Part II: The Spanish-American War PDF

12 Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism Part II: The Spanish-American War A s the United States experienced dramatic changes in the 1880s and 90s, the island of Cuba, a colony of Spain, held rene...

12 Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism Part II: The Spanish-American War A s the United States experienced dramatic changes in the 1880s and 90s, the island of Cuba, a colony of Spain, held renewed naturally belongs to the American continent.” —Stephen Douglas, 1860 presidential interest for many Americans. American presi- candidate dents and average citizens alike had coveted Cuba for many years. In the years before the Revolution in Cuba Civil War, many people hoped that Cuba In 1868, a revolt against Spanish rule would become another slave territory of the broke out in Cuba. Many of the leading rebels United States. President Polk, in 1848, had hoped eventually to join the United States even offered to buy Cuba from Spain. after breaking free from Spain. U.S. President Ulysses Grant was open to the proposal, but “...if an apple, severed by the tempest his secretary of state persuaded him to keep from its native tree, cannot but fall to the United States out of the conflict. After the ground, Cuba, forcibly disjoined a decade of fighting and the loss of 200,000 from its unnatural connection lives, the Cuban rebels put down their arms. with Spain and incapable of self- Spanish rule remained in place, although support, can gravitate only to the Spain pledged to allow Cuba limited self-gov- North American union [the United ernment. States]....” —John Quincy Adams, 1822 What were U.S. interests in Cuba? With the revolt over, $50 million worth of Cuba, the largest island in the Caribbean, American investment flowed into Cuba. Most was especially significant for policymakers in of it went into the island’s sugar industry, both Spain and the United States at the end which represented four-fifths of the Cuban of the nineteenth century. For Spain, Cuba economy. The United States was also by far was the last major remnant of what had once the largest consumer of Cuban sugar. In 1890, been a huge empire in the New World. Nearly the United States removed tariffs on Cuban all of Spain’s possessions in the Western sugar entering the American market, making it Hemisphere had gained independence in the less expensive to buy the sugar in the United 1800s, and Spain itself had sunk to the level States. The legislation boosted the fortunes of of a third-rate European power. Nonetheless, both the overall Cuban economy and Ameri- the government in Madrid refused to consider can investors on the island. Cuban-American granting independence to Cuba—“the Pearl of trade soon approached $100 million annually. the Antilles”—or selling the island to another The depression of 1893, however, affected country. the U.S. and Cuban economies. Pressure At the time, the country with the great- mounted in the U.S. Congress to cut back on est interest in acquiring Cuba was the United imports and protect sugar producers in the States. For many Americans, extending U.S. United States. In 1894, the United States im- control over the lush island ninety miles from posed a 40 percent tariff on sugar imports from the tip of Florida seemed only logical. Cuba. Cubans immediately felt the effects. As Cuba’s economy sputtered, the rebellion against Spain again gained momentum. This “ It is our destiny to have Cuba and it is folly to debate the question. It time, much of the funding and organization for the movement came from Cuban immigrants in New York and Florida. They helped to buy weapons and to smuggle them into Cuba Choices for the 21st Century Education Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism 13 nationalists, Maximo Gomez, used tactics that would shake the econom- ic foundation of Spanish rule. He attempted to cut off Spanish garrisons, or military posts, in the cities from food supplies in the countryside. He ordered sugar growers to stop producing, and forbid small farmers from selling supplies to the Spanish. Gomez warned that the rebel military would severely punish violators. By 1898, Gomez had brought the Cuban economy to a standstill. Civilians paid a heavy price for his strategy. Like the national- ists, the Spanish also saw economic control of the island as the key to vic- tory. Unable to capture the nationalist forces, the Spanish sought to isolate E.W. Kemble. them from the general population in the coun- tryside so that non-rebels “Spanish Warfare” could not supply them with food or shelter. To that end, Spain’s governor aboard ships sailing from southern U.S. ports. in Cuba, General Vale- Such expeditions were illegal under interna- riano Weyler, herded hundreds of thousands of tional law, and U.S. coastal patrols blocked Cuban peasants into towns policed by Spanish most of them. troops. The “reconcentration” camps, as they were known, lacked adequate food, housing, How did Spain respond to the Cuban revolt? and sanitation. Disease and starvation took a A full-scale revolt erupted in Cuba in terrible toll, killing many thousands. 