Obstacles to Athletic Performance PDF

2 OBSTACLES Introduction Jim Taylor As the authors of Part I of Comprehensive Applied Sport Psychology describe, there are many psychological factors that propel athletes toward their sports goals. Moreover, in their many years of working with a full spectrum of athletes, from youth to collegiate t...

2 OBSTACLES Introduction Jim Taylor As the authors of Part I of Comprehensive Applied Sport Psychology describe, there are many psychological factors that propel athletes toward their sports goals. Moreover, in their many years of working with a full spectrum of athletes, from youth to collegiate to Olympians and professionals, this mental “fuel” teamed up with physical talent, determination, and intelligence to drive athletes at every level of competition to success on the field of play. At the same time, there has also been a substantial subset of athletes who consistently underperformed and never realized the potential they exhibited early in their sports lives. These apparent failures have been a cause of consternation to consultants in applied sport psychology. A question that has often been asked is: “What pre- vented these athletes from performing up to their obvious capabilities?” As this question was pondered in the study of the role that the mind plays in the psychology of athletic per- formance, a realization has emerged. To be sure, the mind has tremendous power to act as the “gas pedal” for athletes to perform their best. At the same time, the mind can act as the “brake” on those efforts. From this deep consideration, a robust explanation follows for why supposedly “can’t miss” kids did, in fact, miss. From these explorations, five “obstacles” that can block athletes’ path to their goals have been identified: Overinvestment Perfectionism Fear of Failure Expectations Emotions These obstacles are counterproductive attitudes that athletes hold about themselves and how they think and feel about their sports lives. Paradoxically, these five obstacles start out by helping athletes find early success in their sports by creating a relentless focus, dogged determination to strive to be their very best, a deep aversion to failure, a compul- sion to set and meet exceedingly high goals, and a need to protect themselves from unpleasant emotions, respectively. However, at some point in their development, athletes who held these five attitudes saw them make a 180-degree turn and become obstacles that blocked their path toward their sports goals. Moreover, these obsta- cles create a lose–lose situation in which these athletes are not only unable to perform up to their capabilities and achieve their goals, but their sports participation becomes a truly aversive experience (e.g., stressful, no fun, negative feelings) that can drive them from their sport. Chapter 2 will examine several key aspects of these obstacles: how these obstacles develop; who or what causes them; 44 Mental Training how they impact athletes psychologically, emotionally, athletically, and personally; what the consequences are of these harmful attitudes on athletes; and how parents, coaches, and others can help athletes tear down these obstacles and replace them with healthy attitudes to support their athletic efforts. OVERINVESTMENT Ashley Coker-Cranney and Jim Taylor Self-identity refers to how people perceive themselves and the different roles they play in their lives. For exam- ple, different aspects of a self-identity can include athlete, student, friend, son/daughter, sister/brother, and many others. Self-identity can be thought of as a financial investment portfolio in which people deposit their earnings. Portfolios can be focused in a few investment vehicles (e.g., real estate, certain industries, stocks, or mutual funds) or highly diversified (e.g., many different types of stocks or funds). The number of investment vehicles in a port- folio is akin to the number of different elements that comprise a self-identity, and how important each of those elements are determines the degree of investment that a person has in any one aspect of themselves. Overinvestment by athletes occurs when the athlete “investment” of their self-identity “portfolio is dispro- portionately large and of excessive importance to their sense of self-worth and well-being. Overinvestment is also the source from which the other four obstacles that are discussed in this chapter emerge. Overinvestment becomes harmful when the athletic part of self-identity becomes the dominant source of validation to a person. It is most often expressed in the reactions that athletes have when their athletic identity is threatened by how they perform in their sport, in the form of mistakes, setbacks, and failure. Self-identity is also vulnerable when athletes believe that how important people in their sports lives, such as parents, coaches, team- mates, fans, and media, perceive them is diminished due to disappointing competitive performance. Though the research on overinvestment among athletes is limited, practical experience suggests that over- investment impacts athletic performance in two ways. First, athletes’ self-esteem becomes dependent on their athletic identity. With this overreliance on sports success, how athletes view and feel about themselves (“Am I valued? Am I worthy of respect?”) becomes contingent on how they perform in their sport. Second, because athletes’ perceptions of self-worth stem from successful attainment of the athlete role, their sport achievement is. Failure to accomplish their goals presents a significant threat to perceptions of themselves and to their future aspirations as athletes, leading sport to become a personal threat to their sense of self and well-being. Moreover, this perception can trigger the four additional obstacles discussed in this chapter, creating in athletes a “perfect storm” of obstacles blocking the path toward their sports goals. It also creates an athletic environment that is both hostile to and averse for athletes. One measure of how invested athletes are in their sport is their emotional reactions in practice and at com- petitions. Athletes who are overly invested in their sport will likely perceive both practice and competition as threatening. Their thinking may be negative, doubting, and worried. They also experience high levels of anxiety and fear, accompanied by the requisite stress reactions. Their practice or competitive experience may produce a fight-or-flight-or-freeze reaction in overinvested athletes, any of which can have deleterious effects on perfor- mance. After a practice or competition, if these athletes manage to succeed, the dominant response is one of relief rather than excitement because they avoided the attack on your self-identity that comes with failure. If overin- vested athletes perform below expectations, they are likely to feel devastated because the failure is perceived as an attack on their self-identity. Theory and Research A five-year-old defines herself as “strong” or a “big sister.” A ten-year-old describes himself as “smart” or a “good friend.” A college student introduces himself as “a baseball player.” A middle-aged mom remembers fondly her youth as “a gymnast.” All of these statements refer to perceptions of self-identity. Despite its use in everyday language, self-identity is a complex concept. Erikson (1963) first introduced the notion of identity formation as part of his eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, self-identity emerges in late adolescence and early adulthood. In this stage, people develop a cohesive sense of  Obstacles 45 self grounded in the values they identify as important to them, the beliefs they have about themselves, and the goals they wish to accomplish in their lives. They then seek out roles that will support their values, beliefs, and goals. The priority they place on each role is dependent upon the sense of self they form in this process. In turn, each role may influence future values, beliefs and goals. This budding self-identity becomes the catalyst for how people think, feel, act, and react in their lives. For overinvested athletes, their athletic identity assumes a central role in their overall self-identity. In support of Erikson’s (1963) model, athletic identity is highest in young adult- hood until sport participation is terminated (Houle, Brewer, & Kluck, 2010). Whereas Erikson saw self-identity as an entity that becomes fixed by early adulthood, McAdams (2001) offers a different perspective in which identity is a complex interaction of self-perceptions organized within the context an ever-evolving life story. The life story exists to assist people’s understanding of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in various situations. This “life story” model suggests that individuals possess a self-identity that is fluid and changes over time based on their accumulating life experiences rather than one that is fixed and immutable once established. This conceptualization fits nicely in the sports context because evidence suggests that the degree to which athletes identify with the athlete role may change over time as their circumstances in their sports lives may change. For example, they may become injured, experience little progress, or be de-selected (Brewer, Selby, Linder, & Petitpas, 1999; Grove, Fish, & Eklund, 2004). In addition, self-identity is not solely based in how people see or understand themselves. Rather, it also has a social component in which feedback from significant others and the groups they become a member of contrib- utes to the formation of self-identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). For athletes, this influence can come from parents, coaches, teammates, fans, media, and others in their sports lives. The degree of importance on the athlete role, from a social-identity perspective, depends on the athlete’s position within the group and the value they place on group membership (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Regardless of which approach to self-identity athletes embrace, self-identity and, by extension, investment, has important consequences in the lives of athletes, in terms of performance and enjoyment, as well as on and away from the field of play. One line of research that has significant relevance in this discussion is that of identity foreclosure in sports. According to Brewer and Petitpas (2017), identity foreclosure “refers to commitment to the athlete role in the absence of exploration of occupational or ideological alternatives” (p. 118). It occurs when a person is solely or primarily invested in the athlete role to the detriment of other life roles. In other words, identity foreclosure for athletes can lead to overinvestment in their sports lives and neglect of other aspects of the self-identities The modern sports culture sends powerful messages to young athletes that reinforce the apparent value of overinvestment and increase the likelihood of identity foreclosure in sports. It offers athletes what appears to be a clear path to glory, fame, and wealth, all values venerated in our popular culture. Additionally, that sports are a way to get a better life, that hard work promises success, and that options for non-sport success are limited (Beamon, 2010; Coakley, 2009). Athletes also exist within a culture of risk which reinforces that struggles, inju- ries, and uncertainties are inherent in sport; that they should be expected and accepted by athletes. Sports also present opportunities for athletes to gain self-esteem, validation, acceptance, and popularity through their efforts. Identity foreclosure, however unintentional, also enables athletes to avoid having to choose between conflicting roles (e.g., student vs. athlete; community volunteer vs. travel team member) by immersing themselves in an environment that discourages exploration of non-sport roles, activities, and rewards that conflict with the athlete role (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017). There is a robust body of research examining identity foreclosure in sports. For example, identity foreclosure has been found to be highest among intercollegiate athletes compared to non-athletes and recreational athletes (Good, Brewer, Petitpas, Van Raalte, & Mahar, 1993). Moreover, Miller and Kerr (2003) indicate that “ove- ridentification with the athlete role” (i.e., overinvestment) is the first and longest stage of role exploration for college athletes, persisting through the majority of their college athletic careers. Identity foreclosure, achieved prior to full exploration of other roles that might be fulfilling and have important long-term implications (e.g., broadening course selection and major options), has consequences for athletes because they may not pursue rela- tionships, interests, or activities that are outside of their firmly established athletic identity, thus limiting potential opportunities after the conclusion of their athletic careers. Given that few athletes will establish professional careers in sports (Coakley, 2009), athletic identity foreclosure can present short-term obstacles both on and off the field, as well as unforeseen obstacles years into the future. For instance, the grandson who missed his last four family reunions in favor of voluntary summer workouts at the high school. Or the college athlete who chose 46 Mental Training not to pursue a pre-med degree, despite a strong interest in a medical career, because the course meeting times conflicted with her practice schedule. Identity foreclosure has been linked to injury and career transition difficulties (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017). Athletes who overinvest in the athlete identity are at risk for burnout (Coakley, 1992), alcohol consumption, and using performance-enhancing drugs (Hale & Waalkes, 1994). Further, athletes who overcommit to the athlete role of their self-identity are at risk of overconforming to the sport ethic. Potentially, overconform- ing athletes may adopt a sport ethic that includes an overemphasis on winning, playing through pain/injury, sacrificing for the sport, and refusing to accept obstacles in the pursuit of excellence. Such over conformity may cause overinvested athletes to engage in disordered eating behaviors, overtraining, playing injured, taking performance-enhancing substances, or other unhealthy behaviors (Coker-Cranney, Watson, Bernstein, Voelker, & Coakley, 2017). Practical Implications Now let’s return to the earlier introduction of the notion that self-identity is similar to a financial investment portfolio. Perhaps the most common advice given by financial planners is to create a diversified investment portfolio, meaning people should put their money into many different stocks and mutual funds. The reasoning behind this strategy is that, when there is a stock market decline, it is less likely that every investment will take a hit, thus minimizing the losses incurred. In contrast, if investors have a “put all your eggs in one basket” approach to investing, in which they put most or all of their money into one or two stocks, if those stocks crash, the losses could be catastrophic. Related to self-identity, if athletes invest most or all of themselves in their sports lives and they become injured, have a bad season, are de-selected, or drop out of school to pursue their sport, the results could be equally devastating. However, if athletes have a “balanced portfolio” of life roles and their athletic role “loses value” due to one of the difficulties above, then their overall self-identity portfolio can absorb the athletic losses because they still have sources of validation from other roles they play in their lives. Consultants who work with athletes who may be overly invested in their sports participation can help them reduce their investment to a healthy level. This shift will allow the athletes to perform better, enjoy their athletic experiences more, and develop more diversified self-identity that will better serve them in all aspects of their immediate and future lives. There are several strategies that consultants can use to facilitate this shift toward a more balance self-identity. Assessing Self-identity in Athletes The first step in addressing the challenges of an overly influential athletic identity and the accompanying over- investment in sport is to assess the extent to which athletes identify with the athlete role and the degree of investment they make in that role. One way to do that is with a symptom assessment in which athletes manifest certain signs associated with overinvestment. These “red flags” include: excessive pre-competitive anxiety; preoccupation with results; unrealistic expectations; extreme reactions to mistakes, setbacks, and failure; emotions that are out of proportion to the situation; and self-castigation following a disappointing performance. Indications of any of these reactions can provide evidence of athletes’ overinvestment in their sports lives. Evidence of these symptoms of overinvestment can be gathered through interviewing with athletes, observation of them in practice and competitions, and through triangulation in speaking with people who know the athlete well including parents and coaches. Additionally, there are two well-validated objective measures of athletic identity that can provide specific and objective data about the depth and breadth of athletic identity in the con- text of overall self-identity: the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (Brewer & Cornelius, 2010) and the Social Identity Questionnaire for Sport (Bruner & Benson, 2018).  Obstacles 47 Consultants can then use these various assessment techniques to paint a detailed and accurate portrait of athletes from which an intervention plan can be developed. Continuing the financial investment metaphor, con- sultants can use interviews, observations, and self-report measures to assess the current self-identity portfolio and use that information to help athletes to create a self-identity portfolio that that is balanced, thus protecting them from significant losses and increasing the chances of a solid ROI (return on investment). This diversified self- identity portfolio provides more opportunities for success and more resources to handle setbacks in the present while also building a more holistic sense of self that ensures long-term well-being. Strategies for Reducing Overinvestment Once consultants have a clear understanding of the self-identity and causes of overinvestment in the athletes with whom they are working, they are in a position to help the athletes to actively redistribute their self- identity and reduce investment to a healthy level. Here are a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective. Create a More Balanced Self-identity There are several ways in which consultants can create a more balanced self-identity in the athletes with whom they work and, in doing so, reduce their overinvestment in their sport. One way is to increase the size of the investments in aspects of self-identity that are not related to their sports participation. For many athletes, it is not that they do not have other roles they play in their lives outside of sports, but rather that those other roles are not prominent and are overshadowed by athletic identity. In fact, some athletes may not even consider certain roles as part of their self-identity. So, the first step in expanding those roles is to have athletes recognize other areas of their self-identity that they may not pay much attention to, for example, family member or student, and gain appreciation for their role in their understanding of themselves. Athletes may begin to appreciate their role as a student more when they find subjects that interest them. They can also build skillsets that they can use when their sports careers end. As the nurture their “academic identity,” athletes may learn that they enjoy school and are capable students, thus reinforcing this newly appreciated aspect of their self-identity and increasing its value with their overall self-identity portfolio. Simply through this acknowledgment, and then efforts on their part to assume those roles more often and in a more committed fashion, athletes affect their position within different groups and increase the value placed on those roles, which, in turn, increase the size of those roles in their overall self-identity and lives. Second, athletes can actively create new self-identity “investment vehicles” by seeking out new roles in their lives. For example, they could take up a new hobby, re-enroll in school, improve a family relationship, or give back to their community. Assuming that self-identity is a zero-sum game, as more investments are added to their self-identity, their investment in their athletic identity will necessarily get smaller. Third, a problem with athletes who suffer from identity foreclosure and overinvestment is that they cre- ate a social world that revolves around their sports lives and acts to reinforce this narrow conceptualization of themselves. They do this by having friends who are all athletes, living with athletes, and having most of their relationships related to activities that revolve around their sports lives. As such, another way to further expand athletes’ self-identity and reduce overinvestment is to encourage them to meet and spend time with people who are not athletes. These diverse social opportunities might include a college athlete hanging out with dormmates who don’t play sports, a high school athlete teaming up on a school project with classmates who aren’t athletes, or an Olympic athlete who helps build a Habitat for Humanity house with strangers. As athletes’ social identi- ties begin to change, the story they construct to understand themselves changes, as does the level of investment in the athlete role. By whatever means athletes establish a more balanced self-identity, they shrink the size of their investment in their sports lives and, as a result, lessen the impact that their sport has on their overall self-identity. As athletes commit themselves to and immerse themselves in these new roles, they will gain increasing competence and con- fidence in those roles. As these roles gain prominence in their self-identities, athletes’ efforts at expanding them will be reinforced and they will be rewarded with higher self-esteem, greater comfort, and more resilience both within and outside of sport. Additionally, as they incorporate those new roles into their self-identities, athletes 48 Mental Training will find that they perform better and enjoy their sport more and that they find more success and happiness off the field of play as well. Gain Perspective When athletes care deeply about a sport and they invest time, effort, and energy into being the best they can be, it can turn into overinvestment. When athletes are overly invested in their sport, athletes can feel that they are putting their lives on the line every time they practice or compete. Of course, their physical lives aren’t usually in jeopardy, but what can feel threatened are their self-identity “lives,” which is too reliant on their athletic identity and goals. As such, their successes and failures in their sports can feel like life or death. Moreover, their “survival” as athletes depends on their continuing to improve, getting better results, and climbing the competitive ladder. So, if they perform well, they continue to “live” as athletes; if they perform poorly, they “die” as athletes. Given this approach to sports participation, it’s not surprising that overinvestment leads to other significant obstacles in the path toward athletes’ goals. This unhealthy and unproductive attitude toward sports is caused by a loss of perspective, or the place that sports assume in the overall lives of athletes. So, to help athletes let go of this attitude and remove the obstacle of overinvestment, a key