Organizational Behaviour (OB) Module 2 PDF

Organizational Behaviour Module 2 – Personality, Perception & Motivation  Personality- Meaning The term personality is derived from the Latin word, ‘persona’ which means to ‘speak through’ It is the sum total of several attributes which manifest themselves in an indi...

Organizational Behaviour Module 2 – Personality, Perception & Motivation  Personality- Meaning The term personality is derived from the Latin word, ‘persona’ which means to ‘speak through’ It is the sum total of several attributes which manifest themselves in an individual, the ability of the individual to organize and integrate all the qualities so as to give meaning to life, and the uniqueness of the situation which influences behaviour of an individual.  Personality - Definition Personality means how a person can affect others and how he understands and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person- situation interaction– Fred Luthans Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.- Stephens P. Robbins  Characteristics Consistenc y Psychologi Multiple cal and expression Physiologic s al Impact behaviours and actions  Determinants of Personality Personality Biological Environmen factors tal factors Bio- Physical Heredity Brain feedback features  Determinants of Personality Personality Biological Environmen factors tal factors Culture Family Social Situational The Big Five Personality Traits Extroversion Emotional Openness Stability Conscientious Agreeableness ness  Personality attributes influencing OB Authoritarianism This concept refers to a belief that there should be status and power differences among people in organizations They prefer stable and structured work environment with defined rules and procedures They make good followers, work better under directive supervision and are more productive under this type of organizational structure  Personality attributes influencing OB Bureaucratic Personality This personality is based on respect for organizational rules and procedures He is different from an authoritarian person, as his acceptance of authority is not total and blind These people are not innovative, they do not like taking risks and feel more at ease while following established directions  Personality attributes influencing OB Machiavelliansim This is also called as MACH- based on how to gain and use power Characteristics : A Mach man is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends justify means Manipulates more, wins more, is persuaded less and persuades more High Mach people flourish more when they interact face-to-face than indirectly They are more successful when there are a minimum number of rules Has high self confidence and self esteem Not easily swayed by a sense of friendship, loyalty or trust  Personality attributes influencing OB Introversion and Extroversion These terms are associated with the interpersonal behaviour of individuals Extroverts- gregarious, and sociable; Introverts- shy, reserved and quiet They have different career orientations and require different organizational environments to maximise performance It is generalized that extroverts excel at jobs that require interaction (such as managerial position) and introverts excel at jobs that require thought and analytical skill  Personality attributes influencing OB Locus of Control Locus of control refers to an individual's belief that events are either within one's control (Internal Locus of Control) or are determined by forces beyond one's control. Some people believe that they are the masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that whatever happens to them in their lives is due to their luck or fate. The first type is labelled as internals and the latter has been called externals. A PERSON'SPERCEPTION OF THE SOURCE OF HIS OR HER FATE IS TERMED LOCUS OFCONTROL.  Personality attributes influencing OB Locus of Control – Internal A person with a strong Internal Locus of Control has more control over his own behaviour. He believes that he controls events concerning his own life and his internal traits determine what happens in a given situation. He believes that he is the master of his own destiny. These people are more active in seeking more information to make decisions. They are better at retaining the information and are less satisfied with the amount of information they possess.  Personality attributes influencing OB Locus of Control – Internal Internals are more active socially. Internals prefer skill achievement outcomes. Internals are more likely to use personally persuasive rewards and power bases and likely to use coercion. These people are more independent and less susceptible to influence of others. The internals prefer participative management. Research has shown that internally oriented people hold jobs of higher status, advance more rapidly in their careers Internals take more responsibility for their health and have better health habits. As a result their incidents of sickness and of absenteeism are lower.  Personality attributes influencing OB Locus of Control – External People who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting and are less involved on jobs than are internals. They generally prefer directive management. Unlike the internals, these people prefer chance oriented awards. A person with a strong 'external locus of control' feels that outside forces are affecting the events in his life and he is at the mercy of destiny, chance or other people. He believes that every thing will happen by the will of God and nothing or nobody can stop it  Personality attributes influencing OB Locus of Control – External Unlike, the internals, the externals are more interested in job security and not. In advancement of careers. Whereas the internals prefer intrinsic rewards e.g. feeling of achievement, externals are more interested in extrinsic awards.  