1895 and quickly engulfed the island. Spain responded even more harshly than in the first How did the press sway U.S. public opinion? round of rebellion, sending more than 120,000 As the war in Cuba intensified, coverage troops to fight an estimated 60,000 Cuban reb- in the American press increased. Often, Cuban els. These rebels were also called nationalists, nationalists living in the United States sup- because they sought to free the Cuban nation plied the stories. Publishers soon found that from Spanish rule. news of the Cuban revolt sold newspapers. The military commander of the Cuban They were eager to print reports of Spanish www.choices.edu Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University Choices for the 21st Century Education Program 14 Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism atrocities, real or fictitious. How did Americans respond William Randolph Hearst and Joseph to events in Cuba? Pulitzer, owners of two of the largest newspa- Despite the calls for intervention in the per chains, competed fiercely for news about press, Americans were divided about their Cuba. Both men sent teams of reporters and country’s role in the Cuban revolt. Many artists to cover the revolt and generate support Americans identified with the struggle of a for U.S. intervention in the conflict. Religious small colony against its oppressive, Euro- magazines, particularly those published by pean government. They were appalled by Protestant denominations, likewise called for the atrocities they read about. The struggle of the United States to join the fighting on hu- Cuba, which had a large black population, had manitarian grounds. Other publications argued gained particular sympathy in the African- that American property on the island was be- American community. These groups hoped the ing destroyed in the fighting. United States would intervene militarily. On the other hand, many in the business com- munity of the northeast wanted peace restored “ No man’s life, no man’s property is safe. American citizens are imprisoned or slain without cause. so their investments would no longer be threatened. Lastly, some American merchants advocated for intervention as the rebellion American property is destroyed caused their trade to dry up. on all sides.... Cuba will soon be Among the political leadership, advo- a wilderness of blackened ruins. cates of full-scale war with Spain were in the This year there is little to live upon. minority, although they voiced their opinions Next year there will be nothing. loudly. Some called on the Monroe Doctrine, The horrors of a barbarous struggle saying that Spain had no business meddling for the extermination of the native in the Western hemisphere. Others argued population are witnessed in all that a future Central American canal would be parts of the country. Blood on the more profitable if the United States rather than roadsides, blood on the fields, blood Spain controlled nearby Cuba. Often Congres- on the doorsteps, blood, blood, blood! sional support for strong action was tied to a Is there no nation wise enough, brave religious conviction that America should help enough to aid this blood-smitten ease suffering abroad. Most Congressmen, land?” however, sided with the cautious policy of —New York World, a Pulitzer paper President McKinley, who favored a peaceful settle- Tampa ment of the revolt. FL OR ID A THE BAHAMAS How did the Spanish (Britain) ATLANTIC ambassador insult OCEAN President McKinley? Havana In February 1898, two C U events turned American B public opinion sharply A toward favoring war. On Santiago DOMINICAN REPUBLIC February 9, the New York CARIBBEAN Journal published a private SEA HAITI letter which the Spanish PUERTO ambassador to the United JAMAICA (Britain) RICO States, Enrique Dupuy de Lome, had sent to a friend Choices for the 21st Century Education Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism 15 Front page of the New York Journal, a Hearst paper, February 17, 1896. in Spain. The letter included a biting critique choice but to welcome McKinley’s request to of the president. send the Maine to Cuba. McKinley had two purposes for dispatch- “ McKinley is weak and a bidder for ing the Maine. First, the ship’s sailors would the admiration of the crowd besides be in a position to protect and even evacuate being a would-be politician who American citizens living in Havana if a threat tries to leave a door open behind to their safety arose. Second, the warship’s himself while keeping on good terms presence gave McKinley added leverage in with the jingoes [extreme patriots pressing Spain to reach a just settlement with who advocate an aggressive