strategy that consultants can employ is to help the athletes with whom they work to regain perspective by putting sports in a beneficial context within their general lives. The reality is that sports are rarely life or death to athletes, certainly not for young athletes who should be participating for the fun and the challenge. But it should also not be for college athletes, as well Olympians and professionals for whom the stakes get incrementally higher. Regardless of whether athletes win or lose, achieve their athletic goals or not, they will, in all likelihood, survive. No doubt, they will be disappointed if they aren’t as successful as they want. And they may have to make adjustments in their goals and in their lives. They will certainly experience sadness, hurt, frustration, and anger from their unfulfilled goals. But, and here is where perspective comes in, athletes will survive. In time, they will get over their disappointment because they will come to realize that no matter what happens in their athletic lives, they will be okay. Their lives will continue, they will redirect their goals onto other life pursuits, they may go to or finish school, find a career, and perhaps get married and have children. One of the most problematic aspects of identity foreclosure and overinvestment is that failure looms large and threatening to athletes. With a healthy level of investment, failure is disappointing, but also seen as a natural part of the athlete experience and offering essential lessons that have long-term benefits. In contrast, for athletes who are so invested in their athletic identity, failure is felt as direct attacks on their self-identity and their sports goals. As such, another important way for athletes to gain a healthy perspective on their sports lives is to reframe failure. Rather than seeing failure as a measure of self-worth or as a marker of a lack of progress toward their goals, athletes can place setbacks and losses in the broader context of their overall athletic development. Failure is feedback. Feedback is necessary for change. Change is necessary for growth. Growth is necessary for greatness. Without failure, this progression cannot occur. When failure is seen by athletes through the lens of a healthy per- spective and a balanced self-identity, the threat to the self is minimized. In doing so, athletes are freed from—or, at the very least, know how to handle—the negative thinking patterns, emotional reactions, and self-defeating behaviors that hurt both performance and enjoyment in their sports participation. If consultants can help athletes to embrace this new perspective, they will also likely let go of their overinvest- ment. And, paradoxically, this shift will free them from the obstacles that come from overinvestment and allow them to pursue your sports goals with exuberance and without reluctance. As athletes approach competitions, they will feel more motivated, confident, relaxed, and focused. They will be excited, rather than afraid, of com- peting. Athletes will feel prepared psychologically, emotionally, and physically. And with this healthy investment in their sport, athletes set themselves up for success and, in doing so, have a better chance of achieving the goals they set for themselves. Also, with a healthy perspective, athletes can look back on their sports careers with fondness and pride. They can remember the fun they had, the successes and failures they experienced, and the many life lessons they learned that prepared them to explore other aspects of their self-identity and pursue new dreams in other parts of their lives.  Obstacles 49 Summary Self-identity refers to how people perceive themselves and the different roles they play in their lives. Overinvestment by athletes occurs when, like a financial investment portfolio, their self-identity is overly invested in their sports lives and not sufficiently diversified such that their athletic identity is disproportion- ately large and of excessive importance to their sense of self-worth and well-being. One measure of how invested athletes are in their sport is their emotional reactions to training and compe- titions; athletes who are overly invested in their sport will likely perceive their sports efforts as threatening and experience a range of negative emotions. According to Erikson, self-identity emerges in late adolescence and early adulthood as people develop a cohesive sense of self grounded in the values they identify as important to them, the beliefs they have about themselves, and the goals they wish to accomplish in their lives. McAdams suggests that self-identity changes over time based on their accumulating life experiences rather than one that is fixed and immutable once established. Identity foreclosure refers to commitment to the athlete role in to the neglect of other aspects of the self. Overinvestment has been linked to injury, career transition difficulties, burnout, alcohol consumption, and the use of performance-enhancing drugs, disordered eating behaviors, overtraining, playing injured, taking performance-enhancing substances, and other unhealthy behaviors. It is recommended that athletes develop a balanced and diversified self-identity “portfolio” in which they find meaning and satisfaction from many roles in their lives. Consultants who work with athletes who may be overly invested in their sports participation can help them reduce their investment to a healthy level. Self-identity can be assessed with interviewing, observation, and objective assessments. Strategies to reduce identify foreclosure and overinvestment include highlighting other roles that athletes play in their lives, developing new roles, and putting into a healthier perspective how they view failure in their sport. References Beamon, K. K. (2010). Are sports overemphasized in the socialization process of African American males? A qualitative analysis of former collegiate athletes’ perception of sport socialization. Journal of Black Studies, 41(2), 281–300. Brewer, B. W. & Petitpas, A. J. (2017). Athletic identity foreclosure. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 118–122. Brewer, B. W., Selby, C. L., Linder, D. E., & Petitpas, A. J. (1999). Distancing oneself from a poor season: Divestment of athlete identity. Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss, 4, 149–162. Brewer, B. W., & Cornelius, A. E. (2010). Self-protective changes in athletic identity following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(1): 1–5. Bruner, M. W. & Benson, A. J. (2018). Evaluating the psychometric properties of the Social Identity Questionnaire for Sport (SIQS). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 35, 181–188. Coakley, J. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem. Sociology of Sport Journal, 9, 271–285. Coakley, J. (2009). Sports in society: Issues and controversies (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Coker-Cranney, A. M., Watson, J. W., Bernstein, M., Voelker, D. & Coakley, J. (2017). How far is too far? Understanding identity and overconformity in collegiate wrestlers. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, & Health, 23, 57–69. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Norton. Good, A. J., Brewer, B. W., Petitpas, A. J., Van Raalte, J. L., & Mahar, M. T. (1993). Identity foreclosure, athletic identity, and college sport participation. The Academic Athletic Journal, 43, 8–24. Grove, J. R., Fish, M., & Eklund, R. C. (2004). Changes in athletic identity following team selection: Self-protection versus self-enhancement. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 75–81. Hale, B. D. & Waalkes, D. (1994). Athletic identity, gender, self-esteem, academic importance, and drug use: A further valida- tion of the AIMS. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16, S62. Houle, J. L. W., Brewer, B. W., & Kluck, A. S. (2010). Developmental trends in athletic identity: A two-part retrospective study. Journal of Sport Behavior, 33(2), 146–159. McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100–122. Miller, P. S. & Kerr, G. A. (2003). The role experimentation of intercollegiate student athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 196–219. Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin (Ed.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole. 50 Mental Training PERFECTIONISM Jim Taylor Perfectionism can be one of the most powerful obstacles that interfere with athletes’ ability to perform their best, achieve their goals, and enjoy their sports participation. Unhealthy perfectionism involves people setting impossibly high standards for themselves and striving for goals that are unachievable (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Additionally, these perfectionists believe that anything less than perfection is not only unacceptable, but a direct attack on their self-worth as people. As a result, when they fail to live up to the hopelessly high standards, they castigate themselves for failing to be perfect. Perfectionists are never satisfied with their efforts no matter how objectively well they perform, obsess over their mistakes, however minor they may be, and fail to enjoy the suc- cesses they experience. For example, a perfectionistic figure skater wins a prestigious event, but berated herself for making two mistakes in her long program and not getting the score she had wanted. As will be discussed shortly, there can be benefits to one form of perfectionism. However, perfectionism usually presents itself as a hindrance to performance, goal attainment, and enjoyment in sports participation. At the heart of perfectionism lies a threat: If someone isn’t perfect, bad things will happen to them, most commonly conceived as people see them as failures, they won’t achieve their goals, and they will be unsuccessful in the future (Hill & Curran, 2016). This threat arises because perfectionistic athletes connect whether they are perfect with their self-worth; being perfect dictates whether they see themselves and others see them as successful people worthy of love and respect. The toll that perfectionism can take on these athletes is significant and can be truly destructive: depression, anxiety, eating disorders, substance abuse, and suicide. Theory and Research Perfectionism is largely defined in sport and performance psychology as a personality attribute characterized by an individual’s alignment with extremely high standards and self-critique for performance marked by a striving for flawlessness (Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Gotwals, Stoeber, Dunn, & Stoll, 2012). Debate has centered on whether or not this trait is productive for athletes that can serve as a source of motivation to propel them toward their sports goals or if it is dysfunctional leading to self-doubt, worry, stress, and anxiety, resulting in strong negative emotional states and disappointing performances (Gotwals et al., 2012). The more facilitative end of the spectrum for perfectionism is referred to as perfectionistic strivings and results in athletes’ holding themselves to exceptionally high standards and determined efforts to achieve those stand- ards. In contrast, the more debilitative end of the spectrum, referred to as perfectionistic concerns, is characterized by athletes setting impossibly high standards as a means of gaining approval from significant others (e.g., parents, coaches, peers) and, if those standards aren’t reached, being highly self-critical (Stoeber, 2011; Weinberg & Gould, 2015). This delineation between perfectionistic strivings and concerns impacts an athletes’ cognitions, emotions, behaviors, and performances in distinctly adaptive (healthy and functional) or maladaptive (unhealthy and dysfunctional), respectively, to performance and well-being (Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Gotwals et al., 2012; Hall 2006; Stoeber, 2011). The research examining the above theoretical distinctions