maintain healthy body weight and can improve mental health, quality of life and well-being. Popular ways to be active include walking, cycling, wheeling, sports, active recreation and play, and can be done at any level of skill and for enjoyment by everybody. How much of physical activity is recommended? WHO guidelines and recommendations provide details for different age groups and specific population groups on how much physical activity is needed for good health. WHO recommends: For children under 5 years of age In a 24-hour day, infants (less than 1 year) should: Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 18 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise  be physically active several times a day in a variety of ways, particularly through interactive floor-based play; more is better. For those not yet mobile, this includes at least 30 minutes in prone position (tummy time) spread throughout the day while awake;  not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers, high chairs, or strapped on a caregiver’s back); o Screen time is not recommended.  When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged; and  have 14-17h (0-3 months of age) or 12-16h (4-11 months of age) of good quality sleep, including naps. In a 24-hour day, children 1-2 years of age should:  spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical activities at any intensity, including moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, spread throughout the day; more is better;  not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers, high chairs, or strapped on a caregiver’s back) or sit for extended periods of time. o For 1 year old, sedentary screen time (such as watching TV or videos, playing computer games) is not recommended. o For those aged 2 years, sedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better.  When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged; and  have 11-14h of good quality sleep, including naps, with regular sleep and wake-up times. In a 24-hour day, children 3-4 years of age should:  spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical activities at any intensity, of which at least 60 minutes is moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, spread throughout the day; more is better;  not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers) or sit for extended periods of time. o Sedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better.  When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is); encourage; and  have 10-13h of good quality sleep, which may include a nap, with regular sleep and wake-up times. Children and adolescents aged 5-17 years  should do at least an average of 60 minutes per day of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, mostly aerobic, physical activity, across the week.  should incorporate vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, as well as those that strengthen muscle and bone, at least 3 days a week.  should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary, particularly the amount of recreational screen time. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 19 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Adults aged 18–64 years  should do at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity;  or at least 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week  should also do muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity that involve all major muscle groups on 2 or more days a week, as these provide additional health benefits.  may increase moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to more than 300 minutes; or do more than 150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week for additional health benefits.  should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits, and to help reduce the detrimental effects of high levels of sedentary behavior on health, all adults and older adults should aim to do more than the recommended levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity. Adults aged 65 years and above  Same as for adults; and  as part of their weekly physical activity, older adults should do varied multicomponent physical activity that emphasizes functional balance and strength training at moderate or greater intensity, on 3 or more days a week, to enhance functional capacity and to prevent falls. Pregnant and postpartum women All pregnant and postpartum women without contraindication should:  do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week  incorporate a variety of aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities  should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits. People living with chronic conditions (hypertension, type 2 diabetes, HIV and cancer survivors)  should do at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity;  or at least 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week  should also do muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity that involve all major muscle groups on 2 or more days a week, as these provide additional health benefits. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 20 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise  as part of their weekly physical activity, older adults should do varied multicomponent physical activity that emphasizes functional balance and strength training at moderate or greater intensity, on 3 or more days a week, to enhance functional capacity and to prevent falls.  may increase moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to more than 300 minutes; or do more than 150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week for additional health benefits.  should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits, and  to help reduce the detrimental effects of high levels of sedentary behavior on health, all adults and older adults should aim to do more than the recommended levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity. Children and adolescents living with disability:  should do at least an average of 60 minutes per day of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, mostly aerobic, physical activity, across the week.  should incorporate vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, as well as those that strengthen muscle and bone, at least 3 days a week.  should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary, particularly the amount of recreational screen time. Adults living with disability:  should do at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity;  or at least 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week  should also do muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity that involve all major muscle groups on 2 or more days a week, as these provide additional health benefits.  As part of their weekly physical activity, older adults should do varied multicomponent physical activity that emphasizes functional balance and strength training at moderate or greater intensity, on 3 or more days a week, to enhance functional capacity and to prevent falls.  