foreign the Cuban nationalists. policy] of his party.” After passing three uneventful weeks in —Enrique Dupuy de Lome Havana harbor, the Maine was ripped apart by a tremendous explosion on the night of Feb- Publication of the letter—and the incendi- ruary 15. Two hundred and sixty American ary newspaper headlines that accompanied sailors died. Although the Maine’s captain, it—provoked outrage in the United States. who survived the explosion, urged a care- Many Americans took de Lome’s comments as ful investigation to determine the cause of an insult against their country. The Spanish the disaster, the American press immediately ambassador quickly resigned and Spain apolo- blamed the Spanish authorities. A new slo- gized. Before the episode died down, however, gan—“Remember the Maine, to hell with a much more serious incident in Cuba’s Ha- Spain!”—swept the nation. The New York vana harbor stunned Americans. Journal even offered $50,000 in exchange for the identity of the culprits. Within the McKin- How did Americans “Remember the Maine?” ley administration, Assistant Secretary of the On January 25, 1898, the battleship U.S.S. Navy Theodore Roosevelt expressed certainty Maine dropped anchor in Havana harbor on a that “the Maine was sunk by an act of dirty “courtesy” call. While Spain had little inter- treachery on the part of the Spanish.” est in hosting an American warship, peaceful Throughout the spring of 1898 the McKin- visits by foreign warships were common in the ley administration considered the best course late nineteenth century, and Madrid had no of action. Pressure mounted on McKinley www.choices.edu Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University Choices for the 21st Century Education Program 16 Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism from both the public and Congress to respond to the situation. McKinley learned FORMOSA CHINA (Japan) in March that many busi- ness leaders were now PACIFIC advocating war with Spain HONG KONG OCEAN as a way to gain not just (Britain) greater stability in world De ey w affairs, but also increased 's R ou economic strength for the te Manila United States. Spain owned PHILIPPINES not just Cuba and Puerto SOUTH Rico in the Caribbean but CHINA SEA Guam and the Philippines INDOCHINA in the Pacific. Victory in (France) a war with Spain would likely mean that the United States would come to EAST INDIES control strategic ports from (Netherlands) BORNEO which it could increase the (Britain) lucrative trade with Asia. War with Spain self-government. The United States was not Although McKinley had doubts about the satisfied. Leaders felt the only way the United cause of the Maine explosion, he did little to States could get Spain out of Cuba, and get calm the war fever that was building in the U.S. military and economic interests in, was United States. Without waiting for the results war. of the official investigation, he took steps to On April 19, responding to a request from prepare the United States for war. On March President McKinley, Congress granted him the 9, 1898, both houses of Congress unanimously authority to go to war. approved the president’s request to add $50 million to the defense budget. U.S. investiga- What were U.S. goals in Cuba? tors, working under intense political pressure, Both McKinley and Congress wanted to reported to the public on March 28 that the present their stance strictly in terms of defend- Maine had been sunk by an underwater mine. ing the rights of the Cuban people. To that end, This news, combined with additional news Congress passed an amendment to the war res- that many business leaders now supported the olution stating that the United States had no war, gave McKinley the opportunity to take yet interest in asserting “sovereignty, jurisdiction, bolder measures. or control” over Cuba and promised to “leave the government and control of the island to its When did the United States declare war? people” once peace was restored. Meanwhile, U.S. diplomats found Spain The amendment, named for Senator Henry increasingly anxious to avoid war with the Teller, addressed two sources of criticism. United States. They reported that the Spanish First, anti-imperialists worried that interven- were prepared to dismantle the concentra- tion in Cuba disguised a larger plan to acquire tion camps in Cuba, as McKinley had earlier an American empire. Second, sugar growers in demanded. On April 9, Spain announced a the South feared that the annexation of Cuba truce in its campaign against the nationalists would leave them unable to compete with the and pledged to expand the scope of Cuban island’s sugar plantations. Choices for the 21st Century Education Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism 17 The U.S. declaration left Spain with few from Ivy League colleges. choices. On April 24, 1898, Madrid declared Arming, clothing, transporting, and train- war on the