Unit 6: Physical and Motor Characteristics During Each Stage of Development PDF

UNIT 6: PHYSICAL AND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS DURING EACH STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Compiled by: CHRISTINE C. MABULAY, Dev. Ed. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus ROLINA C. PARAN, Ph. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus Introduction As biological beings, young child...

UNIT 6: PHYSICAL AND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS DURING EACH STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Compiled by: CHRISTINE C. MABULAY, Dev. Ed. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus ROLINA C. PARAN, Ph. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus Introduction As biological beings, young children grow at a rapid rate. Although physical development may seem obvious, however, children cannot attend classroom tasks unless their physical needs are met first. Meeting the needs of one part of the body - the brain - is especially important because it regulates learning, behavior and other physical functions. This unit presents the physical and motor development that children and adolescents have gone through. It also identifies the factors that can disrupt physical growth and the principles of motor skill learning for you to understand the brain development in children and adolescents; tell the typical physical and motor development; identify the factors affecting physical and motor development; point out how physical well-being impact student success; and suggest activities that can promote the development of the physical and motor aspects of children and adolescents. https://www.hellomotherhood.com/stages-of-physical-development-in-children-4471294.html ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1 https://www.yourtherapysource.com/blog1/2020/04/26/gross-motor-skills-affect-academics/ At the end of this module, you are expected to: 1. Compare the physical and motor characteristics of children from infancy to adolescence (CLO 1). 2. Describe how the concepts of physical and motor development can be applied in both parenting and learning (CLO 2) 3. Identify teaching activities and materials appropriate for each group of learners (CLO 3) PREPARATION Physical development is a process associated with increase in structure and size and is marked by the steady increase in height, weight and muscle mass while motor development is a progressive change in movement behavior throughout the life cycle. Physical and motor development provides children with the abilities they need to explore and interact with the world around them. Physical development is influenced by genetics, size at birth, nutrition, body build, birth order, temperament, social class, ethnicity, and culture. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2  (Adapted from Santrock J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002) 1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of the body as a person grows older? 2. Does physical development begin from the top or below? from the side to the center? Primary Requirements to Perform Complex Physical Tasks 1. Muscular strength 2. Muscular coordination and control 3. Perception Developmental moments - those windows of time when parents or caregivers can see the ways in which a young child is growing and developing new skills and abilities. https://www.slideshare.net/maamjams/physical-and-motor-development-of-children-and-adolescent ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3 PRESENTATION Patterns of Physical Development 1. Normative Development - the typical capabilities of children of a given age within a given cultural group; it indicates a typical range of what children can and cannot be expected to do and learn at a given time; and it enables parents and teachers to understand what to expect of a child physically at different ages 2. Dynamic Development - the sequence and changes that occur in all aspects of a child’s functioning with the passage of time Cephalocaudal Trend - is evident after birth when the neonate’s head is bigger than its body. This continues few months after birth when infants are able to use their upper limbs first before their lower limbs. Proximodistal Trend - is evident before birth when the fetus body parts grow from the inside and move outwards. After birth this can be observed when the child learns how to turn its body which is an indication that the trunk has attained maturation and is followed by the maturation of muscular control of the hands and fingers. Basic Principles of Physical Development 1. Direction in Growth- the appropriate pattern of physical development a) Large to small muscle development large muscles develop in the trunk, arms and legs before the muscles in the fingers, hands and wrists b) Top to bottom muscle development – muscles develop from head to toe c) Inside to outside- muscles develop from the center of the body then toward the outside of the body 2. General to Specific Growth- muscle growth begins with more general abilities and becomes more specific and defined as children grow older 3. Differentiation and Integration in Growth- once the child’s body parts have differentiated; he can integrate his movements and combine specific movements to perform more complex physical tasks 4. Variations in Growth- children differ in their physical abilities at different ages ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4 5. Optimal Tendency in Growth- growth in children generally tries to fulfill its potential. If growth is slowed for a particular reason, the body tries to catch up when it is able to do so. 6. Sequence in Growth- physical development is orderly and occurs in pattern 7. Critical Period in Growth- growth in certain areas of a child’s physical development may be more important at particular times during childhood. The critical time for the development of motor skills is between 18-60 months of age (1-5 yrs) Source: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler/physical-development/lesson-2 Physical Growth Cycles 1. The first period of rapid physical growth or growth spurt goes from conception to 6 months old. 2. The rate of growth gradually slows during toddler and preschool period 3. The second period of rapid growth is during puberty of preadolescence and adolescence. 