has not been entirely supportive of its assertions. For example, Stoeber (2011) reports a positive relationship between perfectionistic strivings and adaptive out- comes and perfectionistic concerns and maladaptive outcomes. However, other research has failed to find such a clear relationship. Much of this is due to difficulties surrounding the complexity of perfectionistic strivings in that it can manifest both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes. What is clear from the vast array of research on perfectionism, however, is that perfectionistic concerns consistently manifest maladaptive outcomes. Perfectionism and Achievement Orientation The health of any goal in sport is dictated by the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that athletes express toward to that goal. Achievement motivation in sport has long been noted by two domains: process-orientation and ego-orientation (see Roberts, Treasure, & Conroy, 2012). Process orientation represents goal-directed behavior by athletes in which they evaluate themselves in terms of the development of relevant skills and competencies  Obstacles 51 toward their goals. In contrast, ego orientation represents outcome-directed behavior by athletes which is evalu- ated in terms of comparison with others. Perfectionistic strivings is often association with a process orientation with particular emphasis on the focus of athletes on themselves and relative to their own path toward mastery. The behavior response by athletes to a process orientation and perfectionistic strivings is marked by resilience, determination, persistence, and resilience in the face of obstacles to their goals. Conversely, perfectionistic concerns lead to athletes evaluating themselves through the same high standards, but they measure themselves based on their ability to deliver specific competitive results in relation to their opponents. Their reaction produces fear of failure, fear of disappointing others, and debilitative self-evaluation (for a full review, see Stoeber, Damien, & Madigan, 2018). Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Coping to Perfectionism As expressed in perfectionistic striving, the ability of athletes to cope effectively with mistakes, poor per- formances, failures, and setbacks depends on how well they are able to separate their sports efforts from their overall identity and sense of self-worth. This distinction between athlete and person allows them to adopt a perspective of “I failed” as opposed to “I am a failure” (Stoeber, Uphill, & Hotham, 2009; Stoeber & Otto, 2006). In contrast, perfectionistic concerns speaks to coping responses characterized by an exces- sive and obsessive worry about mistakes, being negatively evaluated by significant others, experiencing devastation and depression following poor performances, and the debilitating state of learned helplessness within the competition arena (Hall 2006; Dweck, 1980). Thus, any efforts or performances that fail to meet the unreachable standards that these perfectionists set for themselves is perceived as a direct attack on their value as people. Practical Implications Consultants can play a significant role in helping athletes to shift from perfectionistic concerns to perfectionistic strivings (Gustafsson, DeFreese, & Madigan, 2017). There are a number of strategies they can use to help athletes better understand the role that perfectionism plays in their athletic lives. Additionally, consultants can show these athletes how, if necessary, they can let go of their perfectionism and adopt healthier and more productive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving in their sports lives. Assessing Perfectionism The first step involves assessing athletes’ perfectionistic tendencies, particularly those who may have perfectionis- tic concerns. Research has identified a number of symptoms of perfectionistic concerns that can alert athletes to the type of perfectionism that they might have (Antony & Swinson, 2009): black-and-white thinking (“I either win or I lose!”); catastrophic thinking (“If I lose today, my life will be over”); must statements (“I must beat her today”); negative emotions (e.g., depression, anxiety, frustration, angry, and despair); procrastination; tentative performances; preoccupation with mistakes; obsessing over minor details; and risk aversion. Another important part of the assessment process involves athletes identifying the ways in which their per- fectionism impacts their athletic efforts. Having identified the warning signs of perfectionistic concerns that were just described, athletes can connect those thinking patterns, emotions, and behaviors to their practice and competitive performances and recognize the harm they might be causing. 52 Mental Training Strategies for Overcoming Perfectionism In general, consultants can encourage perfectionistic athletes to focus on their own internally generated goals rather than those set by others such as parents or coaches. They can also assist athletes in identifying and focusing on what motivates them internally. These changes can reorient athletes away from perfectionistic concerns that interfere with their athletic efforts and onto perfectionistic strivings that can bolster their athletic performances. Replace Perfectionism Just using the word perfectionism carries a lot of psychological and emotional freight. One recommendation is to encourage athletes to remove any derivation of the word perfection from their vocabularies. As noted above, perfectionism might help in some situations, but, in general, it does more harm than good. Consultants should have athletes replace the standard of perfection with the goal of excellence. Excellence is generally viewed as still setting a high bar of performance. Additionally, excellence takes many of the best aspects of perfectionistic striving, such as intrinsic motivation, high standards, and sustained effort. At the same time, excellence leaves out the unhealthy parts of perfectionistic concerns including connecting success with self-esteem, impossibly high standards, unrealistic expectations, and risk aversion. Importantly, it never connects failure with athletes’ percep- tions of their ability in their sport or their self-worth as people (Taylor, 2017). Gain Perspective Similar to with overinvestment, perfectionistic athletes have lost perspective on what will happen if they aren’t perfect. Though they may think it would be the end of the world as they know it, the reality is that they would survive and would be fine. Their family and friends would still love them, they would still be good people worthy of respect, and they could continue to strive toward their goals. Consultants can help perfectionistic athletes to gain perspective by offering this more grounded view of their sports lives (Adderholdt-Elliott & Goldberg, 1992). Set Realistic Goals A fear among perfectionistic athletes is that if they lower their goals at all, it is akin to embracing mediocrity or failure. Yet, paradoxically, by having them reduce their standards to levels that are actually attainable, these ath- letes are more motivated and confident, less fearful, and more likely to find success in their efforts. Consultants can assist athletes in establishing goals that will be challenging, yet also realistic and attainable (Basco, 2000). Challenge Thinking Athletes with perfectionistic concerns unwittingly normalize decidedly non-normal thinking. They come to embrace unrealistic standards, impossibly high goals, and self-criticism as just the way they think. Consultants can help these athletes to challenge their distorted and unproductive thinking (“I don’t have a chance today!”) and replace it will realistic and productive thinking (“I’m going to give my best effort!”) (Antony & Swinson, 2009). Act Differently Perfectionistic athletes tend to be fairly rigid people who have deeply embedded habits, patterns, and rituals. Through repetition, they come to believe that certain behaviors are necessary to succeed. Moreover, if they don’t engage in these behaviors, they will fail. Consultants can help these athletes to break free from these regi- mented behaviors by, first, identifying those behaviors that seem important, yet may not be so. Then, they can assist the athletes in recognizing and implementing healthier behaviors as replacements. Finally, consultants can encourage athletes to reality test the old behaviors to see if they are truly necessary or if other behaviors that are healthier will be equally or more effective (Taylor, 2017).  Obstacles 53 Summary Perfectionism that interferes with athletes’ performances involves their setting impossibly high standards for themselves and striving for goals that unachievable. At the heart of unhealthy perfectionism lies a threat: If someone isn’t perfect, bad things will happen to them, most commonly perceived as people see them as failures, they won’t achieve their goals, and they will be unsuccessful in the future. The toll that perfectionism can take on these athletes is significant and can be truly destructive: depression, anxiety, eating disorders, substance abuse, and suicide. Research has identified two types of perfectionism, one beneficial, the other problematic: perfectionistic striving and perfectionistic concerns. Athletes with perfectionistic striving are conscientious, effective at coping with failure, and generally show positive emotions in their sport. Athletes with “perfectionistic concerns” tends to be maladaptive as it increases an athlete’s likelihood to experience training distress, places intense focus on mistakes, leads to negative reactions to failure when performance expectations are not met, and injury. The first step in helping athletes to overcome their unhealthy perfectionistic tendencies is having them assess where on the continuum they lie and to what degree their perfectionism helps or hurts their sports efforts. Strategies for overcoming perfectionism including having athletes replace perfectionism with excellence as their primary goal, gain a realistic perspective on what would happen if athletes weren’t perfect, set realistic goals, challenge their perfectionistic thinking, and change their perfectionistic behavior. References Adderholdt-Elliott, & Goldberg, J. (1992). Perfectionism: What’s bad about being too good. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit. Antony, M. M., & Swinson, R. P. (2009) When Perfect Isn’t Good Enough: Strategies for Coping with Perfectionism. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Basco, M. R. (2000). Never good enough: How to perfectionism to your advantage without letting it ruin your life. New York, NY: Free Press. Dweck, C. (1980). Learned Helplessness in sport. In C. M. Nadeau, W. R. Halliwell, K. M. Newell, & G. C. Roberts (Eds.), Psychology of motor behavior and sport—1979. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2002). Perfectionism and maladjustment: an overview of theoretical, definitional, and treatment issues. In P. L. Hewitt & G. L. Flett (Eds.), Perfectionism (pp. 5–31). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2005). The perils of perfectionism in sports and exercise: Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 14–18. Gotwals, J. K., Stoeber, J., Dunn, J. G. H., & Stoll, O. (2012). Are perfectionistic strivings in sport adaptive? A systematic review of confirmatory, contradictory, and mixed evidence. Canadian Psychology, 53(4), 263–279. Gustafsson, H., DeFreese, J. D., & Madigan, D. J. (2017). Athlete burnout: Review and recommendations. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 109–113. Hall, H. K. (2006). Perfectionism: A hallmark quality of world class performers, or a psychological impediment to athletic development? In D. Hackfort & G. Tennenbaum (Eds.), Perspectives in sport and exercise psychology, vol 1: Essential processes for attaining peak performance (pp. 178–211). Oxford: Meyer & Meyer. Hill, A. P., & Curran, T. (2016). Multidimensional perfectionism and burnout: a meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 20, 3, 269–288. Roberts, G. C., Treasure, D. C., & Conroy, D. E. (2012). Understanding the dynamics of motivation in sport and physical activity: An achievement goal interpretation. In G. Tennenbaum & R.C. Ecklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. Stoeber, J. (2011). The dual nature of perfectionism in sports: Relationships with emotion, motivation, and performance. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, 128–145. Stoeber, J., Damien, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychol- ogy of perfectionism: Theory, research, and applications. Abingdon: Routledge. Stoeber, J., Uphill, M. A., & Hotham, S. (2009). Predicting race performance in triathlon: The role of perfectionism, achieve- ment goals, and personal goal setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31(2), 211–245. Taylor, J. (2017). Train your mind for athletic success: Mental preparation to achieve your sports goals. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2015). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (6th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 54 Mental Training FEAR OF FAILURE Christine Weinkauff Duranso and Jim Taylor Most athletes are likely to report experiencing some anxiety about failing to meet their athletic goals, regard- less of age, gender, ability or level of competition. That anxiety comes from the inherent risk of setting and pursuing goals because, when they enter the field of play, they are putting their self-identity, self-worth, hopes, and dreams, not to mention their time, money, and energy, on the line. In other words, they are risking fail- ure. However, taking this risk doesn’t have a deleterious effect on their sports efforts; rather, this “anticipatory arousal” acts to motivate athletes to perform their best. For some athletes, however, the fear of failing, and the anticipated shame and negative evaluations that come from failing, impair their performance (Sagar, Lavallee & Spray, 2009) and can result in numerous psychologi- cal difficulties (Conroy, Willow, & Metzler, 2002). Whether they experience low confidence, pre-competitive anxiety, a preoccupation with results, or severe self-criticism, in most cases, when they dig deep enough, they discover a fear of failure at its root. Many athletes with a strong fear of failure experience heightened anxiety and increased risk of depression or eating disorders (Conroy et al., 2002; Conroy & Elliot, 2004; Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Other athletes increase their training intensity in an effort to avoid failure. Paradoxically, these efforts are often self-defeating because over-training increases their risk of burnout, injury, and loss of interest to continue in their sport (Conroy et al., 2002; Gustafsson, Hassmén, Kenttä & Johansson, 2008; Orlick, 1974; Sagar et al., 2009). Consultants in sport psychology are often recruited to help these athletes understand and let go of this fear so that they can train and compete unencumbered and, as a result, perform their best and fully enjoy their sports experience. Theory and Research Fear of failure is a motivation to avoid anticipated negative consequences when a goal is not met (Atkinson, 1957). According to Lazarus (1991), fear of failure involves two processes: anticipating that failure is possible, likely, or currently happening, and that failure in the current situation will bring about aversive consequences. Fear of failure is not limited to athletes. Many studies have uncovered this motivational tendency in other domains, such as academics (Elliot & Church, 1997; Monte & Fish, 1989) and relationships (Elliot, Gable, & Mapes, 2006). Individuals, athletes included, may experience this fear, and the negative consequences that follow across the lifespan. Consequences of Fear of Failure The deleterious consequences may include changes in the broad categories of unpleasant emotional states, moti- vational difficulties, and poorer than expected performance (Conroy et al., 2002; Conroy & Elliot, 2004; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Gustafsson et al., 2008; Martin & Marsh, 2003; Orlick, 1974; Sagar et al., 2009). More specifically, they can be experienced as: embarrassment, humiliation, and shame; disappointment of self and others; loss of affection, respect, or interest from significant people; a loss of self-identity or self-worth; and expected loss of future opportunities within and outside of their sport (Conroy, Poczwardowski, & Henschen, 2001). Many athletes with a strong fear of failure report high levels of anxiety (Conroy, 2001; Sagar, Lavallee & Spray, 2007; Sagar et al., 2009), depression (Conroy, 2001; Sagar et al., 2007), pessimism (Martin & Marsh, 2003), rumination over mistakes (Conroy & Elliot, 2004), worry (Conroy et al., 2002; Sagar et al., 2009), and low perceptions of control (Martin & Marsh, 2003). Additionally, many athletes with a fear of failure also report feeling less engaged (Gustafsson, Kenttä, & Hassmén, 2011), less intrinsic motivation (Sagar et al., 2009), and greater likelihood to drop out (Orlick, 1974).  Obstacles 55 Fear of Failure and Goals Fear of failure often results in the adoption of avoidance goals instead of approach goals (Elliot & Church, 1997; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). Approach goals are designed to view the challenges of sport as an opportunity for growth and improvement, while avoidance goals enable athletes to elude or reduce the risk of failure (Elliot & Church, 1997). Mitigating the risk of failure may occur through the adoption of mastery-avoidance goals, in which athletes persist toward skill improvement because they are worried about failing, or performance- avoidance goals, in which they try to avoid failure by outperforming competitors (which may be done by choosing less challenging competitions). Athletes who practice mastery-avoidance or performance-avoidance goals report high anxiety, low enjoyment and low intrinsic motivation, all of which impede performance (Conroy & Elliot, 2004; Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Finally, athletes who practice mastery-avoidance goals are at risk of burn out or injury from over training (Gustafsson, Sagar, & Stenling, 2017). Causes of Fear of Failure The antecedents to fear of failure are broadly categorized into three areas: parenting, personality, and experi- ences. Parents play a significant role in the socialization of fear of failure, and this socialization seems to be especially strong between 5 and 9 years of age (McClelland et al., 1953). Parental practices that contribute to the development of fear of failure include behavior that is controlling or punitive and high expectations for sport achievement (Sagar & Lavallee, 2010). Punitive strategies include criticizing their children’s performance during and after practice or competitions, threatening withdrawal from future opportunities or competitions, or punishing their children by withdrawing love, affection, or attention after disappointing performances (Sagar & Lavallee, 2010). Parents also contribute to children’s fear of failure by practicing over-controlling behaviors such as attending all practices or giving unsolicited instructions. Finally, parents increase the likelihood that young athletes will fear failure when they convey inappropriately high expectations or focus excessively on results over process and enjoyment. These unrealistic expectations and pressures, coupled with feelings of conditional love or acceptance, drastically increase the risk that young athletes will develop a fear of failure (Sagar & Lavallee, 2010). In addition to parental influences, an athlete’s inborn personality and temperament also influence their sen- sitivity to fear of failure. An avoidance temperament is characterized by high levels of negativity, anxiety and sensitivity to cues of punishment or aversive consequences, while an approach temperament is characterized by more positive than negative affect and a willingness to approach challenge (Carver & White, 1994; Elliot & Thrash, 2002; Gray, 1987a, 1987b). Fear of failure has been linked to avoidance temperament (Conroy & Elliot, 2004; Elliot & Thrash, 2002). Research on personality suggests there are traits linked to this sensitivity, namely, perfectionism and neuroti- cism (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Piedmont, 1995; Ross, Steward, Mugge & Fultz, 2001; Ryckman, Thornton & Gold, 2009). As discussed in the previous section, perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition typified by incredibly high performance standards, striving for flawlessness, and a tendency for overly critical evaluations of behavior or performance (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Some elements of perfectionism are considered to be helpful in achieving one’s potential (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Others, such as the incredibly high standards and excessive self-criticism when the standards aren’t met, are linked to fear of failure (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost & Henderson, 1991). Some aspects of perfectionism are also found in fear of failure including being critical of performance, resulting in shame, embarrassment, or loss of interest or affection (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost & Henderson, 1991; Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Neuroticism, a dimension of personality characterized by persistent worry and anxiety, has also been associ- ated with fear of failure. Several studies have found that individuals high on neuroticism also report a high fear of failure (Piedmont, 1995; Ross, Steward, Mugge & Fultz, 2001; Ryckman, Thornton & Gold, 2009). Neurotic tendencies in athletes are often self-fulfilling: these tendencies impair performance and increase the likelihood of failure (Barlow, Woodman, Gorgulu, & Voyzey, 2016). Life experiences contribute to fear of failure by either further reinforcing or mitigating the fear of failure. Continued pressure from demanding parents (McClelland et al., 1953; Sagar & Lavallee, 2010) and coaches (Conroy, 2003; Conroy & Coatsworth, 2007) may encourage the maintenance of this disposition. Athletes’ fear of failure may be heightened when they perceive the critical, demanding, or punitive interactions with their parents or coaches as a long-term and persistent dynamic (Sagar et al., 2007). 