may increase moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to more than 300 minutes; or do more than 150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week for additional health benefits.  should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits, and  to help reduce the detrimental effects of high levels of sedentary behavior on health, all adults and older adults should aim to do more than the recommended levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity. It is possible to avoid sedentary behavior and be physically active while sitting or lying. E.g. Upper body led activities, inclusive and/or wheelchair-specific sport and activities. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 21 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Nutrition refers to the food intake which is the key to any level of physical conditioning. It involves the nutrients that get into the body through the regular three meals and snacks. Here are the most common meals and snacks of Filipinos. 2.1 NUTRITION COMMON FILIPINO MEALS AND SNACKS Breakfast 1. Coffee, bread, peanut butter 2. Chocolate, pancake 3. Milk, bread, egg, papaya 4. Canned juice, rice dried fish 5. Tapa-sinangag-itlog (Tapsilog) Lunch 1. Rice, fish sinigang 2. Rice, pork adobo 3. Hamburger, sandwich, soft drinks 4. Rice, fried chicken 5. Rice, sauted vegetables, fried fish Supper 1. Rice/tinapa/tuyo 2. Rice, chicken tinola 3. Rice, pancit/noodles 4. Rice, menudo 5. Rice, beef nilaga Snacks 1. Spaghetti, soft drinks 2. Junk foods 3. Noodles, banana cue 4. Sandwich, juice 5. Arroz caldo THE FOOD GROUPS Contemporary health specialist considers four basic food groups, namely; 1. Carbohydrates-rich foods. 2. Protein-rich foods. 3. Fat-rich foods. 4. Vitamin and mineral-rich foods. A balance diet is made-up of all the basic food groups so that the three meals (and snacks) can provide sufficient nutrients needed by the growing and active body. The quantity of food is considered in maintaining the weight of a college student. GUIDELINES FOR WEIGHT AND HEALTH MAINTENANCE 1. Eat balanced meals every day 2. Follow a consistent eating pattern 3. Maintain your ideal weight Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 22 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise 4. Eat low-calorie snacks and avoid junk foods 5. Cut down on high-fat foods and eat more lean meats. 6. Drink 6-8 glasses of fluids a day 7. Eat amidst a relaxed and pleasant atmosphere 8. Food supplements may be taken if necessary THE SOUTH BEACH DIET This is a low-calorie diet composed of a lot of fresh or sometimes steamed vegetables with fruits, lean meat/fish and good carbohydrates-rich foods. It is recommended for overweight individuals and for weight maintenance. Get into the SBD program only upon the approval of the school physician. Strictly follow instructions. Here are tips for you: 1. Set your goal. How many pounds do you have to lose? a. Present weight b. Ideal weight for your age 2. Plan your meals – fresh vegetables, fresh fruits, some lean meat/fish, add good carbohydrates-rich food in small amounts. Increase your meat/fish and include some food with good fats. Try to follow this diet (with slight changes) for weight maintenance. 3. Monitor your weight once a week and record the data. 4. Get into some forms of exercises such as walking, dancing and swimming. 5. Pace yourself. Understand your body needs and move along gradually. 6. If possible, eat and exercise with a buddy. 2.2 Basic Principles of Fitness The 5 Basic Principles of Fitness The best way to achieve optimum results in exercise and fitness is to follow a plan. But not just any plan, such as “I’m going to run 5 miles every day” or “I’ll lift the heaviest weight I can every time I work out.” Your body is an amazing machine that responds to specific stimuli in distinct ways, and your brain is constantly working to protect the body from threats – like way too much stress on the muscles and tendons from continuous all-out hard exercise. Fortunately, exercise science gives us five basic principles we can incorporate into a fitness program that will develop the changes, or “adaptations” we desire, in a safe and lasting way. These five principles are:  The Overload Principle  The F.I.T.T. Principle  The Specificity Principle  The Rest and Recovery Principle  The Use It or Lose It Principle The Overload Principle is considered the most important concept in exercise. In simple terms, it means that your body will adapt to the demand you impose on it. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 23 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise So, it’s important to strategically vary your mode of exercise, intensity and duration of training in order to get better, stronger or faster. This is where the F.I.T.T. Principle comes in. F.I.T.T. stands for Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type. These are the four areas where increases in workload or demand can be made in order to progressively overload the body so it adapts in the desired way. Frequency means how often an exercise is performed. After any kind of exercise, your body begins a process of repairing and rebuilding stressed tissues. It’s important to find the right balance of work and recovery that provides just enough stress for the body to adapt as well as recover for the next session. Intensity is the amount of effort or work completed in a specific exercise. For example, walking at a conversational pace is low intensity, whereas sprinting for 400 yards is high intensity. In strength training, factors that influence intensity are the weight itself (load), the number of sets and repetitions, the tempo of the repetitions, and whether a level of instability has been added (such as standing on one leg while doing shoulder presses.) Once again, just enough intensity to overload without overtraining, injury or burnout is what’s important here. Time is simply the duration of the exercise session. It’s a function of intensity and type. Type means the type of exercise performed – strength training, cardio, or a combination of both. The type of exercise is tied to the Specificity Principle, discussed next. This table illustrates how to combine the Overload Principle and the F.I.T.T. Principle for strength training or cardiovascular training: Strength Training Cardio Training Frequenc Increase the # of workout days Increase the # of workout days y Increase the number of repetitions Intensity Increase pace for a given time or distance for a given load Time Increase the number of sets Increase length of workout or distance Perform a different exercise for the Perform a different type of exercise, ex. Type same muscle group running to cycling The Specificity Principle is, quite simply, that the exercise you do should be specific to your goals. For example, if your goal is simply health and weight management, focus on total body strength, cardio and a healthy diet. If you are a runner wanting to improve your race times, include speed workouts in your training. If you’re a cyclist training for a 100-mile ride, focus on building up longer distance training rides at an endurance pace. The Rest and Recovery Principle is critical to achieving gains in fitness. The body simply cannot tolerate