Personality attributes influencing OB Self Esteem “Self Esteem refers to the feeling of like or dislike for oneself" "Self Esteem is the degree of respect a person has for himself“ A few of the research findings about self esteem are Self esteem is directly related to the expectations for success. High self esteem people believe that they possess the ability they need to succeed at work. Individuals with high self esteem will take more risks in job selection. They are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self esteem. People with low self esteem are more susceptible to external influence than are those with high self esteems. Low esteems are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others.  Personality attributes influencing OB Self Esteem In managerial positions, the low esteems tend to be concerned with pleasing others and,therefore, less likely to take unpopular stands than are high esteems. High esteems are more satisfied with their job than the low esteems. High self esteem people are very friendly, affectionate, find it easy to form interpersonal attachments and find good in other people. Low self esteem people are usually critical of others, are generally depressed and blame others for their own failures. High esteem people are high performers while low esteem people contribute to poor performance which in turn reinforces low self esteem.  Personality attributes influencing OB Self Monitoring Self monitoring is a personality trait that measures an individual ‘s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors." Self monitoring is a personality trait which has recently received attention. The research on self monitoring is infancy, so predictions must be guarded.  Personality attributes influencing OB Self Monitoring Individuals with high self monitoring can show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behaviour to external, situational factors. High self monitors can behave differently in different situations. They are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public, personal and private selves. Low self monitors cannot deviate their behaviour. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation, hence, there is high behavioural consistency between who they are and what they do  Personality attributes influencing OB Self Monitoring The high self monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behaviour of others and are more capable of conforming than are low self monitors We can also hypothesize that high self monitors will be more successful in managerial positions where individuals are required to play multiple and even contradictory roles. The high self monitor is capable of putting different faces for different audiences.  Personality attributes influencing OB Risk Taking The propensity of people to assume risks or avoid risks varies from person to person depending upon the willingness of the people to take chances. This human trait will affect the decision making capability of a manager. This individual personality trait will determine how long will it take a person to take a decision or how much information will be needed before he takes a decision.  Personality attributes influencing OB Risk Taking Some people are very conscious in nature, while the others are impulsive. An impulsive person is a high risk taking manager, he will make rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices than a very conscious and low risk taking manager. But research shows that the decision accuracy is generally the same in both the groups.  Personality attributes influencing OB Type A and Type B Personality People who are impatient, aggressive and highly competitive are termed as ‘Type A’ Personality Those who are easy going, laid back and non competitive are termed as ‘Type B’ Personality Type A- very productive, good team players; negative side- impatient, irritable, poor judgement Type B- do better complex tasks involving judgement and accuracy rather than speed and hard work  Perception- Meaning Perception is the process through which information from the outside is selected, received, organized and interpreted to make it meaningful. This input of meaningful information results in decisions and actions. Perception may be defined as the process through which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.  Need and Importance of Perception If people behave Gives insight into on the basis of understanding the their perception, reasoning of there is different predictability of individuals behaviour It is useful to managers who Needs of people want to avoid can be determined making errors in dealing with people and events  Perceptual Process I. Perceptual Inputs A number of stimuli are constantly confronting people in the form of information, objects, events, people etc. in the environment These are inputs for the perceptual process Some stimuli do not affect the senses of a person consciously- this is called as subliminal perception  Perceptual Process II. Perceptual Mechanism When a person receives information, he tries to process it through the following sub processes of selection, organization and interpretation A) Perceptual Selectivity i. External Factors ii. Internal Factors  Perceptu al Selectivi ty External Internal Factors Factors Novelty Repetitio Moveme & Size Intensity Status Contrast Nature n nt Familiarit y  Perceptu al Selectivi ty External Internal Factors Factors Motivati Personali Learning on ty  B. Perceptual Organization Perceptual Organizati on Figure & Perceptual Perceptual Ground Grouping Constancy Shape Size Colour Perceptual Perceptual Similarity Proximity Closure Continuity Constancy Constancy Constancy Constancy Defence B. Perceptual Organization  B. Perceptual Organization SHAPE CONSTANCY SIZE CONSTANCY  II. Perceptual Mechanism C. Perceptual interpretation It is an integral part of the perception process Without interpretation, selection and perception of information do not make any sense After the information has been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the information Several factors can aff ect the interpretation of information D. Checking After the data has been received and interpreted, the perceiver tends to check whether his interpretations are right or wrong He does this through introspection or through confirmation from others E. Reacting The last stage in perception is reaction The perceiver shall indulge