56 Mental Training Ways Athletes Avoid Failure Fear of failure can become so aversive and pervasive that athletes take active, though often unconscious, steps to relieve themselves of its psychological and emotional burden. There are three ways in which athletes avoid failure. First, they can simply quit their sport; if they don’t play, they can’t fail. It’s no surprise that, between the ages of nine and thirteen, 70 percent of children drop out of organized sports (Miner, 2016). The unrelenting pres- sure to succeed that they feel is certainly a contributing factor in this decision. Mysterious and persistent injury or illness, damaged equipment, apparent lack of interest or motivation, or just plain refusal to take part are common ways in which athletes can avoid failure and maintain your personal and social esteem. Yet, for these athletes, choosing not to participate is a painful decision because, despite their profound fear of failure that may drive them to quit, at a deep level, they may still love their sport and their decision to quit can make them feel even worse for not having the strength to continue (Taylor, 2017). Second, athletes can avoid the perceived consequences of failure by failing, but protecting themselves from the failure by having an excuse—“I would have done well, but my ankle is killing me” or “I would have done just fine, but my opponent cheated.” This is called self-defeating or self-handicapping behavior or self-sabotage (Martin & Marsh, 2003). Specifically, athletes may consciously or unconsciously construct a reason for the failure (outside of themselves) to relieve the pressure of failing (Chen, Wu, Kee, Lin, & Shui, 2009; Urdan & Midgley, 2001). Self-handicapping behaviors, for athletes, may include “forgetting” important gear, staying out late the night before a competition, or feigning injury or illness. In each case, athletes guarantee failure, but the excuse protects them because their failures are not seen as their fault; they can’t be held responsible and their parents, coaches, and peers must continue to value and respect them (Chen, Wu, Kee, Lin, & Shui, 2009). Third, another way that athletes can avoid failure is to get as far away from failure as possible by becoming successful. But, athletes who fear failure often get stuck in limbo between failure and real success, what Taylor (2017) refers to as the “safety zone.” These athletes are far from failure, so no one can accuse them of being failures, for example, if they finish in the top 10 in their sport. At the same time, they are frustrated because a part of them knows that they can be truly successful. But, to find real success, they must be willing to take risks. And the problem with risks is that, by their very nature, they may not pay off and they may result in failure. If athletes are more concerned with avoiding failure than pursuing success, as those with a fear of failure are, they will focus on the downsides of risk and, as a result, will be unwilling to take those risks that are necessary to experience real success. Practical Implications All athletes fear failure to some degree. As the degrees of intensity increase, however, athletes may risk the emotional, motivational, and performance issues outlined above. There are significant and negative outcomes related to the fear of failure for these athletes both within their sport and in their overall personal development. Fortunately, consultants can help athletes to reduce their fear by, first, gaining an understanding of fear of failure and how it impacts them. Then, consultants can teach specific mental strategies that focus on reframing the risks and consequences of failure, adopting a growth mindset, and developing approach motivational tendencies. Assessing and Understanding Fear of Failure Fear of failure isn’t difficult to diagnose because it manifests itself in a number of observable ways, some of which have been described earlier in this section: negative or critical self-talk; low or inconsistent motivation; pre-competitive anxiety; excessively negative emotions following poor performances; a preoccupation with results; unexplained injuries or illness; frequent excuses after disappointing performances; and cautious or tentative performances.  Obstacles 57 Consultants can identify these warning signs by interviewing athletes, observing them in practice or competi- tions, or from feedback from parents and coaches. Additionally, there is an objective measure that assess for fear of failure, The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory, that can be a useful tool for consultants to use (Conroy, Willow, & Metzler, 2002). The next step in the assessment process involves helping the athletes who suffer from a fear of failure to understand its causes. Once consultants understand where the athletes’ fear of failure comes from, they are in a better position to develop an effective intervention plan to assist them in reducing or relieving their fear of failure. Strategies for Alleviating Fear of Failure At the heart of helping athletes to let go of their fear of failure is to change the way they think about failure and its perceived consequences. There are a variety of strategies that consultants can employ to reduce or alleviate athletes’ fear of failure. See Failure Realistically The first step for consultants is to assist athletes in challenging their thoughts about failure and to disprove them. There are three particular perceptions that counter those held about athletes with a fear of failure that can enable them to adopt this “nothing to fear” perspective. First, none of the threatening consequences that athletes may attach to failure will likely come true. Admittedly, there are some parents who get angry and upset when their children perform poorly. However, all parents love their children no matter how they perform. Additionally, contrary to common perceptions that athletes with a fear of failure hold, their friends will still like them, they will not be rejected by their peers, and they will still be worthy of respect., Their time will still be well spent, and they will get over the fact that they may not achieve all of their sports goals. In other words, if they fail, athletes will be disappointed, but they will be okay in the long run. Second, athletes’ fear of failure is utterly self-defeating; it serves no worthwhile purpose in their sports lives. By falling victim to a fear of failure, athletes actually increase the chances that failure will result. It creates a “win”-lose scenario. Athletes “win” (in quotes because it is a hollow victory) by protecting themselves from those perceived painful consequences that they believe they will experience if they fail and are held responsible for it. At the same time, athletes lose in several powerful ways. They perform poorly, don’t achieve their goals, don’t enjoy their sports participation, feel regret for not giving their best effort, are continually frustrated because they know they can do better, and fear that failure will haunt them throughout their lives. Third, when athletes let go of their fear of failure and perform in their sport with determination, confidence, and courage, the chances are that they will find some degree of success. How much success depends on many factors, some within athletes’ control and others not. Athletes may not win an Olympic medal or compete pro- fessionally, but allowing themselves to be free of the fear of failure will result in some degree of success and, just as importantly, at the end of their athletic careers, the belief that they gave it everything they had. Moreover, if athletes are willing to risk failure, contrary to being devastated by the negative consequences they believe they will experience, they would actually feel wonderful emotions, such as excitement, joy, pride, and inspiration, because they gave their fullest effort and “left it all out there”. And, ultimately, that is all any athlete can do. Get Support from Others Fear of failure is a difficult obstacle for athletes to overcome on their own, so consultants can be a significant source of support in challenging that fear. Additionally, athletes can enlist family, friends, coaches, and teammates to help them break free from its grip. Athletes’ support system can encourage them when they get down, chal- lenge their thinking when they allow their fear of failure to take control, provide levity when the fear becomes intense, and give them hope when they feel hopeless to change. With many people behind the athletes, they will feel more confident, stronger, and better prepared to face their fears and pursue their sports goals without fear or hesitation. 58 Mental Training Be Cautiously Optimistic When athletes have a fear of failure, consultants cannot expect to readily turn them into eternal optimists (“Everything will turn out great!”). But, by encouraging them to be cautiously optimistic (“Good things could happen.”), they are taking an important step toward letting go of their fear. Being cautiously optimistic involves athletes seeing a small ray of hope when they would otherwise see only the specter of those negative conse- quences of fear. It means being realistic by recognizing that failure is a possibility, while, at the same time, acknowledging that success is also a possibility. Cautious optimism means athletes give themselves a chance of being successful, which makes possible more hope, confidence, and motivation in their sports efforts. Accept the Possibility of Failure If athletes can accept the possibility of failure and realize that, even if it should occur, they will be okay, they remove any threat it might hold over them. When they feel that there is no more threat from the consequences of failure, then they will no longer live in fear of it. Releasing the fear of failure feels as if a great weight has been lifted athletes’ shoulders and they will feel liberated to perform their best without reservation or hesitation. This will allow athletes throw themselves into their sport and pursue success with absolute abandon. No Regrets This shift will allow athletes to live by two cardinal rules. Rule #1 is that, at the end of a competition, season, or life, athletes won’t have to ask: “I wonder what could have been?” That may be the saddest question athletes can pose to themselves because there are no “redos” in life. They want to look back and, win or lose, be able to say, “I left it all out there.” And, as alluded to earlier in this chapter, only by leaving it all out there do athletes have any chance of fulfilling your goals. Rule #2 involves athletes not having to experience one of the most painful and long-lasting emotions that can occur after a competition, season, or career: regret. Regret is defined as: “to feel sorry or disappointed about something that one wishes could be different; a sense of loss or longing for something gone,” in other words, “Darn it, I wish I had left it all out there!” In the end, athletes want to be able to say: “I gave it everything I had,” and experience two emotions: pride and fulfillment in having given it their all. If athletes can follow these two rules, they will likely find some success in their sport and experience a healthy, successful, and happy life. Take Risks As discussed earlier, fear of failure is really a fear of the consequences of failure. Yet risking failure is an essential part of finding success in sports. Athletes give themselves no chance of success unless they are willing to risk the possibility of failure. Yet, athletes who fear failure are more aware of the costs over the benefits of risks. With this attitude, they are less likely to take risks that will lead to success. Consultants can encourage athletes with a fear of failure to take risks for three reasons. First, if they fail due to the risk, they see that they will survive and be okay. Second, athletes learn that when they take risks, they will experience success, at least some of the time. Third, they become more comfortable with taking risks, thus reducing their fear that the risks will lead to failure. Athletes should be emboldened to start small with their risk- taking, for example, in practice where the consequences of failure are minimal, and slowly intensify their risk-taking in increasingly more consequential situations. Take Their Shot When athletes with a fear of failure give their best effort and “take their shot,” they are certainly risking failure. But, a key lesson to help them overcome their fear is that it is better to take their shot and fail than to never take their shot at all. The basketball great, Michael Jordan, once said, “I’ve missed more than 9000 shots in my career. I’ve lost almost 300 games. 