Volatile and Alkaline Earth Metals PDF

Group 2B: The Volatile Metals Georchelle Faith Darcey, RPh BSPh 103: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry (Topic 5d) Properties includes zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and copernicium (Cn) also called zinc group found in earth crust in different proportions gro...

Group 2B: The Volatile Metals Georchelle Faith Darcey, RPh BSPh 103: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry (Topic 5d) Properties includes zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and copernicium (Cn) also called zinc group found in earth crust in different proportions group 2B is a transition metal ○ Transition metals can be more strictly defined as an element whose atom or cation has an incomplete d subshell. This definition excludes zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and probably Uub from the transition elements, as they have full d10 configurations. Zinc (Zn) silvery white metal with bluish tint found in several ores, the principal ones being zinc blende (zinc sulfide) and calamine (zinc silicate) known as essential trace element and a component of hundreds of enzymes present in insulin and involve in the synthesis, storage, and release of insulin protective coating in galvanized iron container for batteries and dry cells Galvanizing The process of coating of iron with zinc is known as galvanizing. ○ It protects iron from rust formation. Zinc is stronger reducing agent than iron hence it can be more easily oxidized than iron. Zinc (Zn) pharmacological actions astringent antiseptic deodorant antiperspirant Calamine other names are prepared calamine, lapis calminaria and artificial calamine used to relieve the itching, pain, and discomfort of minor skin irritations, such as those caused by poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac also dries oozing and weeping caused by poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac available without prescription Zinc acetate Zn(CH3CO2)2 precipitating germicide biocidal agent also termed as germicides including antiseptics (germicides use on the skin) disinfectants (germicide use on the surfaces or patient instruments and equipment), inactivate microorganisms Zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) mechanical protectant, odorless, white, sand-like solid used in cosmetics, lotions, porcelains, pottery, rubber, as a feed additive, and as medication cosmetic industry is one of the most promising market for the use of zinc carbonate due to its fungicide and antiseptic properties used in wide range of products such as bath, make up, personal cleanliness, shaving, oral care and skin and hair care products Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) Butter of zinc component of Lucas Reagent ○ anhydrous zinc chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid (ZnCl2 + HCl) use to test alcohols cross and Bevan’s Reagent (2:1 ; HCl:ZnCl2) Zinc oxide (ZnO) Flower of zinc, Zinc qhite (technical grade ZnO), Pompholyx, Nihil album, Lana phisolophica, Philosopher’s wool topical protective, mild astringent antiseptics, necessity for calamine lotion and a physical sunblock (Banana Boat® Sunscreen) a white pigment made from zinc oxide, largely used in watercolors and for giving opacity to other colors Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) White vitriol, Zinc vitriol precipitating germicide, astringent, emetic, and weak antiseptic used to treat zinc deficiency adjunct to oral rehydration therapy in the event of acute and/or persistent diarrhea in children under 5 years Zinc undecylenate mild antiseptic and astringent zinc undecylenate acid is an antimicrobial agent used for the treatment of diseases caused by fungi, such as athlete's foot, dermatophilosis or candidiasis it can be used in topical dosage forms and as a disinfectant in cosmetics Zinc pyrithione anti-seborrheic dermatitis/anti-dandruff (Head & Shoulders® shampoo) pyrithione zinc, also commonly known as zinc pyrithione, has antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antifungal properties that can help treat seborrheic dermatitis (also called dandruff), scalp psoriasis, and acne it can inhibit the growth of yeast, which is a main factor in dandruff Zinc toxicity: Metal fume fever toxicity associated with Zn caused by inhalation of ZnO fumes Cadmium (Cd) most cadmium used in the United States is extracted during the production of other metals such as zinc, lead, and copper does not corrode easily and has been used to manufacture batteries, pigments, metal coatings, and plastics intermediate in properties to Zn and Hg occur with zinc salts water soluble compounds have astringent properties protects steel from corrosion used in rechargeable batteries antagonist for Cu and Fe in the body Cadmium sulfate (CdSO4) topical astringent for eye infections white or colorless, odorless, crystalline solid used as a reagent, in vacuum tubes, fluorescent screens, electroplating baths, and as a fungicide Cadmium sulfide (CdS) bright yellow pigment used as an anti-seborrheic in seborrheic dermatitis but causes photosensitization (Capsebon®) used as pigment in plastics, solar cells, PDs, light emitting diodes, and lasers Cadmium poisoning: Itai-Itai disease first recognised in Japan in the 1960s caused by chronic poisoning of cadmium produced as a result of human activities related to industrialisation characterised by osteomalacia with severe bone pain and is associated with renal tubular dysfunction Mercury (Hg) latin: Hydrargyrum true metal and the only metal in the group that exists as liquid at room temperature (high vapour pressure) easily forms alloys, called amalgams, with other metals such as gold, silver and tin. the ease with which it amalgamates with gold made it useful in recovering gold from its ores mercury amalgams were also used in dental fillings cinnabar HgS “Methrops’s Mineral” or “cinnabarite” is the bright scarlet to brick red form of mercury (HgS) most common source ore for refining elemental mercury historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments Ammoniated mercury other name mercury amidochloride white precipitate antiseptic Nitromersol (C7H5HgNO3) antiseptic and disinfectant Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) corrosive sublimate used for syphilis before primary use as disinfectant for utensils and surgical instruments before (1:1000) Mercurous chloride (Hg2Cl2) other name Calomel before cathartic of choice antiseptic by slow liberation of mercuric ion Yellow mercuric oxide (HgO) yellow precipitate merbromin (Mercurochrome®) thimerosal (Merthiolate®) benzalkonium chloride (new Merthiolate®) Organic mercury poisoning: Minimata disease (methyl mercury) neurological disease caused by severe mercury poisoning signs and symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, loss of peripheral vision, and damage to hearing and speech in extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms a congenital form of the disease affects fetuses in the womb, causing microcephaly, extensive cerebral damage, and symptoms similar to those seen in cerebral palsy Chronic mercury poisoning: Mad hatter’s disease Erethism its name stems from the fact that hatmakers used to of using mercury compound to cure felt it commonly affected hat makers in the 18th to 20th century caused by chronic mercury poisoning is a form of mercury poisoning that affects the brain and nervous system people can develop mercury poisoning by inhaling mercury vapors characterized by emotional, mental, and behavioral changes, among other symptoms Mercury poisoning in children: Acrodynia / pink disease greek term that means painful extremities manifestation of chronic mercury poisoning or idiosyncrasy to mercury symptom complex includes dermatological and systemic manifestations of exposure to various forms of mercury Antidote for mercury poisoning 1st line Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate 2nd line Dimercaprol and penicillamine (Cuprimine®) 3rd line DMSA (dimercapto succinic acid) and succimer Toxins and antidote Toxins Antidote Elemental Hg DMSA. penicillamine Inorganic Hg salts Oral DMSA, BAL Organic Hg DMSA (not BAL) Emergency ingestion Administer 1 egg white for every 250 mg of ingested HgCl2 Thank you for listening!  Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals Georchelle Faith Darcey, RPh BSPh 103: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry (Topic 5c) Magnesium capsules as a sleeping aid  The Alkaline Earth Metals Mg - second most abundant metallic Elements Symbol Atomic no. element in the sea, and carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O) in earth crust. Beryllium Be 4 Magnesium Mg 12 Ca - occurs as calcium carbonate (marble,chalk and etc) and with Calcium Ca 20 magnesium as dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3). Strontium Sr 38 Sr and Br - rare and are found as Barium Ba 56 carbonates and sulphates. Radium Ra 88 Be - rare and is found as beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6). Group IIA of the long form of the periodic table consists of six elements which are: Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), and Radium (Ra). The oxides of the three metals – Ca, Sr, and Ba – were known much earlier than the metals themselves and were called alkaline earths, since they were alkaline in character and occurred in nature as earth's lime (CaO), strontia (SrO) and baryta (BaO). Later, when Ca, Sr, and Ba were discovered, they were named alkaline earth metals. Properties 1. Nature: These elements all are metals. 2. Physical state: These elements have a greyish white lustre when freshly cut and are malleable and ductile. 3. Atomic volume, atomic, and ionic radii: There is an increase of atomic and ionic radii as we move from Be to Ra. Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra Atomic 4.90 13.97 25.9 34.54 36.7 38.0 volume (c.c) Atomic 0.96 1.36 1.74 1.91 1.98 2.20 radii(A°) lonic radii(A°) 0.31 0.65 0.99 1.13 1.35 1.52 4. Ionization potential: The 1st and 2nd ionization potentials of these elements decrease with the increase of atomic Ionization energy, also radii from Be to Ba. However, both these values for Ra are called ionization potential, is slightly higher than those of Ba. a property that all elements on the periodic table have. Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra It is the amount of energy required to remove an Ionisation l₁ 899.5 737.7 589.8 549.5 502.9 509.4 electron from a neutral energies (KJ/mole) l₂ 1757.1 1450.7 1145.4 1064.3 965.2 979.06 atom, which forms an ion. Density is the measurement of how tightly 5. Density: Like alkali metals the density of alkaline earth metals a material is packed also decreases down the order but in an irregular manner due to together. difference in crystal structure of these elements. Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra Density 1.86 1.75 1.55 2.60 3.59 6.0 (gm/cm3) Why alkaline earth metals are denser than alkali metals? Comparing with the alkali metals is denser than alkaline earth metals in the same period. This is due to the fact that, the elements of group The tendency of an II A are packed more tightly due to the greater nuclear charge and element to lose electrons smaller size. is known as electropositivity or 6. Electropositive character: The alkaline earth metals show metallic character. At electropositive character which increases from Be to Ba. the same time, the M → M2+ + 2e- tendency of an atom to Since the ionization energies of these metals are higher than alkali gain electrons is known metals, they are not strongly electropositive as the alkali metals. as electronegativity or electron affinity. The 7. Electronegativity: These metals have small electronegativity which size of an element affects decreases from Be to Ra. the extent of electropositivity and electronegativity. Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra Electronegativity 1.50 1.20 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.97 8. Melting and boiling point: The melting and boiling points of alkaline earth metals do not show any regular trend. They are, however, higher than alkali metals. This is because of two valence electrons and they are strongly bonded in the solid state than alkali metals. Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra Melting Point (°C) 1280 651 851 776 710 960 Boiling Point (°C) 1500 1100 1487 1366 1537 1150 9. Colouration to the flame: In flame test, their electrons absorb energy and excited to higher energy levels. When returning to lower energy level, they give out extra energy which appears as visible light of characteristic colour as shown below: Elements Ca Sr Ba Colour of the flame Brick red Crimson red Apple green Be and Mg do not give any colour to the flame. 10. Conductivity: Like alkali metals they are also very good conductor of heat and electricity. Chemical properties of alkaline earth metals 1. Reducing property: Alkaline earth metals have two electrons in their valence shell. Due to large size they are comparatively easily oxidised to M2+ ions. They are, therefore, strong reducing agents. 2. Reaction with oxygen: The alkaline earth metals react readily on heating with O2 to form oxides, MO. 2M + O2 → 2MO The peroxides of heavier metals (Ca, Sr, Ba etc.) can be obtained on heating the normal oxides with O2 at high temperature. 2BaO+ O2 → 2BaO2 3. Reaction with hydrogen: Ca, Sr and Ba react with H2 when heated to produce crystalline metal hydrides. These hydrides react readily with water to give hydrogen. MH2 + 2H2O → M(OH)2 + 2H2 4. Reaction with nitrogen: These metals form nitrides on heating in presence of nitrogen which are hydrolysed by H2O to give ammonia. 3M + N2 → M3N2 MзN2 + 6H2O → 3M(OH)2 + 2NH3 5. Reaction with water: The alkaline earth metals readily react with water giving off hydrogen and forming metal hydroxides. M +2H2O → M(OH)2 + H2 Be and Mg do not react readily with water due to their low reactivity. Be does not react even at elevated temperature. Mg reacts only with steam. 6. Reaction with halogen: The alkaline earth metals directly react with halogen to give metal halides. M+ X2 MX2, X = F, Cl, Br, I Comparison between alkali and alkaline earth metal Similarities: The alkali and alkaline earth metals have quite a good deal of resemblance in their properties. The points of similarity are: Like alkali metals, alkaline earth metals are electropositive and have great chemical activity. The electropositive nature continuously increases from beryllium to radium in the second group, as in the first group from lithium to caesium. They do not occur freely in nature. Both are extracted by electrolytic method from their salts such as chlorides. Both are soft and silvery white in untarnished condition and very light. React with water to give hydroxides and hydrogen (gas). Their hydrides produce strong base with water. NaH + H2O → NaOH + H2 CaH2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + 2H2 They have strong reducing property and forms ionic compounds. They react with water or oxygen with readiness and show much activity towards other substances. Dissimilarities: The points of the contrast between the alkali and alkaline earth metals arise mainly due to the presence of 2 valence electrons in the case of alkaline earth metals and 1 valence electron in the case of alkali metals. Beryllium Amphoteric (act as base and acid) Occurs as simple salts and as berylates Bridge element which resembles Al in behavior Most toxic metal Uses: Alloying agent for lightweight materials; used to make windows for X -ray tubes and in nuclear reactors *None of its compounds are used in pharmacy Magnesium 6th most abundant elements in the earth’s crust Obtained by electrolysis of molten chloride in the Dow process 2nd major intracellular cation Sacrificial anode for corrosion protection Natural Ca2+ channel blockers Functions: 1. Magnesium is needed for DNA repair. 