4. The period of leveling off occurs after puberty until adult growth is achieved. Types of Physical Movement 1. Locomotor movement- movement of the body from place to place such as crawling, walking, hopping, jumping, running, leaping and skipping 2. Non-locomotor movement- movement of the body while staying in one place such as pushing, pulling, turning, wiggling, sitting and rising. 3. Manipulative movement- movement that involves controlled use of hands and feet such as grasping, opening and closing hands, waving, throwing and catching. Areas of Motor Development 1. Gross Motor Development- the child’s general ability to move around and use the various parts of the body. Activities like rolling over, crawling, walking running and jumping are gross motor skills. These skills usually involve using the entire body or several parts of the body at one time. 2. Fine Motor Development- the child’s ability to use his hands properly. The skills drawing, playing puzzle and building towers are closely associated with fine motor skills. These skills require smaller movement and more intricate capabilities. Source: https://www.kflaph.ca/en/healthy-living/about-physical-activity.aspx ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5  Brain Development 1. Neural Development Neurons are the basic units of the brain and the entire nervous system that receive and transmit electrical and chemical impulses across many trillions of synapses. Some 100-200 billion of neurons are already formed by the end of the second trimester of pregnancy, before the brain growth spurt begins. The first stage of neural development is known as neurulation in which the neural tube develops. This is usually completed by 3 to 4 weeks of gestation. It is followed by proliferation or neurogenesis where several hundred thousand neurons are generated or formed each minute. 2. Cell Differentiation and Synaptogenesis Neurons that are formed at the neural tube of the developing embryo will later migrate along pathways laid down by a network of guiding cells to form major parts of the brain. The process is known as migration. Most neurons are in their final location in the seventh month of gestation. Influenced by the site where they migrate, they then assume specialized functions. Neurons during this time increase in size, number of dendrites and axon terminals and number of synapses. This final stage of neurogenesis is called differentiation. For example, if the neurons normally migrate to the area of the brain that controls hearing it will differentiate to become an auditory neuron. The process of synaptogenesis, that is the formation of synaptic connections among neurons, is proceeding rapidly during the brain growth spurt. This brings about interesting facts about the developing nervous system: A. An average infant has far more neurons and neural connections than adults do. B. About half the neurons produced early in life also die early in life (neural degeneration). C. Surviving neurons form hundreds of synapses and many of them will disappear if the neuron is not properly stimulated in the process called synaptic pruning. This reflects the remarkable plasticity (capacity for change) of the young infant’s brain-the fact that its cells are highly responsive to the effects of experience. Less stimulating environment then would result to the decline in brain plasticity. This implies that the development of the brain early in life is not due entirely to the unfolding of a maturational program but a result of both biological program and early experience. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6  3. Role of Experience Neurons that are not properly stimulated will degenerate- a dramatic illustration of the “use it or lose it” principle. Therefore, exposing the individual to enriched environments that can provide variety of stimulation can foster neural development of an immature, plastic brain. Children rose with lots of companions and many toys to play with have brains that are heavier and display more extensive networks of neural connections. And those that are raised in stimulating environments and are moved to a less stimulating environment lose some of their complexity. 4. Brain Development and Growth Not all parts of the brain develop at the same rate. At birth the most highly developed brain areas are the lower brain centers or the sub-cortical region. It controls states of consciousness, inborn reflexes and vital biological functions such as digestion, respiration and elimination. Surrounding these structures are the cerebrum and the cerebral cortex that are directly implicated in voluntary bodily movements, perception and higher intellectual activities such as learning, thinking and production of language. The first areas of the cerebrum to mature are the primary motor areas, which control simple motor activities such as waving the hands, and the primary sensory areas, which control sensory processes such as vision, hearing, smelling and tasting. Thus, human neonates are reflexive, sensory-motor beings because only the sensory and motor areas of the cortex are functioning well. By 6 months the primary motor areas of the cerebral cortex have developed to the point that they now direct the movement of the infant. 