26 times, I’ve been trusted to take the game-winning shot and missed. I’ve failed over and over and over again in my life. And that is why I succeed” (Greatist, 2012, p. 57). All of those misses didn’t  Obstacles 59 prevent him from continuing to take his shot and hitting far more buzzer beaters than he missed. And there is one simple fact here: If athletes don’t take their shot, they ensure failure. Establish Helpful Goals Consultants can encourage risk-taking and help athletes develop a tendency for approach motivation through the adoption of mastery-approach goals (Yeager & Dweck, 2012; Wikman, Stelter, Melzer, Hauge, & Elbe, 2013). Adopting specific mastery-approach goals, such as learning a new soccer skill or improving a new swim stroke, provide athletes with specific, tangible opportunities to witness the power of risk and effort for improvement, generate positive emotions related to goal striving, distract them from the fear of failure that may impede their progress toward their goals, and encourage them to set and strive toward future mastery goals. The great thing about all of these steps to overcome fear of failure is that they build on each other. The more athletes challenge their fear of failure with the above strategies, the more they see that their fear is unfounded, unhelpful, and unnecessary. And, as they let go of their fear of failure and gain a healthier perspective, they take away two valuable lessons. First, failure is fleeting and athletes will long outlive it. Second, when they free them- selves of their fear of failure, they will perform better and find the success that they deserve. Summary Fear of failure involves two processes: anticipating that failure is possible, likely, or currently happening, and that failure in the current situation will bring about aversive consequences. Some of the most common perceived consequences that athletes hold about fear of failure include embar- rassment, humiliation, and shame; disappointing themselves and others; loss of affection, respect or interest from significant people, loss of self-identity or self-worth; and loss of future opportunities. Athletes who struggle with fear of failure may experience emotional, motivational, and performance difficulties. Some of the difficulties include depression, stress, anxiety, burnout, impaired performance, dropout, eating disorders, use of performance-enhancing drugs, and suicide. Athletes with fear of failure typically adopt avoidance rather than approach goals. The antecedents to fear of failure are broadly categorized into three areas: parenting, personality, and experiences. Parental practices that contribute to the development of fear of failure include punitive or controlling behavior and high expectations for sport achievement. An avoidant temperament and personality traits of perfectionism and neuroticism have been linked to fear of failure. Life experiences, such as continued pressure from demanding parents or coaches, can further contribute to fear of failure. Athletes can mitigate their fear of failure by quitting, engaging in self-defeating behavior, or achieving a minimal level of success that protects them from being perceived as a failure. Consultants can assist athletes to understand their fear of failure by identifying its warning signs including negative or critical self-talk, low or inconsistent motivation, pre-competitive anxiety, excessively negative emotions, a preoccupation with results, unexplained injuries or illness, frequent excuses, and tentative performances. Strategies that consultants can use to help athletes remove or reduce their fear of failure included seeing fail- ure realistically, being cautiously optimistic, accepting the possibility of failure, learning to take risks, being willing to take their shot, and establishing approach goals. References Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinant of risk-raking behavior. Psychological Review, 64, 359–372. Barlow, M., Woodman, T., Gorgulu, R., & Voyzey, R. (2016). 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Coaching behaviors associated with changes in fear of failure: Changes in self-talk and need satisfaction as potential mechanisms. Journal of Personality, 75(2), 383–419. Conroy, D. E., & Elliot, A. J. (2004). Fear of failure and achievement goals in sport: Addressing the issue of the chicken and the egg. Anxiety Stress Coping, 17, 271–286. Conroy, D. E., Willow, J. P., & Metzler, J. N. (2002). Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 14, 76–90. Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218–232. Elliot, A. J., Gable, S. L., & Mapes, R. R. (2006). Approach and avoidance motivation in the social domain. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 378–391. Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 501–519. Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2004). The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 957–971. Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2002). The perils of perfectionism in sports and exercise. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(1), 14–18. Frost, R. O., & Henderson, K. J. (1991). Perfectionism and reactions to athletic competition. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 323–335. Gray, J. A. (1987a). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 493–509. Gray, J. A. (1987b). The psychology of fear and stress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Greatist (2012). Quote: Michael Jordan on success through failure. Retrieved from https://greatist.com/fitness/quote- michael-jordan-success-through-failure Gustafsson, H., & Hassmén, P., Kenttä, G., & Johansson, M. (2008). A qualitative analysis of burnout in elite Swedish athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 800–816. Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., & Hassmén, P. (2011). Athlete burnout: An integrated model and future research directions. International Review Sport Exercise Psychology, 4, 3–24. Gustafsson, H., Sagar, S. S., & Stenling, A. (2017). Fear of failure, psychological stress, and burnout among adolescent athletes competing in high level sport. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 27, 2091–2102. Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social context: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470. Kamins, M.L., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Developmental Psychology, 35, 835–847. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2003). Fear of failure: Friend or foe? Australian Psychologist, 38, 31–38. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive. New York, NY: Appleton- Century-Crofts. Miner, J. W. (2016) Why 70 percent of kids quit sports by age 13. The Washington Post. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost. com/news/parenting/wp/2016/06/01/why-70-percent-of-kids-quit-sports-by-age-13 Monte, C. F., & Fish, J. M. (1989). The fear of failure personality and academic cheating. In R. Schwarzer, H. M. Van der Ploeg, & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in test anxiety research, vol. 6 (pp. 87–103). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Orlick, T. D. (1974). The athletic dropout: A high price of inefficiency. Canadian Association Health Physical Education Recreation Journal, 41, 21–27. Piedmont, R. L. (1995). Another look at fear of success, fear of failure, and text anxiety: A motivational analysis using the five-factor model. Sex Roles, 32, 139–158. Ross, S. R., Steward, J., Mugge, M., & Fultz, B. (2001). The imposter phenomenon, achievement dispositions, and the five factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 1347–1355. Ryckman, R. M., Thornton, B., & Gold, J. A. (2009). Assessing competition avoidance as a basic personality dimension. The Journal of Psychology, 143(2), 175–192. Sagar, S. S., & Lavallee, D. (2010). The developmental origins of fear of failure in adolescent athletes: Examining parental practices. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 177–187.  Obstacles 61 Sagar, S. S., Lavallee, D., & Spray, C. M. (2007). Why young elite athletes fear failure: Consequences of failure. Journal of Sports Science, 25, 1171–1184. Sagar, S. S., Lavallee, D., & Spray, C. M. (2009). Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 73–98. Taylor, J. (2017). Train your mind for athletic success: Mental preparation to achieve your sports goals. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2001). Academic self-handicapping: What we know, what more there is to learn? Educational Psychology Review, 13(2), 115–138. Wikman, J. M., Stelter, R., Melzer, M., Hauge, M.-L. T., & Elbe, A.-M. (2013). Effects of goal setting on fear of failure in young elite athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(3), 185–205. Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–312. EXPECTATIONS Cory Shaffer and Jim Taylor The Oxford English Dictionary defines expectations as “a strong belief that something will happen in the future... a belief that someone will or should achieve something” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018). At first blush, an expectation seems like it’s something that athletes should embrace. It appears to describe a positive scenario while expressing confidence of its realization. At the same time, considered from the perspective of athletes who must fulfill an expectation, it can feel more like an encumbrance that weighs them down rather than support that lifts them up. As such, expectations can actually thwart athletes’ efforts to perform their best and achieve them. A synonym for expectations is assumptions which carry with them an air of certainty that athletes will get a specific result. But, as all athletes know, sport is fraught with uncertainty in which other people (e.g., teammates, competitors, coaches, officials), environmental factors (e.g., field, course, or court conditions, weather), equip- ment failure (e.g., broken bat in baseball, snapped string in tennis), and the vagaries of luck (e.g., a bad bounce, a brief distraction), can cause what seemed certain to not be realized at all. That feeling of inexorableness can create a sense that the expectation has already been fulfilled even before athletes walk onto the field of play. Additionally, expectations carry with them an implicit threat in which there is a hidden “or else” that pre- cedes every expectation. For example, “I expect to beat her... or else my parents will be really mad at me.” An expectation causes athletes to feel pressure to realize the expectation or else there will be some undesirable consequence. As a result, expectations can cause them to experience a fear of failure, debilitating anxiety, and a loss of confidence and motivation. Lastly, expectations are dichotomous propositions with no shades of gray in between. Athletes either meet the expectation and find success or they do not and they must accept failure. This places them in an almost no-win situation in which there is a narrow window of success and a large window for failure. Theory and Research Lazarus (2000) posits that how a athletes think about performance can impact how they feel, and then subse- quently how they perform. The danger of setting expectations is that they are held rigidly by athletes. Moreover, any deviation from the expectation, whether setbacks or outright failure to meet them, can cause athletes to appraise themselves negatively in relation to the thwarted expectation. In turn, that adverse appraisal leads to discouraging thinking and unproductive emotions such as frustration, anger or despair. Considerable research has explored expectations in athlete populations and evidence supports Lazarus’ the- ory. For example, Mellalieu, Neil, Hanton, and Fletcher (2009) found that expectations are a performance stressor for both elite and non-elite performers that hurt their appraisal, thinking, and emotions, suggesting that even seasoned athletes are vulnerable to expectations. Additionally, Uphill and Jacobs (2007) interviewed international-level athletes of various sports and found that athletes’ expectations and self-pressure to perform well were associated with anxiety. Some athletes in the study even expressed shame for not reaching certain performance outcomes. Durand-Bush and Salmela (2002) provided similar insight in their study on Olympic 62 Mental Training athletes: “For most athletes, expectations from coaches, sport federations, family, and friends were high. This created pressure and stress that ultimately affected their performance. It was apparent that some athletes were scared of failing and letting others down” (p. 