United States. The United States ing the volunteers taxed the capabilities of the was not prepared for war, however. At the out- army. The ships that had been assembled in set of the war, the U.S. Army numbered only Tampa, Florida to sail for Cuba even lacked 28,000 men. Most were stationed at remote space for the horses of the Rough Riders. posts in the southwest. In contrast, Spain had Nonetheless, a U.S. force of seventeen thou- 150,000 tired but seasoned troops in Cuba. sand soldiers landed in southeastern Cuba on Thousands of American volunteers were June 22, 1898. needed to defeat the Spanish. Why did black Americans volunteer to fight? How did victory in Manila lead Many black leaders saw the war as an to an increase in volunteers? opportunity to elevate the status of blacks Fortunately for the U.S. war effort, the in the United States. They hoped that black U.S. Navy provided the country with an early participation in the fighting would win the taste of victory. Nearly two months before the African-American community new respect and war began, Assistant Secretary of the Navy chip away at the wall of discrimination. Roosevelt had instructed the commander of the Pacific fleet, Commodore George Dewey, to draw up plans to attack the Spanish fleet based in the Philippines. When Spain declared “ In the eyes of the world the Negro shall grow in the full height of manhood and stand out in the field war, Dewey had already led the U.S. fleet from its home port in Hong Kong to the mouth of of battle as a soldier clothed with all Manila harbor. On May 1, he attacked. Dewey’s the inalienable rights of citizenship.” squadron first knocked out the Spanish can- —Illinois Record (a black newspaper) nons on shore, then sank every ship in the Spanish fleet. After the Civil War, military service had been one of the few avenues for advance- Dewey’s triumph sparked an outpouring ment open to blacks in American society. of pride in the United States. In the months The army’s four all-black regiments (each that followed, more than 220,000 volunteers comprised of four hundred to eight hundred signed up to fight the Spanish in Cuba. Among troops) were ranked among the country’s most the most prominent of the volunteers was elite units. Stationed mostly in frontier posts, Roosevelt, who resigned from the McKinley admin- istration to form a cavalry regiment. Joined by his friend Colonel Leonard Wood, an army surgeon who had been awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor, Roosevelt recruited primarily from the rugged territories of Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, as well as from North and South Dakota. The unit, nicknamed the “Rough Riders,” also included a sprinkling of volunteers Charge of the Rough Riders, as painted by artist Frederic Remington. www.choices.edu Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University Choices for the 21st Century Education Program 18 Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism the chance to fight in Cuba. Only one black unit, a regiment from Massa- chusetts, saw action in the Caribbean, taking part in the invasion of the Span- ish colony of Puerto Rico. Meanwhile, their uniforms seldom shielded them from discrimination at bases in the United States. How did the United States win the war? The Americans set their sights on Santiago, the principal Spanish gar- rison in Cuba, and steadily U.S. troops in Cuba suffering from tropical diseases, by Charles J. Post. advanced against deter- mined Spanish resistance. Casualties were heavy on black soldiers had a much lower rate of deser- both sides. Among the tion and discipline problems than their white U.S. forces, 10 percent of the troops involved counterparts. Nonetheless, they were denied in the offensive against Santiago were killed promotion into the officer corps. or wounded. Nearly all of the 345 Americans who died in battle during the entire war were How did black soldiers contribute killed in the Santiago campaign. (More than to the U.S. victory over Spain? 2,500 U.S. servicemen died from disease, food When war was declared, the black poisoning, and accidents during the Spanish- regiments were among the first units to be American War.) mobilized. War Department officials assumed The decisive battles of the offensive took that black soldiers were better suited to Cuba’s place on July 2, when the Americans captured tropical climate and more likely to withstand two heavily fortified hills overlooking the road tropical diseases. In the fighting, black soldiers to Santiago. Spearheading the assault up Kettle earned widespread praise for their bravery. Hill were Roosevelt’s Rough Riders and two In addition to the regular black units, regiments of black soldiers. At the same time, thousands of black men offered to fight as vol- other U.S. regiments charged San Juan Hill. By unteers. Initially, they were rejected by all but the end of the