Life-Span Development 18e - Chapter 9 PDF

LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e John W. Santrock © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.  Chapter 9 Physical a...

LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e John W. Santrock © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.  Chapter 9 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.  Chapter Outline Physical Changes and Health. Children with Disabilities. Cognitive Changes. Language Development. © McGraw Hill 3  Physical Changes and Health: Topics Body growth and change. The brain. Motor development. Exercise. Health, illness, and disease. © McGraw Hill Chris Windsor/Digital Vision/Getty Images 4  Body Growth and Change Slow, consistent growth is seen in middle and late childhood. Growth averages 5-7.5 cm per year. Weight gain averages 2.5-3 kg per year. Head circumference and waist circumference decrease in relation to body height. Bones continue to ossify during middle and late childhood but yield to pressure and pull more than mature bones. © McGraw Hill 5  The Brain Total brain volume stabilizes. Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex. Cortical thickness increases. Brain pathways and circuitry involving the prefrontal cortex, the highest level in the brain, continue to increase. © McGraw Hill 6  Motor Development Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated in middle and late childhood. Girls outperform boys in their use of fine motor skills. Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood results from increased myelination of the central nervous system. © McGraw Hill 7  Exercise 1 A higher level of physical activity is linked to a lower level of metabolic disease risk, based on measures of cholesterol, waist circumference, and insulin levels. Regular physical activity combined with a high level of calcium intake increases bone health. Ways to get children to exercise: Offer physical activity programs at school facilities. Improve physical fitness activities in schools. Have children plan community and school activities. Encourage families to focus more on physical activity. © McGraw Hill 8  Health, Illness, and Disease 1 Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health. Accidents and injuries are the leading cause of death in this period. Motor vehicle accidents are the most common cause of severe injury, as passenger or pedestrian. Safety belt restraints and child booster seats are highly recommended. © McGraw Hill 9  Health, Illness, and Disease 2 Overweight children: The percentage of children at risk has increased dramatically. Both heredity and environmental contexts are related. Environmental factors include declining physical activity, eating habits and contexts, and heavy screen time. Potential consequences include diabetes, hypertension, elevated blood cholesterol levels, and low self-esteem. Intervention programs encourage: Parents to engage in healthier lifestyles themselves. Healthier food and more exercise. © McGraw Hill 10  Health, Illness, and Disease 3 Cardiovascular disease is uncommon in children, but environmental experiences and behavior can sow the seeds. Many elementary-school-aged children already have one or more of the risk factors: Hypertension. Obesity. Higher body mass index. Adult coronary disease is linked to childhood elevated blood pressure and high body fat levels. © McGraw Hill 11  Health, Illness, and Disease 4 Cancer is the second leading cause of death in children who are 5 to 14 years old. The most common child cancer is leukemia. Today, children with cancer are surviving longer because of advancements in cancer treatment. © McGraw Hill 12  Children with Disabilities: Topics The scope of disabilities. Educational issues. © McGraw Hill 13  The Scope of Disabilities 2 Percentage of Children with a Disability Disability Specific learning impairment 34.6% Speech or language impairment 19.5% Other health impairment 14.4% Autism 10.2% Developmental delay 6.6% Intellectual disability 6.3% Emotional disturbance 5.1% TABLE 3: U.S. CHILDREN WITH A DISABILITY WHO RECEIVE SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES Figures are for the 2017–2018 school year and represent the seven categories with the highest numbers and percentages of children (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). Both learning disability and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are combined in the specific learning disability category. The most dramatic increase in a disability has occurred for autism. The first time autism was included in this assessment was 2000–2001, with only 0.1% of children with a disability classified as autistic. This figure increased to 6.5% in 2010–2011 and to 10.2% in 20 17–2018. © McGraw Hill 14  The Scope of Disabilities 3 Learning disabilities: A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning involving understanding or using spoken or written language. The difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, or spelling. Dyslexia: a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell. Dysgraphia: a difficulty in handwriting. Dyscalculia: a developmental arithmetic disorder. Intensive instruction by a competent teacher can help children with learning disabilities. © McGraw Hill 15  The Scope of Disabilities 4 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a disability characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Boys are twice as likely to receive an ADHD diagnosis. Possible causes of ADHD: Genetics. Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development. Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development. High maternal stress during prenatal development. Low birth weight. © McGraw Hill 16  The Scope of Disabilities 5 Children diagnosed with ADHD have an increased risk for: Lower academic achievement. Problematic peer relations. School dropout. Disordered eating. Adolescent parenthood. Substance use problems. Antisocial behavior. Criminal activity. Unemployment. © McGraw Hill 17  The Scope of Disabilities 7 Emotional and behavioral disorders consist of serious, persistent problems that involve: Relationships, aggression, depression, and fears associated with personal or school matters. Inappropriate socioemotional characteristics. Boys are three times as likely as girls to have these disorders. © McGraw Hill 18  The Scope of Disabilities 8 Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome and may have a genetic basis. Autistic disorder is a severe developmental ASD. Has its onset in the first 3 years of life. Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Deficits in cognitive processing of information. Identified five times more often in boys than girls. © McGraw Hill 19  The Scope of Disabilities 9 Asperger syndrome is relatively mild. Relatively good verbal language skills and milder nonverbal language problems. Restricted range of interests and relationships; with obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular subject. The current consensus is that autism is a brain dysfunction involving abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters. The children have deficits in cognitive processing but benefit from a well-structured classroom, individualized teaching, and small-group instruction. Behavior modification techniques are sometimes effective. © McGraw Hill 20  Educational Issues Individualized education plan (IEP): a written statement specifically tailored for the disabled student. Least restrictive environment (LRE): a setting as similar as possible to the one in which nondisabled children are educated. Inclusion: educating a child with special education needs full- time in the regular classroom. © McGraw Hill 21  Cognitive Changes: Topics Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory. Information processing. Intelligence. © McGraw Hill 22  Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 1 The concrete operational stage: Piaget proposed that this stage encompasses the ages of 7 to 11. Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to classify things into different sets. Seriation: the concrete operation the involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (for example, length). Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions. © McGraw Hill 23  Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory 3 Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage: Concrete operational abilities do not appear in synchrony. Education and culture exert strong influences on children’s development. Neo-Piagetians: developmentalists who argue Piaget was partially correct, but his theory needs considerable revision. Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, increasing the emphasis on information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps. © McGraw Hill 24  Information Processing 1 During middle and late childhood, most children dramatically improve their ability to sustain and control attention. They pay more attention to task-relevant stimuli than to salient stimuli. Other changes in information processing involve long-term and working memory, thinking, metacognition, and executive function. © McGraw Hill 25  Information Processing 2 Memory: Long-term memory: a relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amounts of information for a long period of time. Increases with age during middle and late childhood. In part, improvements in memory reflect children’s increased knowledge and use of strategies. Working memory: a mental “workbench” where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending language. Uses information from long-term memory in its work; and transmits information to long-term memory for longer storage. © McGraw Hill 26  Information Processing 4 Knowledge and expertise: Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area. Older children usually have more expertise about a subject than younger children do. This can contribute to better memory for the subject. © McGraw Hill 27  Information Processing 5 FIGURE 8: THE ROLE OF EXPERTISE IN MEMORY Notice that when 10- to 11-year-old children and college students were asked to remember a string of random numbers that had been presented to them, the college students fared better. However, the 10- to 11-year-olds who had experience playing chess (“experts”) had better memory for the location of chess pieces on a chess board than college students with no chess experience (“novices”) (Chi, 1978). Access the text alternative to slide image © McGraw Hill 28  Information Processing 6 Autobiographical memory: As children age, their autobiographical narratives become more complete. Mothers reminiscing with children in elaborative and evaluative ways appears to contribute. © McGraw Hill 29  Information Processing 7 Strategies: Strategies are deliberate mental activities that improve the processing of information. Effective strategies that adults can utilize when improving children’s memories: Advise children to elaborate on what is to be remembered. Encourage them to engage in mental imagery. Motivate them to understand rather than memorize. Repeat with variation, and link early and often. Embed memory-relevant language. © McGraw Hill 30  Information Processing 8 Fuzzy trace theory: Fuzzy trace theory states that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: Verbatim memory trace: the precise details of the information. Gist: the central idea of the information. According to this theory, older children’s better memory can be attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information. © McGraw