5. Myelinization As brain cells proliferate and grow, some glial cells begin to produce a waxy substance called myelin, which forms a sheath around individual neurons. This sheath acts as insulator that speeds the transmission of impulses to the various parts of the body. Myelinization, the process in which the axonin enclosed by myelin sheath, follows a definite chronological sequence that parallels the maturation of the nervous system. At birth the pathways between the sense organs and the brain are reasonable well myelinated, thus the neonate’s sensory equipment is in good working condition. When neural pathways between the brain and the skeletal muscles myelinate in a cepalocaudal and proximodistal pattern, the child becomes capable of increasingly complex motor activities such as lifting the head and chest, reaching with arms and hands, rolling over, sitting, standing and eventually walking and running. However, some of the brain areas are not completely myelinated until the mid to late teens or early adulthood. For example, the reticular formation and frontal cortex- the brain parts ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7 that allow us to concentrate for a lengthy periods, are not fully myelinated at puberty. This accounts why children have short attention span than adolescents and adults. 6. Cerebral Lateralization The cerebrum is the highest brain center. It is divided into two halves or hemispheres connected by a band of fibers called corpus callosum. A cerebral cortex-an outer layer of gray matter that controls sensory and motor processes, perception and intellectual functioning covers each of the hemispheres. Though they are similar in appearance but they serve different functions and control different areas of the body. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and contains centers for speech, hearing, verbal memory, reasoning, computing, decision-making, language processing and expression of positive emotions. On the other hand, the right cerebral hemisphere controls the left side of the body and contains centers for processing visual spatial information, non- linguistic sounds such as music, artistry, tactile sensations and expressing negative emotions. Thus the brain is a laterized organ. Cerebral lateralization also involves a preference for using one hand or one side of the body more than the other. Lateralization took place gradually throughout childhood and was not complete until adolescence. Observe preschoolers and adolescents in their lateral preferences in (1) picking up a crayon, (2) kicking a ball, (3) looking into a small transparent bottle, (4) placing an ear to a box to hear a sound. Source:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225562/ Brain Development at Adolescence 1. Myelinization of the higher brain centers continues at adolescents increasing their attention spans and allowing them to process information more quickly. 2. The brain retains some of its plasticity well beyond puberty explaining their capability to respond to the effects of their experiences. 3. Reorganizations of the neural circuitry of the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in higher-level cognitive activities as strategic planning, continues until at least age 20. 4. Cognitive advances that teenagers display become possible only after brains undergo a process of reorganization and fine tuning. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8 A. Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers (https://www.pgpedia.com/p/physical- development) https://www.momjunction.com/articles/physical-development-in-babies_00453778/ Infants first learn to lift their heads and shoulders, then proceed gradually from rolling over to creeping on their stomachs and finally crawling. As they begin to climb and support their weight in a standing position, they develop the ability to walk. Fine motor skills for infants require eye-hand coordination and the ability to grasp an object. Toddlers can run, climb stairs, and begin to kick and throw balls, although they will have difficulty catching balls. The fine motor skills become more sophisticated as they can scribble with crayons, turn book pages, and stack blocks. The dominance of either their right or left hand usually emerges at this stage. Infant Reflexes (Corpus, et al. 2018) 1. Sucking reflex- is initiated when something touches the mouth of the child. Is strong in infants as it is needed to suck a pacifier of the mother’s nipple. 2. Rooting Reflex - Infants turn its head to the direction where the cheek is stroked. 3. Gripping Reflex - Babies will grasp anything that is placed on their palms. 4. Curling Reflex - Infants curl their toes when the inner sole of the foot is stroked. 5. Startle of Moro Reflex - Infants threw their arms out when they hear sudden sounds 6. Galant Reflex - Infants curve their bodies toward the side of the spinal cord which is stroked. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9 7. Tonic Neck Reflex – Is also known as the fencing position. This is demonstrated when babies’ head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the opposite arm bends at the elbow. Basic Sensory and Perceptual Processes 1. Smell, Taste and Touch-Newborn are able to smell and can recognize their mother’s odor; they also taste, preferring sweet substances and responding negatively to bitter and sour tastes. Infants respond to touch, as observed from their responses to painful stimuli. 2. Hearing- Babies can hear, although they are less sensitive to higher-and lower-pitched sounds than adults. They can distinguish sounds and use sound to locate objects in space. 