too much stress, and over time will instead “shut down” in order to protect Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 24 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise itself. This results in overtraining syndrome, burnout, excess fatigue, and a weakened immune system. Rest and recovery are important for your mental state too! The fifth principle, while not specifically targeted to fitness adaptations, is still important to be aware of – Use It or Lose It. Most everyone is aware of this concept at some level, as it applies to many things in life. With respect to the body, muscles build strength (called “hypertrophy”) with use, and lose strength (“atrophy”) with lack of use. This includes not only the skeletal muscles, but also the heart and even the brain (although it’s not technically a muscle.) How quickly atrophy occurs is dependent on many factors, and will be the subject of a future blog post. Incorporating these principles into your fitness routine will ensure you get the best results in the most efficient way, while preventing injury and overtraining. But it can be complicated. 2.3 Basic Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and physiology are the study of the body's systems and structures and how they interact. Anatomy focuses on the physical arrangement of parts in the body while physiology is the study of the inner functioning of cells, tissues, and organs. This section will review the major systems of the body; the musculoskeletal system, the circulatory system, the nervous system, the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the integumentary system. The Musculoskeletal System The musculoskeletal system provides structure to the body, allows for movement, and physically protects the other systems of the body. The anatomy of the musculoskeletal system is complex due to the large number of muscles and bones, for the national registry exams and EMS practice memorizing the exact position and roles of each of these structures is unimportant. An understanding of the general structures the bones and muscles are arranged in (spine, skull, ribcage, limbs, etc.) is what is important, as this will allow for a better understanding of the effects of trauma and medical conditions. The anatomy of the musculoskeletal system is based around the larger structures that the bones and muscles create, these structures are the skull, spine, thoracic cage, pelvic girdle, and limbs. The skull is made up of multiple flat bones that interlock and form a protective space for the brain, they also create the structure of the face and mouth with many attachments for the muscles that allow for all the movements of the head. The spine is made of multiple interlocking vertebrae with a central channel for the spinal cord and exit points for the nerves that come off of it. Like the skull, it serves to both protect the spinal cord and provide attachment points for both muscles and ribs. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 25 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise The thoracic cage or "rib cage" provides the rigidity of the chest which is vital to the expansion and contraction of the lungs, making the rib cage vital to the respiratory system. It also serves to protect the vital organs within the chest. The pelvic girdle is one of the most complex anatomical structures in the body, it transfers the weight of the upper body from the spine to the legs and has a massive number of attachment points for various large muscle groups of both the trunk and the legs. The limbs, similar to the pelvis, are complex and have many different joints and attachment points to allow for precise and varied movement. As a whole, the muscles consist of a bundle of smaller fibers (myofibrils) that are anchored to a bone via a fibrous tendon and are innervated by one or more nerves from the peripheral nervous system that allows for voluntary and involuntary contraction. All bodily movements stem from the muscles pulling against the bones across the joints. This type of muscle is known as "Striated" or "Skeletal" muscle due to the arrangement of the muscle fibers. There is another type of muscle in the body known as "smooth muscle" that is a component of many bodily systems, this form of muscle is loosely arranged and does not have the characteristic striations of the previously mentioned skeletal muscle. The physiology of the musculoskeletal system is focused on the structure of the muscle cells and the chemical processes that allow them to contract. The muscles are made up of bundles of muscle fibers that contain a large number of sarcomeres, these sarcomeres have a specialized protein that contracts in response to the release of calcium from the sarcolemma, a sheath that surrounds the muscle fibers, this release of calcium is stimulated by a signal from a nerve that connects to the muscle. The energy for contraction comes from glucose and oxygen, these are delivered to the muscle by large blood vessels that run into them. The Circulatory System The role of the circulatory system is the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the cells of the body and the removal of waste, it is comprised of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood itself. The anatomy and physiology of the circulatory system are extremely complex but its essential elements can be broken down into a relatively simple framework. The anatomy of the circulatory system is simple at a superficial level, it consists of a pump, pipes, and the fluid they carry. The heart is a four-chamber pump that fills with blood when it relaxes and propels it through the body when it squeezes. The chambers are separated by valves that prevent the backflow of blood. The coronary arteries run across the surface of the heart and provide oxygen to the muscle. Within the muscle of the heart is a network of modified heart muscle cells that act almost like neurons, transferring electrical signals through the heart in a precise and structured manner. The blood vessels not only carry blood but regulate their flow to different areas of the body. The vessels are smooth muscle tubes that can expand and contract based on signals from hormones and the nervous system. Vessels are present in varying sizes, with the largest ones being near the heart and the smallest within the body's various tissues. There are different types of vessels; arteries, Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 26 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise arterioles, veins, venules, and capillaries all have unique functions which will be further reviewed in later sections. The blood is not traditionally considered to have anatomy, but know that it has many parts in the form of different cells, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and a variety of protein/hormones/chemicals all have different roles. The Physiology of the circulatory system is complicated by the many types of cells in the heart and blood. The heart's muscle cells (cardiac myocytes) are unique in that they are electrically connected and do not require a nerve signal to contract. This allows them to beat in a rhythmic