2. It moderates cellular differentiation and proliferation and improves tissue sensitivity to circulating insulin. 3. It is a component of enzymes required for the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the release of energy from ATP. 4. It is also a component of enzymes involved in muscle contraction and protein synthesis. 5. Decreased magnesium in the blood is called hypomagnesemia. Clinically, it is accompanied by increased neuromuscular irritability. Dow's process of extraction of Mg involves extraction of Mg from sea water. Sea water is concentrated in sunlight and is then treated with slaked lime. Magnesium hydroxide is heated in a stream of HCl to give MgCl2 which is electrolysed to discharge Mg. The mixture is in the ratio 35% MgCl2 + 50% NaCl + 15% CaCl2. 1. MgO As antacid In Mg deficiency As an universal antidote As an ingredient of zinc phosphate cellulose 2. Mg(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 is used In high dose as a laxative Usually as a non-systemic antacid Prophylactically in stress induced ulcer As soap suspending and emulsifying agent 3. Magnesium tri-silicate As gastric antacid In drug toxicity 4. Magnesium tri-silicate hydrated [Mg2Si ̧Oo.2H2O] Suspending agent without the help of any other compound. Thickening agent in the production of chocolate 7-8.5% Mg(OH)2 is called milk of magnesia and is used as laxative. 5. MgSO4 In the treatment of eclampsia as an intravenous bolus and a continuous infusion of magnesium sulfate are administered. A soluble salt of magnesium, is used parenterally in clinical medicine to treat, e.g., hypomagnesemia and torsade de pointes. 6. MgCO3 As an antacid and mid laxative As an additive in tooth & face powder Erysipelas is a bacterial skin infection involving the upper dermis that characteristically extends into the superficial cutaneous lymphatics. Calcium Major component of the bone marrow Component of hydroxyapatite in bones and teeth to give rigidity (bone matrix is made of calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and collagen fibres) Important for blood clotting, enzyme activation, and acid-base balance Essential for lactation, the function of nerves and muscles including heart muscle, and maintenance of membrane permeability EXCESS: Hypercalcemia can cause constipation, renal stones, cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac arrest, and depressed brain function (e.g., lethargy or coma). High serum calcium levels are usually the result of either hyperparathyroidism or metastatic cancer and may be reduced with hydration, diuresis, corticosteroids, or bisphosphonate drugs like pamidronate. Burnett's syndrome is far-advanced milk-alkali syndrome and due to long-standing calcium and alkali ingestion. It is characterised by severe hypercalcaemia, irreversible renal failure, and phosphate retention. There may be ectopic calcification. Acid rebound happens when your body makes too much acid after you stop taking an acid-suppressing medication. This extra stomach acid can cause GERD symptoms. These may be similar to, or even worse than, your original symptoms. The symptoms of acid rebound vary from person to person. Strontium Similar properties to calcium Non-luminous flame → crimson red Barium Barium sulfate ○ used in X-ray imaging to enhance visibility of the digestive tract; it is administered orally (barium swallow) or rectally (barium enema) to provide clear images of the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and colon. acts as a radiopaque substance that does not dissolve in water, making it ideal for creating contrast in X-rays and CT scans ○ in GI examinations, it helps detect conditions like ulcers, tumors, and blockages. Radium Radium-223 dichloride (Xofigo®) ○ still used today in targeted alpha-particle therapy for treating bone metastases in prostate cancer, delivering localized radiation to destroy cancerous cells Thank you for listening!  Group 1B: The Coinage Metals Georchelle Faith Darcey, RPh BSPh 103: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry (Topic 5b) Properties includes copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au) occurs as free metallic state in nature relatively easy to recover from ores have been used for centuries for the fabrication of coins readily act as central unit of complexes ○ hydroxides and many of its simple salts are insoluble in water ○ soluble compounds are toxic two different valence states exist for copper and gold, giving rise to compounds which can almost be considered as having originated from two different elements Copper (Cu) only reddish colored metal third most malleable metal highly conductive metal that's considered the gold standard for electrical wiring ○ excellent conductor of heat (surpassed only by Ag and Au) and electricity (surpassed by Ag) ○ resistant to corrosion and has a high thermal resistance that helps prevent overheating forms two series of salts: cuprous and cupric salts Cuprous ion (Cu1+) readily undergo disproportionation, a reaction in which a compound undergoes oxidation ○ 2 H2O2 = 2 H2O + O2 (here hydrogen peroxide is oxidized to oxygen and is reduced to water) water insoluble all its precipitates are white except: ○ Cu2S (Copper sulfide) - black ○ Cu2O (Copper oxide) - brick red Cupric ion (Cu2+) maximum oxidation state present in hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase ○ Hemocyanin, a copper-containing protein chemically unlike hemoglobin, is found in some crustaceans. Hemocyanin is blue in colour when oxygenated and colourless when oxygen is removed. Some annelids have the iron-containing green pigment chlorocruorin, others the iron-containing red pigment hemerythrin. Responsible for the binding, transportation and storage of dioxygen within the blood (hemolymph) of many invertebrates. ○ Cytochrome oxidase is a transmembrane molecule found in the mitochondria of eukaryotes and in the cellular space of aerobic prokaryotes. This molecule is a proton pump that plays a vital role in producing energy, in the form of ATP, via the ETS. Copper (Cu) alloys alloy - a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion ○ Cu + Sn = bronze ○ Cu + Zn = brass Copper (Cu) pharmacologic actions protein precipitant (heavy metal) enhances the utilization of iron Copper (Cu) toxicity Wilson Disease is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder caused by abnormal copper accumulation in the body particularly involving the brain, liver, and cornea (Kayser-Fleischer ring). Copper (Cu) toxicity antidote Penicillamine (Cuprimine®) D-Penicillamine is the primary chelator used in copper toxicity, although EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and DMPS (dimercaptopropane sulfonic acid) may also be used for heavy metal toxicity with copper. It is a chelating agent that helps remove copper from the body especially excess copper associated with Wilson's disease. Copper (Cu) deficiency Menkes Disease is caused by mutations in the ATP7A gene that regulates the metabolism of copper in the body The disease primarily affects male infants. Copper accumulates at abnormally low levels in the liver and brain, but at higher-than-normal levels in the kidney and intestinal lining. COPPER ACETOARSENITE CUPRIC SULFATE Cu(C2H3O2)2·3Cu(AsO2)2 CuSO₄ BLUE VITRIOL, BLUE STONE, ROMAN VITRIOL, SALZBURG PARIS GREEN antidote for phosphorus poisoning insecticide stimulates vomiting reflux (emetic) enhance the utilization of iron algaecide and fungicide in swimming pools component of: ○ Benedict’s Solution ○ Fehling’s Solution (Fehling’s A) ○ Barfoed’s Solution ○ Bordeaux Mixture: CuSO4 and Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime) or quick lime (CaO) Benedict's reagent is the solution used in Benedict's test to detect simple sugars such as glucose It is a bright blue solution prepared by mixing copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4. 