day, the Americans controlled three states. In the second call for volunteers, the route to Santiago. five more states accepted black recruits. The The following day, American warships met African-American community also pressed the Spanish Caribbean fleet outside of Santiago for the inclusion of black officers, and in three harbor. As in the Philippines, the Spanish states blacks were put in command of the ships were outgunned. They were either sunk volunteer units. At the same time, the War or forced to shore. On July 17, the Spanish Department organized ten volunteer regiments surrendered Santiago. The war in Cuba was all made up of men who were presumed to be but over. immune to yellow fever. Four of the regiments consisted of black soldiers led by black lieu- The swift course of the war as well as tenants. The black volunteers were not given the overwhelming U.S. victory restored a Choices for the 21st Century Education Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism 19 great deal of pride in Americans who had felt exaggerating when he later told a group of cler- concern for their nation’s status in the world. gymen that, before Dewey’s victory, he was not Americans were thrilled to learn of their mili- even sure where the Philippines were located. tary success. Some felt that the war’s progress Dewey was the first American to take the proved that the United States was no longer a Filipino nationalists seriously. Although he bit player on the world stage but had demon- destroyed Spain’s naval capability, he realized strated its position as a great world power. that U.S. ground troops would not reach the Philippines for at least two months. Dewey Revolution in the Philippines saw Aguinaldo’s forces as allies in the war Half a world away in the Philippines, against Spain, and supplied them with rifles, Spanish defenses in Manila were likewise ammunition, and small cannons. Dewey’s crumbling. Although U.S. ground troops did strategy, for which he was later criticized, was not reach the Philippines until two months based on his experience as a Union soldier in after Dewey’s naval victory, once there they the South during the Civil War. He recalled joined forces with Filipino rebels who had that freed black slaves were an asset in defeat- been fighting the Spanish since 1896. ing the Confederacy. What did Filipino nationalists demand? As in Cuba, the struggle against Span- “ I said these people [the Filipinos] were our friends and we have come here and they will help us just ish colonialism in the Philippines had built up slowly. Initially, Filipino nationalists did exactly as the negroes helped us in not press for full independence. Instead, they the Civil War.” called for political, economic, and religious —Commodore George Dewey reforms. Their demands included full equality before the law, local self-rule, freedom of the The main attack against Spain’s defenses press, equal pay for equal work, and the return in Manila took place on August 13, 1898, one of land which Spanish religious authorities day after Washington and Madrid signed a had taken from native Filipinos. preliminary peace treaty. A communications delay left both sides unaware of the agreement. The first round of rebellion had ended in From their positions outside Manila, U.S. and a stalemate in December 1897. The Spanish Filipino forces quickly trapped the Spanish. promised to make modest reforms and, in turn, After a brief show of resistance, Spain’s com- the rebels agreed to a cease-fire. The leader of mander surrendered. the nationalists, Emilio Aguinaldo, went into exile. In March 1898, the nationalists resumed their revolt, complaining that the Spanish had Following the Spanish Defeat failed to live up to their promises. Their goal In line with the racial stereotypes of the was now full independence. The nationalist day, most American leaders had little hope cause received a boost when Dewey sank the that the blacks and Asians who lived in Cuba, Spanish fleet at Manila. Three weeks later, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam could Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines to again be a force for progress. At the same time, the take command of the struggle. Spanish were thought of as backward and cru- el. Few expected that the inhabitants of these How did the war in the Philippines end? islands were capable of developing stable The Filipino war for independence had democracies on their own. Likewise, Ameri- aroused little interest in the United States. In cans worried that bringing the islands into the late 1897, an appeal from Aguinaldo for U.S. United States would threaten the American support fell on deaf ears in the McKinley ad- political system. ministration. President McKinley was scarcely www.choices.edu Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University Choices for the 21st Century Education Program 20 Beyond Manifest Destiny: America Enters the Age of Imperialism “ Fancy the Senators and Representatives of ten or twelve millions of tropical people, people of William Howard Taft, the future president, referred to Filipinos as “little brown brothers.” While their cause won support in the African- the Latin race mixed with Indian and American press, there was scant effort in white African blood;...fancy them sitting newspapers to explain the position of the in the Halls of Congress, throwing Filipino nationalists. the weight of their intelligence, their Emilio Aguinaldo, the nationalist leader, morality, their political notions, and had assumed that the United States meant habits, their prejudices and passions, to liberate the Philippines after the war. On onto the scale of the destinies of this May 24, 1898, he had proclaimed himself the Republic.... Tell me, does not your head of a temporary revolutionary government imagination recoil from the picture?” and pledged to hold elections. He had even —Carl Schurz, newspaper editor expressed his special gratitude to the United States. Why were the Cuban rebels not included in the negotiations about the future of Cuba? When the United States defeated Spain’s forces in Cuba, the Cuban rebels were not “ The great North American nation, the cradle of genuine liberty, and therefore the friend of our invited to confer on the surrender. On the whole, in fact, the United States ignored the people, oppressed and enslaved Cuban rebels. Many in the administration and by the tyranny and despotism of its Congress felt that the rebels, most of whom rulers, has come to us manifesting were black, needed guidance in managing a protection as decisive as it is all of their affairs. After the Spanish defeat undoubtedly disinterested towards Congress looked again at the language of the our inhabitants, considering us as Teller Amendment, which called for “pacifica- sufficiently civilized and capable tion” before Cuban independence. Congress of governing ourselves and our interpreted the term to mean that United unfortunate country.” States forces would need to remain as occupi- —Emilio Aguinaldo ers of Cuba until a stable government could be formed. As a result, American businesses re- Despite Aguinaldo’s hopes for immedi- turned to Cuba, taking over land and railroads ate independence, the preliminary treaty of and dominating the economy. August 12, 1898 said that Spain would permit temporary U.S. occupation of Manila until the status of the Philippines was determined What happened to the Philippines? in a final treaty. The preliminary treaty also The Philippines presented white Ameri- said that Spain would relinquish all claims cans an even more alien picture than the to Cuba, and give control of Puerto Rico and Caribbean. Before the Spanish-American War, Guam to the United States. In the next few only a handful of Americans had been aware months, both the public and leaders in the of the Filipino revolt against Spain. In the United States would discuss what longer-term political cartoons that appeared in U.S. news- strategy to embrace. papers after the outbreak of fighting, Filipinos were often depicted as having African features. Choices for the 21st Century Education Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Beyond Manifest Destiny: TRB Name:______________________________________________ America Enters the Age of Imperialism Day Two  Study Guide—Part II 1. What connections did the U.S. have to Cuba in the late 1800s? List at least two. 2. What were the Spanish “reconcentration camps”? 3. Publishers soon found that news of the _______________ ________________ sold newspapers. They were eager to print reports of ___________________ atrocities, ___________ or ___________________. 4. List three reasons why the United States went to war with Spain in Cuba. a. b. c. Which do you believe was the most important reason? Why? 5. What did the Teller Amendment say? 6. Why was a portion of the Spanish-American War fought in the Philippines? www.choices.edu watson institute for international studies, Brown university choices for the 21st century education Program TRB Beyond Manifest Destiny:  America Enters the Age of Imperialism Day Two Name:______________________________________________ 7. Dewey’s victory in the ____________________________ sparked an outpouring of _________________ in the United States. 8. Why did Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders want to fight in Cuba? 9. a. Why were many African-Americans eager to serve in the Spanish-American War? b. What forms of discrimination and prejudice did they encounter? 10. How did racism influence American perceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines? Give two examples of events where racism affected U.S. policy after the war. a. b. Save Print choices for the 21st century education Program watson institute for international studies, Brown university www.choices.edu