manner that allows for the effective pumping of blood. A collection of specially modified myocytes known as the SA node act as the pacemaker for the healthy heart, creating the electrical signals that spread through the myocytes and lead to a heartbeat. Other specialized myocytes act as fast pathways for these electrical signals, ensuring that the spread of electricity through the heart results in a coordinated and effective contraction. As mentioned above the blood is a complex mix of cells and other compounds. The most relevant of these are red blood cells; these cells have a protein known as hemoglobin that allows them to carry large amounts of oxygen from the lungs to the tissue in the body. White blood cells combat infection, and platelets help to block off any holes that form in the system. The Nervous System The nervous system controls the entire body, it has fibers that run across every inch of the body, controlling muscles, organs, and glands; while returning information to the spinal cord and brain to allow it to make decisions. Neurons have several parts, dendrites that receive signals, axons that transmit them, and the cell body which maintains the nerve cell. The anatomy of the nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral systems, with the central nervous system acting as the control system for the body and the peripheral as communication lines that relay information to and from the central system. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord, both of these structures are made up of a large number of neurons and support cells, with both large blood vessels and capillaries supplying the large amount of energy the neurons require. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is extensive and covers all areas of the body, these nerves have a myriad of functions controlling movement in the body, controlling the function of the organs, and returning sensory information from all across the body to the spinal cord and brain. The nerves of the PNS branch off of the spinal cord. The physiology of the nervous system surrounds the ability of nerves to transfer signals. They do so via "action potentials" which allow signals to transfer down the axon of the nerve and to receptors at their end. The action potentials that neurons send are created by the opening and closing of voltage-sensitive ion channels on the surface of the neuron, this results in a "wave" of electrical energy which travels down the neuron and eventually results in the release of neurotransmitters from the end of the neuron. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 27 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise The variety of receptors present on neurons and muscles allows neurotransmitters which are released due to an action potential to have an effect on other neurons, by stimulating other action potentials; or causing the release of calcium which causes muscles to contract. The Digestive System The digestive system exists to break down and absorb ingested material, allowing it to be used for energy and the creation of new cells within the body. You can divide the anatomy of the digestive system into the hollow organs and solid organs. The hollow organs convey food matter and process it, while the solid organs act as support systems, ensuring the process of digestion can proceed smoothly. The hollow organs are the esophagus, stomach, and intestines: The esophagus is the physical tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. The stomach both physically grinds up food and chemically digests it with acid. The intestines then absorb the nutrients and water from the ground up food with help from liver bile and pancreatic enzymes. The solid organs are the liver and the pancreas: The liver serves the dual purposes of producing bile, which helps with the absorption of fats by the intestines and with detoxification of the blood. The pancreas, like the liver, has a dual role. It produces enzymes that break down protein and hormones which balance the blood glucose. The physiology of the digestive system is heavily dependent upon the organ in question and many have multiple roles. The hollow organs tend to be specialized in the mechanical breakdown and absorption of food while the solid organs create and secrete substances that assist with the chemical breakdown of food. The stomach and intestines have a variety of special cells and receptors that work to detect their contents and absorb them. The livers cells, known as hepatocytes, produce bile from the body's waste which helps to absorb fat in the intestines. These same hepatocytes are filled with complex enzymes that break down countless toxins the body produces. The pancreas has several types of cells, some secrete enzymes to break down proteins while others are known as "islets" secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon which regulate the balance of glucose within the blood. The Respiratory System The respiratory system is a close counterpart to the circulatory system, its role is to bring oxygen from the air in contact with the blood inside microscopic capillaries. It interacts closely with the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. Some of the largest blood vessels in the body are associated with the lungs and the chest wall is vital in the inspiration and expiration of air. The anatomy of the respiratory system is divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract, the division occurs at the level of the larynx. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasopharynx and oropharynx. While the lower respiratory tract is made up of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs. With the movement of air through the system provided by the diaphragm. The upper respiratory tract is responsible for the initial cleaning and warming of air before it is transmitted to the lower airways. The upper respiratory tract Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 28 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise also carries food and fluids to the esophagus and is instrumental in the production of speech. The larynx is a cartilage "box" that divides the GI and respiratory systems. It has a physical flap "the epiglottis" that protects the airway from food and fluids. The rest of the larynx is specialized to allow for the production of speech; the vocal cords and various cartilages can change shape to allow air passing over them to create speech. The lower respiratory tract transfers air through a branching inverted tree made up of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles until it reaches the alveoli, microscopic sacks who have thin walls that are covered in thin-walled capillaries. These allow for blood to come in close contact with air. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle at the base of the lungs that pulls air into the airways by creating negative pressure in the chest. Remember that when the diaphragm contracts, air is drawn into the chest which is known as inspiration. The physiology of the respiratory system is best divided into that of the airways and the lungs. The airways have physiologic mechanisms that protect them from the countless viruses and bacteria in the environment. There are countless mucus-secreting cells that coat the inner nose/mouth, trachea, and bronchi/bronchioles in a protective layer that inhibits bacterial growth and traps inhaled contaminants. These musocal cells are paired with cilial cells in the lower airway (trachea, bronchi, etc). They are mobile and work to push mucus and contaminants up and out of the lower airways. The lungs chief physiologic function is the exchange of gases between the blood and the air. They do so through the incredibly thin walls of the alveoli, which allow the process of diffusion to naturally move gases from areas of high concentration to those of low concentration. The Integumentary System The integumentary system provides the physical barrier between the inner systems of the body and the outside world. It is vital to the regulation of the body's internal environment, holding in fluids, keeping out bacteria, and providing a regenerating layer that prevents permanent damage to the more fragile cells of the body. The anatomy of the integumentary system is more complex than it would first appear. It has three main layers, the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layers. The epidermis is a thick layer of dead cells that acts as a "sacrificial layer" for the body. This layer of cells gradually rubs off and protects the more fragile layers below. The dermis is the living skin layer with cells that continuously multiply and divide; it holds nerves, blood vessels, sweat glands, and oil glands. The subcutaneous layer is one of the main areas of fat storage, also acting as a significant insulating layer for the body. The physiology of the integumentary system is based around the continuously dividing stem cells in the dermis that create the thick epidermis. The dermis also contains countless capillaries, nerves, and glands that act to regulate the temperature through the mechanisms of vasoconstriction/vasodilation and diaphoresis (sweating). 2.4 Tissues, Organs, & Organ systems Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 29 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Learn about the main tissue types and organ systems of the body and how they work together.  Humans—and other complex multicellular organisms—have systems of organs that work together, carrying out processes that keep us alive.  The body has levels of organization that build on each other. Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and organs make up organ systems.  The function of an organ system depends on the integrated activity of its organs. For instance, digestive system organs cooperate to process food.  The survival of the organism depends on the integrated activity of all the organ systems, often coordinated by the endocrine and nervous systems. Organs Organs, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are made up of two or more types of tissue organized to serve a particular function. For example, the heart pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide, and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the external environment. Most organs contain all four tissue types. The layered walls of the small intestine provide a good example of how tissues form an organ. The inside of the intestine is lined by epithelial cells, some of which secrete hormones or digestive enzymes and others of which absorb nutrients. Around the epithelial layer are layers of connective tissue and smooth muscle, interspersed with glands, blood vessels, and neurons. The smooth muscle contracts to move food through the gut, under control of its associated networks of neurons.^22squared Cross-section of the GI tract. From outside to inside: Blood vessels, networks of nerves in smooth muscle layers, connective tissue, more smooth muscle, another layer of connective tissue, epithelial tissue, and empty space in the middle as the path of digested food. Organ systems Organs are grouped into organ systems, in which they work together to carry out a particular function for the organism. For example, the heart and the blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system. They work together to circulate the blood, bringing oxygen and nutrients to cells throughout the body and carrying away carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Another example is the respiratory system, which brings oxygen into the body and gets rid of carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs. Two diagrams. On the left, a diagram of the respiratory system showing nasal passages, trachea, and lungs. On the right, a diagram of the circulatory system showing heart and blood vessels. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 30 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Major organ systems of the human body Organ Function Organs, tissues, and system structures involved Cardiovascula Transports oxygen, nutrients, and other Heart, blood, and blood r substances to the cells and transports vessels wastes, carbon dioxide, and other substances away from the cells; it can also help stabilize body temperature and pH Lymphatic Defends against infection and disease Lymph, lymph nodes, and and transfers lymph between tissues and lymph vessels the blood stream Digestive Processes foods and absorbs nutrients, Mouth, salivary glands, minerals, vitamins, and water esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, exocrine pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine Endocrine Provides communication within the body Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, via hormones and directs long-term parathyroids, endocrine change in other organ systems to pancreas, adrenals, testes, maintain homeostasis and ovaries. Integumentary Provides protection from injury and fluid Skin, hair, and nails loss and provides physical defense against infection by microorganisms; involved in temperature control Muscular Provides movement, support, and heat Skeletal, cardiac, and production smooth muscles Nervous Collects, transfers, and processes Brain, spinal cord, nerves, information and directs short-term and sensory organs—eyes, change in other organ systems ears, tongue, skin, and nose Reproductive Produces gametes—sex cells—and sex Fallopian tubes, uterus, hormones; ultimately produces offspring vagina, ovaries, mammary glands (female), testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis (male) Respiratory Delivers air to sites where gas exchange Mouth, nose, pharynx, can occur larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm Skeletal Supports and protects soft tissues of the Bones, cartilage, joints, body; provides movement at joints; tendons, and ligaments produces blood cells; and stores minerals Urinary Removes excess water, salts, and waste Kidneys, ureters, urinary products from the blood and body and bladder, and urethra controls pH Immune Defends against microbial pathogens— Leukocytes, tonsils, disease-causing agents—and other adenoids, thymus, and diseases spleen Although we often talk about the different organ systems as though they were distinct, parts of one system may play a role in another system. The mouth, for instance, belongs to both the respiratory system and the digestive system. There's also a lot of functional overlap among the different systems. For instance, while we tend to think of the cardiovascular system as delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells, it also Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 31 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise plays a role in maintaining temperature. The blood also transports hormones produced by the glands of the endocrine system, and white blood cells are a key component of the immune system. Organs in a system work together. Just like workers on an assembly line, the organs of an organ system must work together for the system to function as a whole. For instance, the function of the digestive system—taking in food, breaking it down into molecules small enough to be absorbed, absorbing it, and eliminating undigested waste products—depends on each successive organ doing its individual job.