5H2O), sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7), and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in distilled water. Fehling’s A solution is an aqueous solution of copper sulfate which is also blue in color due to presence of copper It is prepared by dissolving copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4. 5H2O) in distilled water and then adding some drops of dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Barfoed's test is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of monosaccharides It is based on the reduction of copper (II) acetate to copper (I) oxide (Cu2O), which forms the brick red precipitate. Bordeaux mixture an aqueous solution of copper sulfate and lime an effective fungicide and bactericide that has been used for decades to control diseases of fruit and nut trees, vine fruits, and ornamental plants Silver (Ag) latin: Argentum common salts of silver are insoluble or only slightly soluble in water (except nitrate and fluoride) silver has oligodynamic action ○ provide local germicidal action since silver ion has the ability to precipitate protein and chlorides in tissues (ex. AgNO3) Silver (Ag) Toughened silver nitrate, the product of forming some 5% silver chloride (AgCl) in silver nitrate (AgNO3) by the addition of hydrochloric acid (HCl) or potassium chloride (KCl), is cast into sticks and used as styptic. Discoloration due to photosensitivity of silver ion can result to cosmetic problems. ○ Silver compounds must be protected using light–resistant containers. There is renewed interest in ophthalmology for silver or silver compounds in colloidal solution that were once used widely as topical antiseptics (ex. mild silver protein). Silver (Ag) properties very soft, ductile, and malleable metal FINE SILVER ○ 99.9% purity ○ too soft ○ usually alloyed to give strength while preserving ductility and the beauty of metal STERLING SILVER ○ 92.5% Ag + 7.5% Cu SILVER NITRATE (AgNO3) LUNAR CAUSTIC, LAPIS INFERNALIS (CAUSTIC PENCIL) component of indelible ink used for the treatment of warts 1% ophthalmic solution ○ prophylaxis for gonorrhea ophthalmia neonatorum ○ replaced by ERYTHROMYCIN ointment as current therapy TOUGHENED SILVER NITRATE SILVER NITRATE PENCIL, MOULDED SILVER NITRATE, FUSED SILVER NITRATE, LUNAR CAUSTIC “toughened” using 5% AgCl removal of warts, canker sores in the mouth SILVER PROTEINATES Silver Proteinates Medicinal Use % Ag (unionized) MILD SILVER PROTEIN Antiseptic for the eyes 19-23 (ARGYROL) STRONG SILVER PROTEIN Antiseptic for the ears and throat 7.5-8.5 (PROTARGOL) COLLOIDAL SILVER PROTEIN General germicide 18-22 (COLLARGOL) Gold (Au) latin: Aurum king of all metals, the most precious and expensive* metal most malleable metal best conductor of electricity Gold (Au) toxicity Gold dermatitis British anti-Lewisite (BAL) / dimercaprol, is a parenterally administered heavy metal chelating agent that is used to treat arsenic, gold, copper and mercury poisoning. Gold (Au) Can be dissolved by: AGUA REGIA - 3 parts HCl : 1 part HNO3 aqua regia Gold chloroauric acid SELENIC ACID - only single acid that can dissolve gold selenic acid Gold auric selenate PURPLE OF CASSIUS - colloidal gold + stannous hydroxide GOLD COMPOUNDS DMARDS-DISEASE MODIFYING Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) are a group of medications commonly used in people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Some of these drugs are also used in treating other conditions such as ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. 1. AUROTHIOGLUCOSE IM; 50% Au for RA Au sodium aurothiomalate is also indicated for the treatment of adult and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (RA) that is unresponsive to conventional chemotherapy. 2. AURANOFIN (Ridaura®) Oral; 28-29% Au Auranofin is not a true pain reliever (such as like aspirin) but it is thought to decrease pain that occurs with arthritis by decreasing inflammation. It decreases morning stiffness and pain/swelling in joints and can increase grip strength. Thank you for listening!  GROUP IA 1 VALENCE electron ALKALI METALS +1 oxidation state Basic hydroxides PREPARED BY: GISELLE TAPAY NACORDA-REFORMINA,RPH DISCUSSED BY: GEORCHELLE FAITH DARCEY, RPh  Hydrogen (H) Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Rubidium ( Rb) Cesium (Cs) Francium (Fr)  HYDROGEN (H) At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula H 2. It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, and highly combustible. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical substance in the universe, constituting roughly 75% of all normal matter. “Inflammable Air” Messerschmitt process for the “Lightest Element” production of hydrogen ISOTOPES PROTIUM- most common and What are Isotopes? stable isotopes Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of DEUTERIUM-heavy isotopes neutrons are called isotopes. They share almost the same (D2O Deuterium chemical properties, but differ in mass and therefore in physical oxide/”heavy water” is used properties. as solvent in NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) Spectroscopy TRITIUM-radioactive isotope Tritium has been produced in large quantities by the nuclear military program. It is also used to make luminous dials and as a source of light for sarety signs. Tritium is used as a tracer for biochemical research, animal metabolism studies and ground water transport measurements. Industrial Uses: WATER (H2O) ✔ HABER process- production of ammonia Omnipresent; universal solvent ✔ HYDROGENATION Maximum density at 4 deg C and OF OILS-principle chemically stable compound for production of Readily act as ligand, acid or margarine base, or an oxidizing or reducing ✔ INFLATING agent BALLOONS- not Room temperature: 25 deg C used anymore (0.994 density)  TYPE OF WATER 1. Water of crystallization-water associated when crystals precipitate from aqueous solution 2. Water of Hydration- water associated with cations and/or anions of a salt in solution or crystal *common in solid solvent ex. CuSO4 5H20 blue gray 3. Zeolytic water-physically held water 4. Lattice water- water coordinated in a cationic complex or held in definite lattice structure of the crystals 5. Natural or Mineral waters- contain dissolved minerals or materials indigenous to the region, varying amounts of suspended matter, dissolved atmospheric gases and metabolic decomposition products. 6. Alkaline Waters- Na2So4 and MgSo4 with NaHCO3 (makes it alkaline) 7. Carbonated Waters- charged while in the earth with CO2 8.Chalybeate waters- contains Fe in solution or suspension (brownish with ferrogenous taste) 9. Lithia Waters- do not contain appreciable quantities of Li, either as carbonate or chloride 10. Saline waters- purgative waters; high amount og MgSO4, Na2SO4 & NaCl 11. Sulfur Waters- Contain H2S and deposit S upon exposure to atmosphere (yellow) 12. Siliceous waters-soluble alkali silicates  OTHER IMPORTANT WATERS WATER HARDNESS ❖ Temporary Hardness ✔ Potable Water Fit to drink; free from coliform; water treated to : contains mainly dissolved Ca remove insoluble matter and Mg bicarbonate ✔ Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP : can be removed by boiling Sterile water for injection with one or more (ppted as carbonates) antimicrobial agents have been added; not for IV ❖ Permanent Hardness BENZYL ALCOHOL as bacteriostatic agent : contains mainly dissolved Ca causes gasping syndrome in neonates and Mg sulfate and chloride in ✔ Water for Injection, USP pyrogen free; solvent for parenteral products; water large-scale ,manufacturing : can be removed by ion ✔ Sterile Water for Injection exchange resin For extemporaneous compounding HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AGUA OXIGENADA, AGUA OXENADA,OXYGENIZED ACID, OXYGENIZED