3. Seeing – Visual acuity of neonates is poor, but at 1-year can see as adults with normal vision. 4. Integrating Sensory Information - Infants begin to integrate information from different sense (e.g., sight and sound, sight and touch) Infants are often particularly attentive to information presented redundantly to multiple senses. Complex Perceptual and Attention Processes 1. Perceiving Objects-Infants use motion, color, texture and edges to distinguish object. By about 4 months, infants have begun to master size, brightness, shape and color constancy. Infants perceived depth by means of retinal disparity and other cues such as texture gradient, relative size and interposition. 2. Attention - this helps select information for further processing. Infants oriented to novel stimulus, but as it becomes more familiar, they habituate, meaning that they respond less. Compared to older children, preschoolers are less able to pay attention to a task. Older children are able to pay attention because they have developed strategies for maintaining attention. Younger children’s attention can be improved by getting rid of irrelevant stimuli. Hand Skills of Infants and Toddlers Self-Feeding. At 8 months, most babies can hold feeding bottles after the nipples have been placed in their mouths. At 9 months, they can put the bottle nipples in their mouths and take them out without help. At twelve months they can drink from a cup when they hold it with both hands and several months later they can drink from the cup using one hand. Self-dressing. At the end of the first year, most babies can pull off their socks, shoes, caps and mittens. By the middle of the second year they will attempt to put on caps and mittens. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10  Self-grooming. Self-bathing is limited mainly to running a cloth or sponge over the face and body. Before they are two, most babies try to brush their hair and teeth. Play Skills of Toddlers Babies learn to jump from an elevated position usually movements resembling walking. They learn to climb stairs first by crawling and creeping. After they can walk alone, they go up and down steps in an upright position, placing one foot on a step and then drawing the other foot up after it. Very few babies are able to learn to ride tricycles at this age and then only when they are held on the seat. They can learn by splashing with their arms and kicking their legs. Types of Play Play is considered a serious child’s business hence, an educational program for young children inevitably emphasizes play, which for the child is the ideal way to explore, understand and master his environment. Play must, therefore, be regarded as the essential tool for the child’s expression, understanding and integration. The pioneering developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky thought that, in the preschool years, play is the leading source of development. Through play children learn and practice many basic social skills. They develop a sense of self, learn to interact with other children, how to make friends, how to lie and how to role-play. The classic study of how play develops in children was carried out by Mildred Parten in the late 1920s at the Institute of Child Development in Minnesota. She closely observed children between the ages of 2 and 5 years and categorized their play into six types. Parten collected data by systematically sampling the children's behavior. She observed them for pre-arranged 1 minute periods which were varied systematically. The thing to notice is that the first four categories of play don't involve much interaction with others, while the last two do. While children shift between the types of play, what Parten noticed was that as they grew up, children participated less in the first four types and more in the last two - those which involved greater interaction. (http://www.spring.org.uk/2008/07/6-types-of-play-how-we-learn-to-work.php ) ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11 1. Unoccupied play- the child is relatively stationary and appears to be performing random movements with no apparent purpose. 2. Solitary play-the child is completely engrossed in playing and does not seem to notice other children. Seen in children between 2 and 3 years-old. 3. Onlooker play- child takes an interest in other children's play but does not join in. May ask questions or just talk to other children, but the main activity is simply to watch. 4. Parallel play- the child mimics other children's play but does not actively engage with them. 5. Associative play- now more interested in each other than the toys they are using. This is the first category that involves strong social interaction between the children while they play. 6. Cooperative play- requires organization for a purpose like when in children the playing has some goal and children often adopt roles and act as a group. B. Physical Development of Preschoolers (Early Childhood) https://slideplayer.com/slide/16165839/ Preschool years is from the period 3-5 years; it covers the years before the child enters formal schooling and it is significant in the development of the child as this provides the foundation to later development. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12 Significant Facts about Physical Development at Preschool Years (Corpus, 2018) 1. Significant changes in physical development are evident at this stage of development. 2. Physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and motor skills. 3. Children can already express themselves artistically. 4. Children need to be provided with proper nutrition and right amount of sleep. 5. Support from caregivers is required to maximize their growth process. 