Hill 31  Information Processing 12 Thinking: Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence. Creative thinking is the ability to think in novel and unusual ways. Come up with unique solutions to problems. Metacognition: Metacognition is cognition about cognition or knowing about knowing. Consists of several dimensions of executive function, such as planning and self-regulation. Helps people perform cognitive tasks more effectively. Metamemory is knowledge about memory. © McGraw Hill 32  Intelligence 1 Intelligence is the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences. Interest in intelligence has often focused on individual differences and assessment. Individual differences: the stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other. © McGraw Hill 33  Intelligence 2 The Binet tests: Alfred Binet was initially asked to develop an intelligence test to identify students who did not benefit from the regular classroom. Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA): the individual’s level of mental development relative to others. William Stern developed the intelligence quotient (I Q): a person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. That is, IQ = MA / CA  100. If mental age is the same as chronological age, the person’s IQ is 100. © McGraw Hill 34  Intelligence 3 Today, the Stanford-Binet tests obtain individual scores and a composite score in five content areas: Fluid reasoning. Knowledge. Quantitative reasoning. Visual-spatial reasoning. Working memory. © McGraw Hill 35  Intelligence 5 The Wechsler scales: David Wechsler developed the Wechsler scales. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV) for ages 2.5 to 7.25. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V) for ages 6 to 16. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). The WISC-V provides an overall I Q score and also five composite scores, determining areas of strength or weakness. Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Processing Speed, Fluid Reasoning, and Visual Spatial. © McGraw Hill 36  Intelligence 7 Types of intelligence: Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner have proposed influential theories. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence states intelligence comes in three forms: Analytical intelligence: the ability to evaluate, compare, and contrast. Creative intelligence: the ability to invent, originate, and imagine. Practical intelligence: the ability to ability to implement and put ideas into practice. © McGraw Hill 37  Intelligence 8 Gardner’s eight frames of mind: Verbal. Mathematical. Spatial. Bodily-kinesthetic. Musical. Interpersonal. Intrapersonal. Naturalist. Everyone has each of these intelligences to varying degrees. © McGraw Hill 38  Intelligence 12 Culture and culture-fair tests: Conceptions of intelligence vary from culture to culture. Culture-fair tests are intended to be free of cultural bias and are difficult to create. The first type includes items familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds. The second type has no verbal questions. Tests reflect what the dominant culture values. There are no culture-fair tests, only culture-reduced tests. © McGraw Hill 39  Intelligence 13 Ethnic variations: On standardized intelligence tests in the United States, African American and Latino children score lower than non-Latino White children, but the gap is narrowing. The gap especially narrows in college. A recent study using the Stanford-Binet found no differences in overall intellectual ability between non-Latino White and African American preschool children. One influence on test performance is stereotype threat: the anxiety that one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group. © McGraw Hill 40  Intelligence 14 Using intelligence tests: Avoid stereotyping and expectations. Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of competence. Use caution when interpreting an overall IQ score. © McGraw Hill 41  Extremes of Intelligence 1 Intellectual disability: The most distinctive feature of intellectual disability is inadequate intellectual functioning. It is defined as a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ, difficulty adapting to everyday life, and first exhibits these characteristics by age 18. Organic intellectual disability is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage. In cultural-familial intellectual disability, there is no evidence of organic brain damage, but IQ is generally between 50 and 70. © McGraw Hill 42  Extremes of Intelligence 2 Giftedness: People who are gifted have above-average intelligence (an I Q of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. Winner describes three criteria for gifted children: Precocity. Marching to their own drummer—learning in a qualitatively different way and needing minimal help. A passion to master. Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and environment. Deliberate practice is an important characteristic of those who become expert in a particular domain. © McGraw Hill 43  Language Development: Topics Improving aspects Bilingualism and second-language learning. © McGraw Hill 44  Improving aspects Vocabulary Grammar Reading Writing These developments are accompanied by the development of metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language. © McGraw Hill 45  Second-Language Learning and Bilingual Education 1 Second-language learning: Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s language cognitive development. Some aspects of learning a second language also transfer to success in other areas. Teaching infants and young children two languages simultaneously has numerous benefits and few drawbacks. © McGraw Hill 46  Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.