WATER Use: treatment for Vincent’s Stomatitis ( severe form of gingivitis), as mouthwash, antiseptic (popular use), bleaching agent in hair (cosmetic use) Commercial availability : 10- volume and 20-volume solution Hydrogen Peroxide Topical Solution,USP: 10 volume solution (3%) stabilizer: ACETANILIDE  LITHIUM ❖ Lightest of all metals Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3) ❖ Highly reactive ▪ Widely used in the prophylaxis and ❖ Depressants to nerve treatment of bipolar disorders; last line of therapy for mania centers ❖ Stored under oil or coated ▪ Preperations with petrolatum ▪ Li2CO3 capsules - Eskalith® ❖ EBSTEIN’S ANOMALY ▪ Li2CO3 tablets – Lithane® teratogenic ▪ Li2CO3 extended-release tablets Quilonium® effect to the tricuspid valve of the heart  SODIUM ▪ Latin: natrium ▪ Major extracellular cation ▪ Stored under kerosene ▪ Cation used to optimized pharmaceutical ▪ Promotes water retention and should be used in caution to patients with heart and kidney condition ▪ ALDOSTERONE-hormone for Na+ regulation  SODIUM PREPARATIONS SODIUM ACETATE (CH3COONa) Diuretic, urinary and systemic alkalizer, IV therapy for metabolic acidosis and hyponatremia SODIUM BICARBONATE (NaHCO3) BAKING SODA 2nd major extracellular anion Uses: urinary and systemic alkalizer, carbonating agent, important physiological buffer * Bicarbonates and carbonates =carbonating agent  SODIUM BROMIDE (NaBr) Treatment and prophylaxis of bipolar disorder and mania (bromides) MONOBASIC SODIUM PHOSPHATE (NaH2PO4) Source of phosphorus in hypophosphatemia, used in hypercalcemia; urinary acidifier Necessary for activation of METHENAMINE urinary antiseptic effective when urine is acidified DIBASIC SODIUM PHOSPHATE (Na2HPO4) FLEET ENEMA, SODIUM PHOSPHATE, PHOSPHATE OF SODA Most palatable saline laxative available as FLEET® Dibasic phosphate ion: primary anion in intracellular fluid TRIBASIC SODIUM PHOSPHATE (Na3PO4) Aqueous solution is very alkaline; used to clean glass apparatus CELLULOSE SODIUM PHOSPHATE Cation exchange resin that preferentially blinds Ca and other divalent ions Treatment for hypercalcemia SODIUM POTASSIUM TARTRATE (NaKC4H4O6) ROCHELLE’S SALT,SAL SEIGNETTE, SEIGNETTE SALT Used as cathartic agent; component of FEHLING’S B ( A-CuSO4) SODIUM BORATE ( Na3BO3) BORAX (sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 10 H2) Use: alkalinizing agent; eyewash; buffer and water softener SODIUM CARBONATE (Na2CO3) Anhydrous : SODA ASH Decahydrate : SAL SODA, WASHING SODA, SODA CRYSTALS Carbonating agent SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) TABLE SALT,ROCK SALT, SEA SALT, SOLAR SALT, BRINE Chloride: major extracellular anion Component of Ringer’s solution and Lactated Ringer’s solution Ringer’s Solution : “solution of 3 chlorides”( NaCl, KCl, CaCl2) Lactated Ringer’s Solution: :Hartmann’s Solution” ( NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Na lactate) SODIUM CITRATE (Na3C6H5O7) Uses: in vitro – anticoagulant in vivo – systemic and urinary alkalizer, expectorant and laxative SODIUM SULFATE (Na2SO4) GLAUBER’S SALT ( Na2SO4 10H2O) Use: drying organic for organic solvent SODIUM FLUORIDE ( NaF ) Fluoride ion: very corrosive, used in glass etching, causes painful and slow healing burns, very toxic Uses: anticariogenic agent, topical application is used to desensitize teeth SODIUM GLUCONATE (NaC6H11O7) Use: electrolytes replenisher (gluconate salt is less irritating vs. chloride salts) SODIUM NITRATE (NaNO3) CHILE SALTPETER Use: meat preservative SODA LIME ( CaHNaO2) CALYX SODICA (CaO + NaOH) Good CO2 absorber for anesthesia machines, O2 therapy and metabolic tests SODIUM NITRITE (NaNO3 ) Use : antidote for cyanide poisoning SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) CAUSTIC SODA, SOSA, LYE, SODA LYE, LIQUID SOSA Deliquescent (absorb moisture and liquefy) *Hygroscopic : absorb moisture from atmosphere but not liquefy *Efflorescent: gives off water to the environment Strong Base Uses: saponifying agent for hard soap; necessity in preparing Glycerin suppositories SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE (NaClO) DAKIN’S SOLUTION (5%) , BLEACH Chlorox® Uses: disinfectant, bleaching agent Labarraque solution (2.5%) Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite Solution /Modified Dakin’s Solution 450-500 mg NaClO in 100 ml used as antiseptic, irrigation for wounds and foot bath (0.45-0.5%) SODIUM IODIDE ( NaI ) Iodide ions: has expectorant action Uses: solubilizer of iodine in iodine preparations SODIUM MONOFLUOROPHOSPHATE ( Na2PO3F ) Use: anticariogenic SODIUM NITOPRUSSIDE Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] Nitropress® hypotensive agent Protect from light (photooxidation= CN) SODIUM THIOSULFATE (Na2S2O3 ) HYPOCHLOR, “PHOTOGRAPHER’S HYPO” Good reducing agent,antioxidant Use: cathartic and antidote for cyanide poisoning SODIUM POLYSTERENE SULFONATE Kayesalate® Preferentially binds K+; treatment for hyperkalemia Cation exchange resin administered orally or rectally SODIUM SULFIDE (Na2S) used for removal of pain and discomfort of ingrown toenails SODIUM SACCHARIN (C 7H 4NNaO 3S 2H 20 ) Artificial sweetener SODIUM ASCORBATE (C 6H 7NaO 6 ) Good reducing agent, antioxidant SODIUM FORMALDEHYDE SULFOXYLATE Use: best antidote for mercury poisoning particularly for bichloride salt SODIUM METABISULFITE (Na2S2O5 ) SODIUM SULFITE Na2SO3 Good reducing agents, antioxidants SODIUM TARTRATE Use: laxative, diuretic Dihydrate: used as primary reagent for KARL FISCHER REAGENT SODIUM STARCH GLYCOLATE Use: tablet disintegrant SODIUM PERBORATE NaBO3 Use: mild disinfectant and deodorant Readily releases oxygen upon contract with easily oxidizable materials MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE C5H8NO4Na Use: Flavor enhancer (MSG/Betsin)  POTASSIUM Latin: kalium SULFURATED POTASH K2SO4 Major intracellular cation LIVER OF SULFUR, HEPAR SULFUR, POTASH : soluble K+ salts POTASSIA SULFURATE Mixture of POTASSIUM SULFIDE and THIOSULFATE containing with 12% Roles: protein synthesis, sulfur impulse Necessity in White Lotion, USP – Lotio Alba (Sulfurated Potash + transmission,acid-base ZnSO4) balance, activator of several Use : astringent, protective, enzymes, diuretic, treatment of parasitic diseases of contraction of muscles the skin POTASSIUM ACETATE (CH3COOK) Use: systemic and urinary alkalizer POTASSIUM BICARBONATE KHCO3 Use: carbonating agent for Magnesium Citrate Oral Solution (MCOS) POTASSIUM BITARTRATE KC4H5O6 CREAM OF TARTAR, ARGOL,ACID POTASSIUM TARTRATE Use: ingredient of baking powder to raise dough POTASSIUM CARBONATE K2CO3 POTASH, PEARL ASH, SALT OF TARTAR, SALT OF WORMWOOD POTASSIUM CHLORIDE KCl ✔ Use: potassium replenisher for hypokalemia states ✔ Preferred salt for the correction of hypokalemia ✔ Component of Ringer’s and Lactated Ringer’s solutions ✔ Component of Darrow’s solution KCl, NaC l, Na lactate ✔ Component of Lethal injection (IV push) ✔ Available as KCl extended release tablets- Kalium Durules® POTASSIUM CITRATE K3C6H5O7 Use: systemic alkalizer, expectorant, diaphoretic, osmotic diuretic Potassium Citrate ER Tablets Acalka® POTASSIUM GLUCONATE KC6H11O7 Use: electrolyte replenisher POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE KOH CAUSTIC POTASH, POTASH LYE Deliquescent, strong base (same with NaOH) Use: saponifying agent for Medicated Soft Soap, USP Soft soap: KOH Hard soap: NaOH POTASSIUM IODIDE KI source of iodide in table salt for prevention of goiter : 1 part of KI to 100,000 parts of salt Treatment of hyperthyroidism; preparation for thyroid surgery Solubilizer for iodine DOC: cutaneous lymphatic sporotrichosis (Rose Gardener’s Disease) Causative agent: Sporothrix schenckii Necessity of Lugol’s Solution I2 in KI POTASSIUM NITRATE KNO3 SALTPETER Use: tooth-desensitizing agent POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE KClO4 Strong oxidizing property Use (old): antithyroid agent for the treatment of hyperthyroidism POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE KMnO4 MINERAL CHAMELEON Deep purple color, strong oxidizing agent Used in bromhidrosis (body odor), myocytic infections and poison ivy dermatitis Solutions used for cleansing wounds, ulcers, abscesses, wet dressings, baths in eczematous conditions POTASSIUM METABISULFITE K2S2O5 good reducing agent ; antioxidant POTASSIUM METAPHOSPHATE KPO3 USE: buffering agent MONOBASIC POTASSIUM PHOSPHATE, KH2PO4 DIBASIC POTASSIUM PHOSPHATE K2HPO4 SORENSEN’S POTASSIUM PHOSPHATE; used in conjunction for treatment of hypercalcemia POTASSIUM SORBATE USE: preservative and antimicrobial  RUBIDIUM & CESIUM very similar in behavior to potassium ion (K+) RUBIDIUM CHLORIDE RbCl Rubidium Chloride Injection,USP Cardiogen® cardiac imaging (PET/ Positron Emission Tomography Scan) for patients with suspected myocardial infection CELSIUM CHLORIDE CsCl Used in density, gradient configuration  AMMONIUM ✔ PSEUDO- alkali metal ion, similar properties to Group IA ✔ Often preferred to alkali bases ✔ AQUEOUS AMMONIA : MILD ALKALIZER ✔ HOUSEHOLD AMMONIA: 10% NH3 known as 16 (degrees Baume) AMMONIA AMMONIUM CARBONATE (NH4)2 CO3 AMMONIA CRYSTAL, SAL VOLATILE, AMMONIA SESQUICARBONATE, PRESTON SALT, HARTSHORN Pharmaceutical necessity for Aromatic Ammonia Spirit, USP AMMONIUM CHLORIDE NH4Cl SAL AMMONIAC, SALMIAC, MURIATE OF AMMONIA USE: osmotic diuretic, systemic acidifier, expectorant, urinary acidifier AMMONIUM ALUM & POTASSIUM ALUM TAWAS: astringent and antiperspirant STRONG AMMONIA SOLUTION STRONGER AMMONIA WATER, STRONGER AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION, SPIRIT OF HARTSHORN USE: for chemical and pharmaceutical purposes mainly use by making ammonia water by dilution Ingredient in making Aromatic Ammonia Spirit AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE (NH4)3PO4 USE: diuretic and buffering agent in pharmaceutical preparations AROMATIC AMMONIA SPIRIT respiratory stimulant in case of hysterical syncope THANK YOU FOR LISTENING Group 3A: The Boron Family 3. Sodium perborate – local anti-infective Georchelle Faith Darcey, RPh BSPh 103: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry Aluminum (Topic 5e) * most abundant metal in earth’s crust Borosilicate glass (silica and boron oxide) * 3rd most abundant element (being exceeded only by oxygen and silicon) * Bauxite (impure Al2O3): most important ore of Al * has a diagonal relationship with Mg * metal and hydroxides are amphoteric * Al+3 ion does not exist independently in polar solvents  Toxicity by inhalation: Shaver’s Disease * aluminum oxide dust * neurotoxic  Therapeutic uses: * for treatment of burns Characteristics * as skin protectant – Ladd’s Paste (aluminum powder, * Boron/Aluminum Family liquid petrolatum, zinc oxide) * B, Al, Ga, In, Tl * as an antacid, antiperspirant, deodorant (aluminum * exists in +3 oxidation state compounds) * gives rise to alums  Pharmaceutical uses: * true alums: Ammonium alum, Potassium alum, Ferric * packaging material for pharmaceuticals, food, alum beverages, and aerosol products Aluminum chloride, USP Boron * Therapeutic uses: astringent, antiseptic, antiperspirant in deodorant * has a diagonal relationship with Si * share similar properties despite being in different groups * Drawback: can cause damage to clothing as well as skin irritation * have comparable atomic radii and ionic radii * Remedy: Use buffered aluminum salts * the element and its compounds are toxic Alum – the term alum may refer to: ammonium alum, USP * industrial use: vulcanization of natural rubber to create or potassium alum, USP thermal neutron shields Aluminum sulfate, USP Pharmaceutical uses * Therapeutic uses: astringent, antiperspirant (8%) 1. Boric Acid, NF – topical anti-infective (bacteriostatic) 2. Borates – ingredient of cold creams, eyewashes, and mouthwashes (bacteriostatic) arpenonia Aluminum subacetate topical solution, USP Aluminum silicates * Contains aluminum sulfate, acetic acid, calcium a. Bentonite, NF carbonate, and water * Soap clay, mineral soap * Pharmaceutical use: excipient for aluminum acetate * Native colloidal aluminum silicate topical solution (Burow’s Solution) * Swelling clay Aluminum acetate topical solution, USP * Pharmaceutical use: suspending agent * Burow’s solution, Liquor burowii * Single-ingredient preparation: Bentonite magma, NF – * Contains Aluminum subacetate topical solution, glacial 5% bentonite suspension in water acetic acid, and water b. Purified bentonite, NF * Therapeutic use: astringent c. Kaolin , USP * Relieves itching and swelling associated with poison ivy irritation * China clay * Relieves swelling associated with minor bruises * Native hydrated aluminum silicate * Reduces foot sweat * Therapeutic uses: antidiarrheal agent (internal administration) Aluminum hydroxide gel, USP – a suspension of amorphous aluminum hydroxide in which there is partial * intestinal adsorbent and demulcent substitution of carbonate for hydroxide. It may contain * Dusting powder (external application) flavoring, sweeteners (glycerin, sorbitol, sucrose, saccharin) and antimicrobial agents. * For ulcers and moist infections * Therapeutic uses: * Pharmaceutical use: tablet diluent * Gastric antacid * Single preparation: Amphojel®, AlternaGel®, Nephrox® Pumice, NF * Combination Preparations (USP) * Pumex 1. Alumina and Magnesia * substance of volcanic origin which consists of a complex silicate of aluminum, sodium, and potassium 2. Alumina and Magnesium Carbonate * very light, hard, rough, and porous material 3. Alumina and Magnesium Trisilicate Pharmaceutical uses: 4. Alumina, Magnesia, and Calcium Carbonate * filtering and distributing medium for pharmaceutical 5. Alumina, Magnesia, and Simethicone preparations 6. Alumina, Magnesium Carbonate, and Magnesium * used in certain soaps and cleaning powders (grittiness) Oxide * dental abrasive  Side effects: constipation and could interfere with absorption of phosphate Aluminum xarbonate, USP Galium * Therapeutic uses: gastric antacid; for * the only metal that melts at near hyperphosphatemia in patients with kidney failure human body temperature (phosphates binder) arpenonia * has the lowest melting point among metallic elements 1. Arrhenius concept except Hg According to Arrhenius theory, acid is a substance that * Galium nitrate – use for correction of hypercalcemia gives H+ ions on dissolving in the aqueous solution. It related to certain cancers increases the concentration of H+ ions in the solution. The base is a substance that ionises OH– ion by dissolving in Thallium the aqueous solution. The concentration of OH- ions is Toxicity of Tl compounds: high in the solution. * easily absorbed from the intestine * ingestion causes green tongue and alopecia * former uses: poison (rodenticide) and depilatory * antidote: Prussian blue Pharmaceutical Aids and Necessities: Inorganic Acids and Bases, Buffers, Anti-oxidants, and Official Waters Georchelle Faith Darcey, RPh BSPh 103: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry(Topic 6) Terms 1. Acids and bases – frequently employed in the conversion of drugs to chemical forms convenient to their product formulations. 2. Buffers – used to maintain the pH of various formulations within prescribed limits. 3. Antioxidants – used to prevent oxidative decomposition of pharmaceutically active components. 4. Water – the primary solvent or liquid phase in most liquid pharmaceutical preparations. 