6. In inclusive classrooms with children with special needs, appropriate adaptations in the classroom such as materials and activities should be made. Preschoolers can hop, jump over objects, catch and throw balls more precisely. Developing more delicate fine motor skills is a challenge that requires patience, which preschoolers have in short supply. Their central nervous system is still in the process of maturing to sufficiently relay complex messages from the brain to their fingers(https://www.pgpedia.com/p/physical- development). As to their gross motor skills, children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adults place one foot on each step in sequence). However, young children may still need some "back-up" assistance to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it's time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4 year olds can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. Many can even hop on one foot for short periods of time. Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility. As a result, their catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can typically hit a stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole body coordination improves, children of this age can now peddle and steer a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of their bodies. By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e., taking one step at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster (https://www.gracepointwellness.org). ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13  In terms of their motor skills, by ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands. They can build towers out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or pen. Children of this age can also insert objects into matching spaces, such as placing round pegs into round holes. 2 to 3 year-olds often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other, which is the beginning of becoming left or right-handed. Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and snaps, and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Before they enter school, most children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves (even though they may take a long time to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin using scissors to cut paper. Caregivers should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid" scissors for safety reasons! Three to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoons. Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. They can also use a twisting motion with their hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids off containers. Because children can now open containers with lids, caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as cleaners and medications are stored out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental poisonings. During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills. For instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Their artistic skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles, squares, and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer. C. Physical Development of Primary Schoolers (Middle Childhood) https://www.dirolep.com/product/diversified- education.html According to Corpuz, et al. (2018), middle childhood is the stage when children begin their elementary school grades (Grades 1-3) where their physical growth is slow and steady. Also, during this stage they attain good muscle control, develop eye-hand coordination, acquire good personal ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14 hygiene and develop awareness of good safety habits. Children at this period are extremely active.Hence, they should not be provided with sedentary activities or made to sit still for the entire day. Instead, they should be provided with activities that will enable them to use up their excess energies. If not, they will most likely display nervous habits such as fidgeting, nail biting and pencil chewing. Since they easily get bored and exhausted, children’s activities should be alternated between strenuous and relaxing. An average increase in height (for both boys and girls) of two inches will enable them to do different activities with greater accuracy. An average weight gain of 6.5 pounds per year will also be observed at this period. They have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years as there is a shift in accumulation and location of their body fat, although girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child’s legs are longer and more proportioned to the body than before. Childhood years is considered as the peak of their bone formation in which the bones grow longer and broader. Parents and teachers must therefore provide them with physical exercises and good dietary habits that will promote healthy and strong bones. Calcium is important in the development of their bones as their bones have more water and protein like-materials and less minerals. Bone and muscle growth is not also completed at this period. Their baby teeth will also be replaced with permanent teeth. Large muscle control is better developed than the fine motor. Because of this, some may encounter difficulty in holding a pencil or coloring inside the lines. Thus, writing time must be limited to avoid the development of negative attitude towards writing. Moreover, children should not be engaged in physical activities that use too much pressure as this may hamper the growth of muscles, bones and ligaments. Teachers who may test child’s strength through strenuous activities may provide more coordinated physical activities/competitions or rotate players during games. Because children’s motor skills have already developed, they are now capable of performing various activities such a catching ball using one hand, tying shoelaces, managing to zip and button shirts or shorts, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and dance. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 15  At this stage children are able to: 1. gain control over their major muscles; 2. have a good sense of balance; 3. enjoy doing real life tasks; 4. less pretend and fantasize; 5. perform unimanual (use one hand) and bimanual (use two hands); 6. develop graphic activities (writing and drawing); 7. print names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes;and 8. hold pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision; Different Motor Skills 1. Coordination - series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring about a particular result. It is required in complex movement. 2. Balance – ability to maintain equilibrium or stability of the body in different positions. Static balance – maintaining equilibrium in a fixed position like when standing in one foot. Dynamic balance – maintaining equilibrium while moving 3. Speed – ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time 4. Power – ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period. Large scale body movements are vital at this period. Males develop their motor skills slightly faster than girls except in balance and precise movements. Factors Affecting Physical Development 1. Obesity- Prevalence of overweight children from 5-10 years old has already increased from 5.8 % in 2003 to 9.1 % in 2013. This factor is linked to several health-related issues such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases later in life. 2. Childhood Nutrition - adequate nutrition is vital for the continuous development of the various body parts. The fuel for growth comes from the foods children eat and the liquids they drink. In the Philippines, poverty is the primary reason for malnutrition among school-aged children. To address this problem, schools are already implementing the school-based feeding program. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 16  3. Sleep - Children at this stage are required to go to bed earlier and take 9 to 11 hours of sleep since they do not have midday naps or siesta in school. Inadequate sleep may lead to some behavioral problems such as mood swings, hyperactivity, cognitive problems and ability to concentrate which may affect their school performance. Implications to Education and Parenting 1. Encourage children to join in summer activity or sport that interest them. 2. Advocate for healthy school food products. 3. Provide a balance between rigorous and quiet classroom activities 4. Create an exercise plan for the children. 5. Maintain a daily sleep schedule and bedtime routine. 6. Make children’s bedroom conducive for sound and peaceful sleep. D. Physical Development of Intermediate Schoolers (Late Childhood) https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn: ANd9GcTePKIRjw2svp4pypzULsRm96vlFZ3oh Yrn1A&usqp=CAU According to Corpuz, et al (2018), late childhood is the preteens stage as this covers the ages 9 to 12 years of age. Physical changes during this stage are fairly unpredictable, steady and gradual. Increased familiarity in school works and other school tasks and activities enable them to enhance their motor skills. They have more control over their bodies and are becoming more active. They have more liberty to choose the sports or hobbies they like. They always seem to be in a hurry as they get busy in school work, interacting with friends, exploring other possibilities. They may also enter the stage of puberty where they experience physical changes and becomes sexually mature. They may become conscious about their physical appearance. Girls become conscious about their weight and eat less while boys become conscious of their stature and muscle size and strength. This can also bring insecurities to the children thus parents and teachers must provide appropriate activities to guide them into the right direction. These may include activities that will promote healthy growth, provide a feeling of accomplishment or reduce the risk of certain diseases. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 17  When it comes to their motor skills, their muscle and bone movements are now becoming more coordinated. By 10 or 11 years, they will be learning to play sports such as swimming, basketball, volleyball and running. These skills become their source of pleasure and great achievement. However, boys tend to be more nimble or skillful than girls when it comes to large muscles activities. However, they are not yet fully physically mature. They become overwhelmed or exhausted when made to sit or stand for too long than when they will be made to run, jump or play actively. This is because they need more time to refine their skills hence, they prefer active than passive movements. As to their motor skills, they now show greater coordination in writing. The font size of the letters becomes smaller and more even. They produce good quality crafts or have greater control in playing instruments like piano and guitar where girls surpass the boys. Implications to Education and Parenting 1. Provide ample opportunities for physical exercise and sports in the home and school. 2. Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until they are able to discover the ones they are interested in. 3. Develop a strong emotional attachment with the children to address their insecurities and social concerns. 