161). Hodge and Hermansson (2007) also acknowledged that stress stemming from a variety of variables, including public expectations, is a unique mental challenge facing Olympic athletes that can hinder performance. Another line of research has focused on how expectations can lead to choking in competition. Williams et al. (2010) presented a model in which situations that lead to choking (i.e., anxiety or pressure stemming from expectations) influence physiological (e.g., increased muscle tension, heart rate, respiration) and attentional (e.g., narrowing of attention, internal focus) changes that can lead to performance problems (e.g., rushing, inability to attend to task-relevant cues). Gucciardi, Longbottom, Jackson, and Dimmock (2010) explored experienced golfers’ choking experiences in focus groups and one-on-one interviews. They produced a model in which perfectionistic tendencies and perceived internal and external expectations and pressure were considered ante- cedents to a choking event. These antecedents led to a loss of attentional (e.g., shift to outcome from process) and emotional (e.g., sadness and anger) control, a departure from normal routine (e.g., stray typical shot processes and strategy) and physiological symptoms (e.g., muscle tension, racing heart). Even the New Zealand All Blacks national rugby team, one of the most successful sports franchises in history, attributed their 2007 World Cup loss to the pressure they felt from the expectation that they had to win (Hodge & Smith, 2014). A final study of particular interest is that of Gould et al. (1999), in which the authors examined the com- parison of teams that met or failed to meet performance expectations following the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. Results indicated that one particular team did not meet performance expectations and reported feeling external expectations and pressure to perform. Practical Implications As the evidence mounts against athletes setting outcome expectations due to the mental and emotional toll that they take on them, consultants must look to how they can intervene to help athletes change this paradigm. Parents and coaches are also often the sources from which unhealthy expectations arise in athletes. As such, con- sultants are in a unique position to help athletes unburden themselves from expectations that interfere with both their sports performances and enjoyment in their participation, while also helping those around them who have an influence to make a shift in the messages they send athletes about expectations. Six Phrases That Create Expectations (and Pressure) Many athletes have so deeply internalized expectations that they don’t even realize when they or others place expectations on them. There are six phrases that athletes unwittingly use or hear from others (with “I” replaced with “you”) that are symptomatic of expectations and the pressure they place on them: “I must...” “I should...” “I need to...” “I have to...” “I better...” “I gotta...” These phrases carry so much freight because, as just mentioned, they carry that inherent menace: for example, “I must do well today...or I will be so embarrassed.” Every athlete who feels the weight of expectations has their own negative meaning that they connect to these phrases, usually associated with the meaning they attach to failure (as discussed in the previous session section on fear of failure). Expectations take a significant emotional toll on athletes. Like the other obstacles discussed in Chapter 2, expec- tations produce emotional reactions that both feel bad and usually cause disappointing poor performances. Before a competition, expectations create in athletes pressure to fulfill the expectations and fear that they won’t. This pressure creates physical (e.g., tension, choppy breathing, accelerated heart rate and respiration), psychological (e.g., doubt,  Obstacles 63 worry), and emotional (e.g., fear, anxiety, frustration) changes that inhibit performance. During a competition, expectations can produce a cautious mindset fueled by fear, a lack of confidence, and an inability to focus, result- ing in performances characterized by tension, tentativeness, and self-consciousness. Athletes’ emotional reactions to expectations after a competition can equally problematic. If they somehow produce a good result despite the burden of expectations, their strongest emotional reaction is often relief because they “dodged the bullet” of unmet expectations. In contrast, when they perform poorly and don’t fulfill the expectation, they can experience devastation because failing to fulfill the expectation carries with it all sorts of perceived negative consequences. From “Must” to “Would Like” Consultants can be on the lookout for athletes’ self-talk that includes the six phrases that were just described to see if expectations are the cause of their performance challenges. If they become aware that athletes are using any of the six phrases, they can encourage the athletes to replace them with the following more beneficial alternatives: “I would like to...” “I hope to...” “It is my goal to...” “I am working hard to...” “I am directing all of my energy to...” “I am excited to...” Similarly, consultants can also be mindful of the messages that athletes are receiving from parents, family, coaches, friends, and the media. If unhealthy messages about expectations are evident, consultants can educate these people about how these types of expectations actually hurt and offer alternatives that will better support the athletes’ efforts. From Expectations to Goals In discussing expectations, a role of consultants is to convince athletes that expectations, and the associated overemphasis on results, will do them no good as they pursue their sports goals. At the same time, the reality of sports is that results do matter and a focus on results can’t simply be expunged from athletes’ psyches. The challenge for consultants is to allow athletes to think about results, but enable them to replace expectations with another focus that will alleviate pressure and facilitate competitive performance. To that end, consultants can have athletes shift their attention from expectations to goals. Goals might seem little different than expectations, but, upon close examination, have a very different impact on the way athletes, think, feel, perform, and react to both victories and defeats. There are several important distinctions that separate goals from expectations. Unlike the latter, goals have no air of assumption or certainty that they will be realized. At the heart of goals is the possibility that they could be realized. Along with that, the threat that exists with expectations isn’t present with goals because, if not achieved, there is no feeling that the result has been taken away from athletes. Unlike expectations which have a black-or-white, “you achieve it and succeed or you don’t and you fail” air to them, another key aspect of goals is that they are about degree of attainment. That is, not every goal can be achieved, but there will almost always be improvement toward a goal and that progress defines success. So, if athletes give their best effort, there is little chance of failure and great opportunity for success. The emotional experience of goals is also very different from those of expectations. Before a competition in which athletes set goals, they are motivated and excited to compete because they see the goals as challenges to pursue rather than threats to avoid. After an event, if they succeeded in achieving their goal, they feel elated. However, if they fail to meet their goal, unlike an expectation, they certainly feel disappointed, but they also feel pride in knowing that they gave it their all and they remain hopeful that they can achieve the goal at the next opportunity. 64 Mental Training From Outcome to Process According to Lazarus (2000), if athletes can change the meaning of the appraisal, the emotion changes as well. Once athletes understand that they cannot directly control the outcome of a competition due to the complex nature of sports, consultants can pivot the conversation to what is within their control during a performance. For example, they can control their attitude, focus, effort, preparation, self-talk, and routines. This process-oriented approach to performance lifts the weight of outcome expectations from athletes’ shoulders. It removes the bur- den of worrying about the outcome and allows them to fully engage in the present moment of the performance. For the golfer with an expectation of “I should sink this putt,” they can shift to a goal of “I can sink this putt.” They can then focus on the how of achieving that goal: stick to their pre-shot routine process, approach the ball relaxed and confident, stay in control, trust their swing. This focus on the process in pursuit of their outcome goal ensures that they are prepared to execute the shot well which increases their chances of accomplishing their outcome goal of sinking the putt. As such, consultants can encourage athletes to set outcome goals, not outcome expectations. Once athletes have established goals for the results they want, they can immediately shift from outcome to process and set goals for what they need to do to achieve their outcome goals. Examples might include setting goals to be totally pre- pared before an event, focus on specific technique or a particular strategy, or playing as aggressively as possible. There are several key elements about process goals that distinguish them from outcome goals and, even more, from expectations. First, if athletes achieve the process goals, they are very likely to achieve the outcome goals they set for themselves because they will be better prepared and are more likely to perform well. Second, unlike outcome goals, process goals are entirely within athletes’ control, so they have the power to directly accomplish their process goals. Third, because process goals are controllable, athletes will feel confident that they can achieve their process goals and motivated to give their best effort. Finally, athletes are able to exert control over the quality of their efforts and, by extension, the results that they produce. Change the Relationship with Expectations Another option is helping athletes and coaches to change the relationship, or appraisal, that they have with expectations and pressure. For example, following their loss in the 2007 World Cup, the New Zealand All Blacks began working with a sport psychologist on (among other skills) how to view “pressure as a privilege” (Hodge & Smith, 2014). Instead of viewing pressure as something that is negative and as a problem to be avoided, they began to talk of pressure as something that is positive and as an opportunity to be embraced and welcomed. Pressure, they began to believe, was a sign of respect and something that was earned. Similarly, in Gould et al.’s (1999) study of Olympic teams, two teams that successfully met or exceeded expectations either embraced the pressure and expectations of winning the games or felt free of expectations and pressure entirely and played “with nothing to lose.” Use Practice to Build Confidence, not Expectations Practice is another place where athletes can build up expectations that end up hurting their efforts in competi- tions. It’s not uncommon for athletes who perform well in practice to have developed expectations that they will perform well in competitions as well. These athletes turn performing well in practice, which should be a positive, into pressure to be successful in an upcoming competition, which is clearly a negative. They begin to question whether they can continue their good performances in competitions and worry that they won’t. As strange as it sounds, after a great practice period, competing actually becomes something to fear rather than embrace. The result is a self-fulfilling prophecy of poor performances in competition. But it shoul