5. Glass – used in storage and dispensing containers for most drug products. arpenonia 2. Bronsted-Lowry concept Official Inorganic Acids According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, acid is a substance Boric acid, NF (H3BO3) which donates an H+ ion or a proton and forms its conjugate base and the base is a substance which accepts  Boric acid is a solid soluble in water and alcohol, an H+ ion or a proton and forms its conjugate acid. and freely soluble in glycerin, boiling water, and boiling alcohol. It is available in three forms: a) colorless,odorless pearly scales b) six-sided triclinic crystals and c) white, odorless powder which is unctuous to the touch (having a soapy feeling)  It has antimicrobial action. Hydrochloric acid, USP (HCl) Hydrochloric acid is an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride gas containing not less than 35% and not more than 38% by weight of HCl. It is described as a colorless, fuming liquid having a pungent odor and a specific gravity of about 1.18. Hydrogen chloride is a colorless gas having an acrid irritating odor and an acid taste. It is about 25% heavier than air, as reflected by its density of 1.2681. The gas can be liquefied by pressure alone, and both the liquid and vapor states are non conductors of electricity. Muriatic acid (from the Latin muria, meaning brine) is a technical grade of hydrochloric acidcontaining 35 to 38% HCl and a number of impurities including chlorine, arsenous and sulfurous acids, and iron. The impurities give it a characteristic yellow color. Hydrochloric acid is a strong monoprotic acid which can be assayed conveniently by titrating a weighed sample against standard 1N NaOH using methyl red as an indicator. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H O 3. Lewis acid-base conceptLewis acids and bases are described by the Lewis theory of acid-base reactions as Uses: acidifying agent electron-pair acceptors and electron pair donors Diluted hydrochloric acid, NF respectively. Therefore, a Lewis base can This is a solution of hydrogen chloride containing not less donate a pair of than 9.5 g and not more than 10.5 g of HCl in each 100 ml electrons to a Lewis of solution. When Diluted hydrochloric acid is further acid to form a product diluted with 25 to 50 volumes of water it may be used as a containing a coordinate gastric acidifier when the level of hydrochloric acid in the covalent bond. gastric juice is low (achlorhydria). Diluted hydrochloric acid can be used as an acidifying agent in much the same arpenonia manner as the more concentrated solution. That is,  When heated strongly, sulfuric acid is vaporized organic bases will form water soluble hydrochloride salts and gives off dense, white fumes of sulfur trioxide, in dilute solutions of HCl.Dilute solutions may actually be SO3. employed, more frequently than HCl USP in the chemical treatment of compounds to form salts, to extract basic ￮ It dissolves in water and alcohol with the evolution of drugs, and to test for alkaline properties. large amounts of heat. Nitric acid, NF (HNO3) ￮ Although it can be heated sufficiently to drive off SO3 it does not volatilizes at lower levels of heat, e.g., the  Highly corrosive fuming liquid having a boiling point of water. characteristic, highly irritating odor  Produces a yellow stain on animal tissues due to Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) nitration of the aromatic amino acids,  The ability of sulfuric acid to take up water is phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, found in evident when the concentrated acid is added to the protein of the skin (xanthoproteic test) water, with large amounts of heat being liberated.  An oxidizing (oxidizes all common metals except There is also a volume contraction noticeable in gold and platinum to produce the nitrate salt of the final mixture. The production of heat is the metal and, depending upon the concentration believed to be due to the formation of hydrates of and position of the metal with respect to hydrogen sulfuric acid according to rXN: in the electromotive series, various oxides of nitrogen or ammonia. With metals above H2SO4 + nH2O H2SO4. nH2O hydrogen in the electromotive series, such as Zn, conc. Nitric acid produces ammonia in the form of  usually classified as a nonvolatile acid ammonium nitrate, while dilute acid yields  may be assayed by titrating a weighed sample principally nitrous oxide, N2O) against 1N sodium hydroxide, using methyl red as  Uses an indicator ￮ although the acidic properties of nitric acid are similar to Strong ammonia solution, NF those of hydrochloric acid, making it useful as an acidifying Ammonium hydroxide, Stronger ammonia water agent with bases, its oxidizing and nitrating properties add a unique dimension to its use as compared with most The solution is clear, colorless liquid, having an other acids exceedingly pungent, characteristic odor, and a specific gravity of about 0.90. ￮ It is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, coal tar contains not less than 27.0% and not more than 30.0% dyes, and explosives. by weight of ammonia ￮ It is also used as a nitrating agent in Pyroxylin, USP XVIII, upon exposure to air, it loses ammonia rapidly and as a source of nitrate ion in the preparation of Milk of CAUTION: Use care in handling Strong ammonia Bismuth, NF XIII. solution because of the caustic nature of the Solution and ￮ It has been used externally to destroy chancres and the irritating properties of its vapor. Cool the container well before opening, and cover the closure with a cloth or warts, but is rarely, if ever, prescribed for internal use. similar material while opening. Do not taste Strong Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Ammonia Solution, and avoid inhalation of its vapor.  a colorless, odorless liquid of oily consistency Liquid ammonia is a good solvent and ionizing medium. containing not less than 94% and not more than It will dissolve salts to form ionic solutions. 98% of sulfuric acid It will also dissolve alkali and alkaline earth metals to  strong diprotic acid form blue solutions which decompose slowly in the  has a specific gravity of not less than 1.84 presence of impurities arpenonia Ammonia is a relatively weak base (pKa in aqueous Calcium hydroxide, USP solution of approximately 9.2). It is manufactured from lime or calcium oxide, CaO, Strong ammonia solution, NF through the addition of water in limited amounts. The process is known as “slaking” (hence the name, slaked Uses lime) and is characterized by the avid absorption of water ￮ as a Bronsted base in many applications to form by the oxide, accompanied by the evolution of much heat, swelling of the CaO lumps, and a final disintegration into a ammonium salts of acids. fine powder. ￮ in the manufacture of nitric acid and sodium Its solutions are basic, having pH = 12.3, and are capable bicarbonate. of neutralizing acids. The solution is assayed by titrating 50 ml against 0.1 N hydrochloric acid, using phenolphthalein ￮ in the preparation of Aromatic ammonia spirit, where it as an indicator. serves as a source of ammonia to stabilize the ammonium carbonate against hydrolysis. Ca(OH)2+2 HCl CaCl2+2 H2O Calcium hydroxide, USP ￮ in the preparation of Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution A special type of neutralizing action may be illustrated by Calcium hydroxide, USP the ability of calcium hydroxide to absorb carbon dioxide Slaked lime from the air, with the formation of calcium carbonate. A white powder having an alkaline and slightly bitter CO2+H2O H2CO3 taste Ca(OH)2+H2CO3 CaCO3+2 H2O It is slightly soluble in water (1 g in 630 ml) and very The precipitate of calcium carbonate is the source of the slightly soluble in boiling water (1 g in 1300 ml). cloudy appearance of calcium hydroxide solutions. ￮ solubility diminishes with increasing temperature Uses It is soluble in glycerin and in syrup, but is insoluble in ￮ medicinally as a fluid electrolyte and a topical astringent alcohol. ￮ in pharmaceutical preparations for its potentially high The official solution is Calcium Hydroxide Solution, USP XVIII (Lime water), and is described as a solution hydroxide ion concentration containing, in each 100 ml, not less than 140 mg of ￭ this alkalinity allows to react with the free fatty acids Ca(OH)2. in various oils, e.g. oleic acid, to form calcium salts which ￮ It is a clear, colorless liquid having an alkaline taste, and have emulsifying properties that aid in the suspension or is alkaline to litmus. mixing of other ingredients ￮ The mixture is agitated repeatedly over a period of one ￮ due to its carbon dioxide-absorbing properties, it is hour, and the excess calcium hydroxide is allowed to useful in certain types of gas traps settle. ￭ combined with sodium hydroxide in a mixture ￮ The clear supernatant liquid is used; the undissolved known as Soda lime which is used for its ability to absorb portion is not suitable for preparing additional quantities CO2 from expired air in metabolic function tests of the solution. Potassium hydroxide, USP Caustic potash arpenonia  a white or nearly white fused masses, small pellets, exists in three well characterized hydrates in addition to flakes, sticks, or other dry forms that have a crystalline the anhydrous form (soda ash) fracture Monohydrate =Na2CO3. H2O It is very deliquescent and rapidly absorbs both moisture Heptahydrate =Na2CO3.7H2O and carbon dioxide from the air. Decahydrate = Na2CO3. 