4. Provide them with healthier food choices as they have now more control in eating. E. Physical Development of High School Learners (Adolescence) https://howtoadult.com/physical-characteristics-high- school-students-8157910.html Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Children who are entering adolescence are going through many changes (physical, intellectual, personality and social developmental). Adolescence begins at puberty, which now occurs earlier, on average, than in the past. The typical age range is from 12 to 18 years. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 18 Three Main Physical Changes That Come With Adolescence https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7060-adolescent-development 1. The growth spurt (an early sign of maturation) 2. Primary sex characteristics (changes in the organs directly related to reproduction) 3.Secondary sex characteristics (bodily signs of sexual maturity that do not directly involve reproductive organs) Physical Changes During Adolescence https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/adolescence/ Puberty is the period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The onset of puberty typically occurs at age 10 or 11 for females and at age 11 or 12 for males; females usually complete puberty by ages 15 to 17, while males usually finish around ages 16 to 17. Females tend to attain reproductive maturity about four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. Males, however, accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for about six years after the first visible pubertal changes. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Every person’s individual timetable for puberty is different and is primarily influenced by heredity; however environmental factors—such as diet and exercise—also exert some influence. The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in an individual’s height and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later than females. The accelerated growth in different body parts happens at different times, but for all adolescents it has a fairly regular sequence. The first places to grow are the extremities (head, hands, and feet), followed by the arms and legs, and later the torso and shoulders. This non-uniform growth is one reason why an adolescent body may seem out of proportion. During puberty, bones become harder and more brittle. Before puberty, there are nearly no differences between males and females in the distribution of fat and muscle. During puberty, males grow muscle much faster than females, and females experience a higher increase in body fat. The ratio between muscle and fat in post-pubertal males is around 1:3, while for males it is about 5:4. An adolescent’s heart and lungs increase in both size ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 19 and capacity during puberty; these changes contribute to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. Principles of Learning Motor Skills https://web.uvic.ca/~thopper/WEB/archive247/term2/week3/principleslearning.htm 1. Principle of Interest - A student's attitude toward learning a skill determines for the most part the amount and kind of learning that takes place. 2. Principle of Practice - Practicing the motor skill correctly is essential for learning to take place. 3. Principle of Distributed Practice - In general short periods of intense practice will result in more learning than longer, massed practice sessions. 4. Principle of Skill Specificity - A student's ability to perform one motor skill effectively is independent of his/her ability to perform other motor skills. 5. Principle of Whole-Part Learning - The complexity of the skill to be learned and the leaner's ability determine whether it is more efficient to teach the whole skill or break the skill into component parts. 6. Principle of Transfer- The more identical two tasks are the greater the possibility that positive transfer will occur. Practice conditions should match the conditions in which the motor skill is going to be used. 7. Principle of Skill Improvement - The development of motor skills progresses along a continuum from least mature to most mature. The rate of progression and the amount of progress within an individual depends upon the interaction of nature and nurture. 8. Principle of Feedback - internal and external sources of information about motor performance is essential for learning to take place. 9. Principle of Variable Practice - Block practice aids in performance while variable practice aids in learning. Variable practice causes an increase in attention There are 3 types of motor learning: Blocked practice is a method in which the participant will work on the same task/technique in one session and will repeat this over and over again and this is performed until the player has undertaken a predetermined level of competence. It is typical of some drills in which a skill is repeated over and over, with minimal interruption by other activities. Variable practice is a type of learning technique which involves variations of the same skill being performed. This type of practice is similar to blocked, however, the player can perform various ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 20 versions of the same skill. This practice is a practice sequence in which the same tasks or movements are repeated but where one aspect of the execution is changed from one repetition to another. Random practice is very different to blocked and variable as this type allows the player to perform one type of task and then move onto the next straight way. There are multiple skills incorporated into this type of practice and allows the performer to work on many different aspects of a sport rather than just working on one specific activity such as dribbling in football. PRACTICE Learning Activity no. 1 Comprehension Check A. Read each item carefully and choose your answer from the given options. _____ 1. The cephaocaudal growth pattern shows _____ A. Development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs B. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs. C. Simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs D. Development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers. _____ 2. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants and toddlers? A. Depressed environment C. Early brain stimulation B. Early brain stimulation D. Being a member of a big family _____ 3. Why does a primary school-aged child look slimmer than a pre-school child? A. Because the location and accumulation of body fats shift B. Because they have less muscle tissues C. Because their bones are leaner D. Because their appetite is poor. ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 21 _____ 4. What is the general physical characteristic of a primary-school child? A. Prefers to sit than play B. Starts to walk and sit without being supported C. Has difficulty balancing and often falls down D. Are extremely active _____ 5. What can teachers do when children get teased for their physical appearance? A. Teach the child being teased to fight back. B. Let the teasing slide and continue with the class activity C. Have a private talk with the offending student and figure out why he is teasing. D. Bring the offending student to the guidance counselor B. In the Philippines as in other countries, problems exist such as teenage pregnancy, abortion, early marriage, and child trafficking. Major pubertal and biological changes during adolescence call for social management at home, the school and society. Write a personal journal on your experiences as an adolescent and how you were able to overcome issues related to the period, such as self-esteem, body image, boy-girl romantic relationship, etc. Individual Informal Essay Rubric 40 30 20 10 Features Expert Accomplished Capable Beginner Quality of Piece was written in Piece was written in Piece had little style Piece had no style Writing an extraordinary an interesting style or voice or voice style and voice and voice Gives some new Gives no new Very informative Somewhat information but information and very and well-organized informative and poorly organized poorly organized organized Grammar, Virtually no spelling, Few spelling and A number of So many spelling, Usage & punctuation or punctuation errors, spelling, punctuation punctuation and Mechanics grammatical errors minor grammatical or grammatical grammatical errors errors errors that it interferes with the meaning ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 22 PERFORMANCE Assessment Task Poster Presentation 1. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw them do. Photo Essay Grading Rubric Invention: Each picture clearly speaks to the topic, and the caption supports this meaning (brings it out). There are no pictures that seem irrelevant to the topic, or that don’t belong. Your intro sets up the essay in an interesting and compelling, yet neutral way. Strong essays make me see things in a new light, surprise me, contain detail-oriented as well global points of view, are thoughtful and, above all, personal. They are able to communicate this personal vision well to a general audience. Arrangement: This category evaluates the coherence and cohesiveness of your story. Do the photos on the whole, taken together, tell a story that feels complete? Does each picture connect, stylistically as well as content wise, with the picture before it and after it? Does your storyboard explain or make obvious these connections? Style/mechanics: Is there is an overarching style that connects your pictures? Are your captions well written, evocative, grammatically correct? Are your photos thoughtfully composed and designed? Did you use the software of your choice well to achieve a polished, professional, aesthetically pleasing essay? 2. Using a short bond paper, paste a picture of yourself when you were an early-school age child (around Grade 1 to 3). Write a description on the given areas. Height Weight Body Shape ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 23  Activities you could do a. Based on the observations you have made, what can you conclude are the general physical characteristics of children in their primary school years? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ b. What do you think are the necessary skills that will help them to be physically ready for primary schooling? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ REFERENCES Books: Corpuz,Brenda(2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Santrock J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002. Online Readings: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/adolescence/ https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTePKIRjw2svp4pypzULsRm96vlFZ3o hYrn1A&usqp=CAU https://www.dirolep.com/product/diversified-education.html https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTePKIRjw2svp4pypzULsRm96vlFZ3ohYrn1 A&usqp=CAU https://www.hellomotherhood.com/stages-of-physical-development-in-children-4471294.html https://www.kflaph.ca/en/healthy-living/about-physical-activity.aspx https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7060-adolescent-development https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225562/ https://www.pgpedia.com/p/physical-development https://www.slideshare.net/maamjams/physical-and-motor-development-of-children-and-adolescent ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 24 https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler/physical-development/lesson-2 https://www.yourtherapysource.com/blog1/2020/04/26/gross-motor-skills-affect-academics/ ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 25