^{3,4}3,4start superscript, 3, comma, 4, end superscript Digestion is the breakdown of food so that its nutrients can be absorbed. It includes both mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. In mechanical digestion, chunks of food are broken into smaller pieces. In chemical digestion, large molecules like proteins and starches are broken into simpler units that can be readily absorbed. Mechanical digestion, along with some initial chemical digestion, takes place in the mouth and stomach. Chewing breaks food into smaller pieces, and the stomach churns the food up into a fluid mixture. The stomach also acts as a storage tank, releasing partially digested food into the small intestine at a rate the small intestine can handle.^44start superscript, 4, end superscript Digestive system. Starts at mouth, which connects to stomach. The liver and pancreas are adjacent to the stomach, which leads to the small intestine and then the large intestine. The small intestine is the major site of chemical digestion, which is carried out by enzymes released from the pancreas and liver. The small intestine is also the main site of nutrient absorption; molecules like sugars and amino acids are taken up by cells and transported into the bloodstream for use. The mouth, stomach, small intestine, and other digestive system organs work together to make digesting food and absorbing nutrients efficient. Digestion wouldn’t so work well if your stomach stopped churning or if one of your enzyme-producing glands—like the pancreas— decided to take the day off! Organ systems work together, too. Just as the organs in an organ system work together to accomplish their task, so the different organ systems also cooperate to keep the body running. For example, the respiratory system and the circulatory system work closely together to deliver oxygen to cells and to get rid of the carbon dioxide the cells produce. The circulatory system picks up oxygen in the lungs and drops it off in the tissues, then performs the reverse service for carbon dioxide. The lungs expel the carbon dioxide and bring in new oxygen- containing air. Only when both systems are working together can oxygen and carbon dioxide be successfully exchanged between cells and environment. There are many other examples of this cooperation in your body. For instance, the blood in your circulatory system has to receive nutrients from your digestive system and undergo filtration in your kidneys, or it wouldn't be able to sustain the cells of your body and remove the wastes they produce. Control and coordination Many body functions are controlled by the nervous system and the endocrine system. These two regulatory systems use chemical messengers to affect the function of the other organ systems and to coordinate activity at different locations in the body. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 32 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise How do the endocrine and nervous systems differ? In the endocrine system, the chemical messengers are hormones released into the blood. In the nervous system, the chemical messengers are neurotransmitters sent straight from one cell to another across a tiny gap. Since hormones have to travel through the bloodstream to their targets, the endocrine system usually coordinates processes on a slower time scale than the nervous system in which messages are delivered directly to the target cell. In some cases, such as the fight-or- flight response to an acute threat, the nervous and endocrine systems work together to produce a response. 2.5 MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS The single-celled protozoan ancestors of animals had their weight supported by water and were able to move by cilia or other simple organelles. The evolution of large and more complex organisms (animals) necessitated the development of support and locomotion systems. Animals use their muscular and skeletal systems for support, locomotion, and maintaining their shape. Types of Skeletal Systems Movement is a major characteristic of animals. This movement is a result of contraction of muscles. The skeleton helps transmit that movement. Skeletons are either a fluid-filled body cavity, exoskeletons, or internal skeletons. Hydrostatic skeletons consist of fluid-filled closed chambers. Internal pressures generated by muscle contractions cause movement as well as maintain the shape of the animals, such as the sea anemone and worms. The sea anemone has one set of longitudinal muscles in the outer layer of the body, and a layer of circular muscles in the inner layer of the body. The anemone can elongate or contract its body by contracting one or the other set of muscles. Structure and function of a hydrostatic skeleton Exoskeletons are characteristic of the Phylum Arthropoda. Exoskeletons are hard segments that cover the muscles and visceral organs. Muscles for movement attach to the inner surface of the exoskeleton. Exoskeletons restrict the growth of the animal, thus it must shed its exoskeleton (or molt) to form a new one that has room for growth. The bulk and weight of the exoskeleton and associated mechanical problems limits the size animals can attain. Spiders use a combination of an exoskeleton for protection and fluid pressure for movement. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 33 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Exoskeleton of an insect and its relation to the muscular system. Vertebrates have developed an internal mineralized (in most cases) endoskeleton composed of bone and/or cartilage. Muscles are on the outside of the endoskeleton. Cartilage and bone are types of connective tissue. Sharks, and rays have skeletons composed entirely of cartilage; other vertebrates have an embryonic cartilage skeleton progressively replaced by bone as they mature and develop. Some areas of the human body, however, retain cartilage in the adult: in joints and flexible structures such as the ribs, trachea, nose and ears. The human endoskeleton. Functions of Muscles and Bones The skeleton and muscles function together as the musculoskeletal system. This system (often treated as two separate systems, the muscular, and skeletal) plays an important homeostatic role: allowing the animal to move to more favorable external conditions. Certain cells in the bones produce immune cells as well as important cellular components of the blood. Bone also helps regulate blood calcium levels, serving as a calcium sink. Rapid muscular contraction is important in generating internal heat, another homeostatic function. Bone Tissue Although bones vary greatly in size and shape, they have certain structural similarities. Bones have cells embedded in a mineralized (calcium) matrix and collagen fibers. Compact bone forms the shafts of long bones; it also occurs on the outer side of the bone. Spongy bone forms the inner layer. Structure of bone, a type of connective tissue. Compact bone has a series of Haversian canals around which concentric layers of bone cells (osteocytes) and minerals occur. New bone is formed by the osteocytes. The Haversian canals form a network of blood vessels and nerves that nourish and monitor the osteocytes. Spongy bone occurs at the ends of long bones and is less dense than compact bone. The spongy bone of the femur, humerus, and sternum contains red marrow, in which stem cells Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 34 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise reproduce and form the cellular components of the blood and immune system. Yellow marrow, at the center of these bones, is used to store fats. The outer layer of the bones is known as the periosteum. The inner layer of the periosteum forms new bone or modifies existing bone to meet new conditions. It is rich in nerve endings and blood and lymphatic vessels. When fractures occur, the pain is carried to the brain by nerves running through the periosteum. Bone Growth Endochondral ossification is the process of converting the cartilage in embryonic skeletons into bone. Cartilage is deposited early in development into shapes resembling the bones-to- be. Cells inside this cartilage grow and begin depositing minerals. The spongy bone forms, and osteoblasts attach and lay down the mineral portions of spongy bone. Osteoclasts remove material from the center of the bone, forming the central cavity of the long bones. The perichondrium, a connective tissue, forms around the cartilage and begins forming compact bone while the above changes are occurring. Blood vessels form and grow into the perichondrium, transporting stem cells into the interior. Two bands of cartilage remain as the bone develops, one at each end of the bone. During childhood, this cartilage allows for growth and changes in the shape of bones. Eventually the elongation of the bones stops and the cartilage is all converted into bone. Growth of a long bone. Bones continue to change as adults, to adapt to the stresses generated by physical activity. Exercise can increase the diameter and strength of bone; inactivity can decrease them. Age is a factor: osteoporosis is a disease that primarily affects older, postmenopausal women. Increasing calcium intake, reducing protein intake, exercise and low doses of estrogen are effective treatments for osteoporosis. 2.6 Joints There are three types of joints: immovable, partly movable, and synovial. Immovable joints, like those connecting the cranial bones, have edges that tightly interlock. Partly movable joints allow some degree of flexibility and usually have cartilage between the bones; example: vertebrae. Synovial joints permit the greatest degree of flexibility and have the ends of bones covered with a connective tissue filled with synovial fluid; example: hip. The outer surface of the synovial joints contains ligaments that strengthen joints and hold bones in position. The inner surface (the synovial membrane) has cells producing synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and prevents the two cartilage caps on the bones from rubbing Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 35 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise together. Some joints also have tendons (connective tissue linking muscles to bones). Bursae are small sacs filled with synovial fluid that reduce friction in the joint. The knee joint contains 13 bursae Joints of the human body. Skeletal Disorders Injury, degenerative wear and tear, and inflammatory disorders affect joints. Sprains are common injuries that cause ligaments to rip of separate from the bone. Tendinitis (such as tennis elbow) and bursitis are inflammations of the tendon sheaths. Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition associated with the wearing away of the protective caps of cartilage covering the bone-ends. Bony growths or spurs develop as the cartilage degenerates, causing restriction of movement and pain. The cause is not known and may just be wear-and-tear associated with aging. Rheumatoid arthritis is a severely damaging arthritis that begins with inflammation and thickening of the synovial membrane followed by bone degeneration and disfigurement. More women than men are affected. There may be a genetic predisposition to rheumatoid arthritis. Joint replacement may in some cases restore function. Skeletal Muscle Systems Vertebrates move by the actions of muscles on bones. Tendons attach many skeletal muscles across joints, allowing muscle contraction to move the bones across the joint. Muscles generally work in pairs to produce movement: when one muscle flexes (or contracts) the other relaxes, a process known as antagonism. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 36 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Ligaments and tendons of the arm and leg. Muscles have both electrical and chemical activity. There is an electrical gradient across the muscle cell membrane: the outside is more positive than the inside. Stimulus causes an instantaneous reversal of this polarity, causing the muscle to contract (the mechanical characteristic) producing a twitch or movement. 2.7 Anatomical Terminology Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed discussion of topics on different human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure. Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the following learning units. Three groups of terms are: Directional Terms Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body. Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the superior extremity). Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity). Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg). Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body). Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the foot). Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot). Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone). Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is located at the distal end of the forearm). Planes of the Body Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions. Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides. Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 37 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts. Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves. Skeletal system The skeleton is the central structure of the body and is made up of bones, joints and cartilage. The skeleton provides the framework for muscles and gives the body its defined human shape. Types of joint movement Hinge joints allow flexion and extension only. Flexion – bending a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint decreases. For example, the elbow flexes when performing a biceps curl. The knee flexes in preparation for kicking a ball. Extension – straightening a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint increases, for example the elbow when throwing a shot put. The take-off knee extends when a high-jumper takes off (the other knee is flexed). Ball and socket joints also allow flexion and extension. Flexion of the shoulder joint occurs when the humerus (upper arm) moves forwards from the rest of the body, which happens at the end of an underarm throw or bowl in rounders. Flexion of the hip joint occurs when the femur (upper leg) moves forwards, which happens when long jumpers land or at the end of kick in football. Extension of the shoulder occurs when the humerus moves backwards from the rest of the body, which happens at the end of the pull stroke in front crawl. Extension of the hip joint occurs when the femur moves backwards, which happens in the preparation for a kick in football, or in the back leg as a gymnast performs a split leap. Ball and socket joints also allow types of movement called abduction, adduction, rotation and circumduction. Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder joints during a jumping jack movement. Adduction – movement towards the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder, returning the arms and legs back to their original position from a jumping jack movement or when swimming breaststroke. Flexion and extension are a pair of opposites; abduction and adduction are a pair of opposites. Circumduction – this is where the limb moves in a circle. This occurs at the shoulder joint during an overarm tennis serve or cricket bowl. Rotation – this is where the limb turns round its long axis, like using a screw driver. This occurs in the hip joint in golf while performing a drive shot or the shoulder joint when playing a topspin forehand in tennis. To help remember the difference between rotation and circumduction, imagine there is a pen at the end of the body part. If the pen draws a dot, it's rotation. If the pen draws a circle, it's circumduction. The table summarizes the body locations and types of movements associated with each type of joint. Joint Type Bones Movement Comments Humerus, Biceps and triceps move this Elbow Hinge Flexion, extension ulna, radius joint Quadriceps and hamstrings Knee Hinge Femur, tibia Flexion, extension move this joint Hip Ball and Femur, pelvis Flexion, extension, Not as great a range of socket abduction, adduction, movement as the shoulder, Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 38 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Joint Type Bones Movement Comments rotation, circumduction but much more stable Flexion, extension, Greater range of movement Ball and Humerus, Shoulder abduction, adduction, than hip, but not quite as socket scapula rotation, circumduction stable 2.8 POSTURE Posture refers to the habitual or assumed alignment and balance of the body segments over the base of support. Generally, good posture is judged when one is standing or sitting. While standing, the body line should be vertical with a nearly vertical line running from just in front of the ankle joint, through the middle of the kneecap, the middle of the hip joint, the edge of the shoulder and up through middle of the ear. The concept of good posture has changed from that of a rigid, static, upright, unnatural position to one of efficient, graceful yet somewhat relaxed body movement. Good posture is valuable for appearance since it influences the concept others have of the individual. One’s posture may even influence self-concept and attitude of mind. Poor posture may be the result of several causes including weak musculature, faulty diet, fatigue, disease, arthritis, vision and hearing defects, overweight and obesity, skeletal defects, faulty postural habits and injuries such as back strain. Even negative attitudes toward exercise and desirable posture can be basic causes of poor body carriage. What are the Different Types of Stretching? Since stretching the muscles can help reduce the risk of injuries by increasing the flexibility and range of motion, stretching should be incorporated into your exercise program. There are four types of stretching – active stretching, passive stretching, dynamic stretching, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching, which involves table stretching. 2.9 TYPES OF STRETCHING FOUR DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRETCHING Active Stretching This technique adopts and holds a pose while exclusively utilizing the muscles within the group that’s being targeted. For instance, flexing the ankle back and forth involves the use of the calf muscles as they hold the toes in a pointed position and as the toes are being raised toward the shin. The muscles are performing opposing functions as one is being lengthened, and the other one is being contracted. Passive Stretching This type of stretching is excellent for enhancing your balance, as well as your flexibility by holding a position or a pose with gravity or by hand. As a specific force is reaching the outer limits of your range of motion, the target muscle is being lengthened. For example, hamstring stretches involve bending at your waist to touch your toes and holding that pose for over 30 seconds before you do a deeper stretch. Dynamic Stretching These are lively stretches that rely on momentum to flow through repeated movements. An example is doing a hamstring stretch where your leg is swung upward in a kick Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 39 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise through its range of motion. With each pass, a gradual progression in height is being reached. PNF Stretching This refers to a set of techniques that involve table stretching and the help of a certified stretch therapist. PNF stretching promotes the restoration of a weakened or injured muscle as resistance is provided while keeping everything in place. As the contraction is released, the stretch pose is being held in place for about 20 to 30 seconds and another 30 to 40 seconds for the muscles to relax completely. LET US WRAP UP Something new I learned from the lesson is …. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ ___________________________ Something I have to remember is/are ….. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ LET US ASSESS 1. Demonstrate different types of joint movements. 2. Performed different types of stretching. ANSWER KEY REFERENCES 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 40 Module Based 2 Movement Enhancement (Movement Patterns, Exercise Piamonte, RM, et al (2002) Physical Fitness for College Freshmen Claravall, D. (2018) PE 1 Movement Enhancement. Mindshaper co. Inc Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022 41