10H2O (sal soda, washing soda) It is a strong base which can be assayed by titrimetry. Sodium carbonate, USP ￮ The chemical properties of potassium hydroxide are similar to those of sodium hydroxide. Uses Uses: ￮ Essentially, carbonates have no therapeutic uses ￮ a very strong base having a caustic or corrosive effect ￮ Sodium carbonate is used for its basicity in on tissue. pharmaceutical preparations, where it will form sodium salts of acidic drugs. ￮ Caution – Exercise great care in handling Potassium hydroxide, as it rapidly destroys tissues. ￭ Nitromersol Solution, NF XIII, where together with sodium hydroxide it is used to form the water soluble ￮ It is used in official preparations as a saponifying sodium salt of the water insoluble nitromersol. agent to hydrolyze esters of fatty acids into their constituent alcohols and the potassium salt. ￮ may also be used as a source of carbonate in the preparation of carbonates of various metals (e.g. ferrous ￮ It can also be used in place of sodium hydroxide in carbonate) soda lime. Sodium hydroxide, USP Sodium carbonate, USP Caustic soda, Soda lye Monohydrated sodium carbonate The description, properties, and solubilities of sodium a colorless crystal or white, crystalline powder that is hydroxide are practically identical to those of potassium odorless and has a strong alkaline taste hydroxide. It will absorb small amounts of moisture from the air, but ￮ As is potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide is in warm, dry air at 50 C or above, it effloresces, becoming highly ionized in solution making it one of the strongest anhydrous at 100 C. bases available. One gram of sodium carbonate dissolves in 3 ml of water The method of assay involves the same double titration and in 7 ml of glycerin at 25 C, and in 1.8 ml of boiling discussed under potassium hydroxide because sodium water. hydroxide will also absorb carbon dioxide to form sodium It is insoluble in alcohol. carbonate. Its solutions, when treated with carbon dioxide in the Sodium hydroxide, USP cold, will form sodium bicarbonate. Uses ￮ This reaction may be considered as a half neutralization Sodium hydroxide is used as a base in pharmaceutical with carbonic acid, which is formed to a slight extent in the preparations more frequently than potassium hydroxide solution. due to the pharmacological activity of potassium and its possible toxicity. Sodium carbonate, USP arpenonia  Solutions should be filtered through glass wool or b. Atkins and Pantin buffer system –pH 7.6 to 11. 0 asbestos, and the solution should be stored in hard glass c. Gifford’s buffer –pH 6 to 7.8 bottles, using rubber stoppers. If glass-stoppered bottles are used, the solution will cause the stoppers to “freeze” in the neck of the bottle due to the solubilization of the glass by the sodium hydroxide solution. Glass-stoppered Anti-oxidants bottles can be used if a little petrolatum or other Compounds which have the capability of functioning laboratory lubricant is spread around the stopper. chemically as reducing agents. ￮ a very strong base capable of damaging tissue Used in pharmaceutical preparations containing easily oxidized substances (e.g. iodide or ferrous ions) in order Sodium hydroxide reacts with the salts of all metals in to maintain these substances in their reduced form. solution precipitating almost all of them, except those of the alkali metals and ammonium, as the insoluble metal Official antioxidants hydroxides. 1. Hypophosphorous acid, NF XIII (HPH2O2) Soda lime, USP Uses: a. prevents the formation of free iodine in diluted It is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and hydriodic acid & hydriodic acid syrup b. prevents the sodium/potassium hydroxide (both), intended for use in formation of both ferric ions and molecular iodine in metabolism tests, anesthesia, and oxygen therapy. ferrous iodide Syrup NF XI ￮ The function of soda lime in a closed system is to absorb the CO2 which would otherwise accumulate in the system. 2. Sulfur dioxide, USP XVIII (SO2) Buffers Uses: a. protects many susceptible compounds from oxidation by reducing the oxidized form back again; Buffer systems are pairs of related chemical compounds usually used in injectable preparations enclosed in capable of resisting large changes in the pH of a solution single-dose ampules or multiple – dose vials caused by the addition of small amounts of acid or base. b. used to fumigate houses Factors which can produce alterations in pH: c. used in industry in bleaching wood pulp, fumigating 1. alkali in the glass of certain inexpensive containers grains, and arresting fermentation 2. gases in the air, such as CO2 and NH3, which can 3.Sodium bisulfite, USP XVIII dissolve in the solution accompanied by acidic or basic reactions – NaHSO3 (Sodium Hydrogensulfite, Sodium Acid Sulfite) Five primary laboratory buffer solutions which cover the 4.Sodium metabisulfite, NF XIII pH range from 1.2 to 10.0 – Na2S2O5 (Disodium Pyrosulfite) 1. Hydrochloric acid buffer – pH 1.2 to 2.2 Uses: a. Found in solutions of drugs that contain the 2. Acid phthalate buffer – pH 2.2 to 4.0 phenol or catechol nucleus (e.g. phenylephrine HCl, epinephrine HCl solutions) to prevent oxidation of these 3. Neutralized phthalate buffer – pH 4.2 to 5.8 compounds to quinones and like substances b.found in 4. Phosphate buffer – 5.8 to 8. ascorbic acid injection as a reducing agent a. Sorensen phosphate buffer 5. Sodium thiosulfate, USP XVIII 5. Alkaline borate buffer –pH 8.0 to 10.2 - Na2S2O3.5H2O Uses: a. an antidote for cyanide poisoning b. the use of sodium thiosulfate as an a. Feldman’s buffer system-pH 7 to 8.2 arpenonia antioxidant is usually limited to solutions containing iodides 6. Sodium nitrite, USP XVIII (NaNO2) Uses: a. as an antidote for cyanide poisoning by virtue of its ability to induce methemoglobin formation on injection b. pharmacologically, the nitrite ion relaxes the smooth muscle of the blood vessels, giving it a vasodilator action c. nitrites are used in brine solutions for the curing of meats and fish for color development, flavor production, and preservation against bacterial growth 7. Nitrogen, USP VXIII Uses: a. to retard oxidation in oxidation-sensitive products – cod liver oil, olive oil, multiple vitamin preparations b. used to replace air in containers for parenterals and solutions for topical application c. used to retard oxidation in the qualitative test for carbon monoxide MINERAL WATERS 1. Alkaline waters 2. Carbonated waters 3. Chalybeate waters 4. Lithia waters 5. Saline waters (Purgative waters) 6. Sulfur waters 7. Siliceous waters OFFICIAL WATER 1. Water, USP XVIII 2. Purified water, USP XVIII 3. Water for Injection, USP XVIII 4. Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP XVIII 5. Sterile Water for Injection, USP XVIII arpenonia