in some action in relation to the perception  III. Perceptual Outputs This would encompass all the results through out the process These would include such factors as one’s attitudes, opinions, feelings, values and behaviours resulting from the perceptual inputs and mechanism Perceptual errors adversely affect perceptual outputs When there are lesser biases it will help to form the right attitudes and engage in appropriate behavioural patterns, which in turn will be beneficial for attaining the desired organizational outcomes Factors influencing the Perceptual Set Factors Characteris Characteris Characteris tics of the tics of the tics of the Perceiver Perceived Situation  Factors influencing the Perceptual Set Factors Characterist Characterist Characterist ics of the ics of the ics of the Perceiver Perceived Situation Current Needs & Self Past Expectation Cultural Psychologic Beliefs Situation Motives Concept Experience s Upbringing al State  Perceptual Errors and Distortion Attribution- Selective Fundamental Attribution error Stereotyping Halo Effect Perception and Self serving Bias Implicit Perceptual Projection Personality Expectancy Set Theory  Perception in Organizations Employment Performance Stress Interviews Expectations Performance Employee Effort Employee Loyalty Evaluation  Motivation Motivation is an important factor which encourages persons to give their best performance and helps in reaching the enterprise goals A strong positive motivation will enable increased output of the employee while negative motivation will reduce their performance ‘A motive is an inner state that energises, activates or moves and directs or channels behaviour goals’- Berelson and Steiner Motivation is the complex of forces starting and keeping the person at work in an organization.’ - Dubin  Nature and Characteristics of These are It is an inner The emotions Motivation unsatisfied feeling which or desires of a needs of a enerigises a person prompt person which person to work him to do a disturb his more particular work equilibrium It conditions his It channelises energy to the dormant achieve the energy into goal actions Types of Motivation Types of Motivati on Positive Negative Motivati Motivati on on  Importance and Role of Motivation Low employee Better High turnover and Organizational Performance Absenteeism Image Better Acceptability to industrial Change Relations Techniques to increase Motivation Techniques Non Financial financial Motivators Motivators Job Recognitio Participati Competitio Status Enrichmen n on n t  Motivation and Behaviour Motivation causes GOAL DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR If a person strongly feels the need for something he will behave in such a way that he tries to satisfy himself so that he no longer feels the lack of the particular thing  Motivation and Behaviour Some common forms of behaviour are: Aggressi on Behavio ur Compromi Withdraw se al Motivation and Performance “Love your job but not your company because you may not know when your company stops loving you”- A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Employees are motivated by the jobs they do and the context of these jobs. If there's motivation, performance is possible. Motivation and performance lead to personal outcomes for each employee. When aggregated, employee outcomes lead to organisational outcomes like turnover and profit. Motivation and Performance Measuring Performance Fundamentally, managers sense the presence of motivation by assessing the performance of a worker. But performance is not easy to measure. Performance is assessed by managers daily and more formally in performance appraisal and development review.  Motivation and Performance Motivation Many staff select in to a career. A lawyer wants to be a lawyer, a nurse wants to be a nurse. In these cases, their internal or implicit motives are in line with job activities. It’s therefore easier for a manager to motivate them. For others who take a job because they need the money, management must instill a sense of meaning through good job design and training. Ultimately management must create a feeling of job satisfaction in all staff. Job satisfaction comes from task performance and feeds back to reinforce feelings of meaningfulness. Meaningfulness reinforces  Motivation and Performance Performance Performance must be measured against job descriptions and goal set from time to time; and goals and expectations must be quantified. If the employee is motivated, resulting performance then depends on the personal characteristics of the individual worker and the situation or environment they work in. Their personal characteristics include personality and general mental ability. And for adults, these are substantially unchangeable. Personal characteristics also include skills and knowledge. These can be changed through training and experience. Performance can also be influenced by situational factors like company policies. To secure performance, management must work on characteristics that can be changed. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs  Critical Analysis of Maslow’s Maslow’s theory has been widely appreciated: Theory It helps managers in understanding how to motivate the employees It is simple, common and easily understandable It accounts for both inter-personal and intra-personal variations in human behaviour It is a dynamic theory because it presents motivation as a changing force  Critical Analysis of Maslow’s Maslow’s theory has been criticized based on the following: Theory Researchers have proved that there is a lack of hierarchical structure of needs There is a lack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behaviour Needs and satisfaction of needs is a psychological feeling- sometimes one may be unaware of these needs. In that case it is challenging for a manager to deduce those needs of an employee Measurability is limited (ex: how does one measure self-actualization)  McGregor’s Theory X and Douglas McGregor introduced these two theories i. e., Theory X and Theory Theory Y Y, based on distinct views of human beings. He proposed, at opposite extremes, two pairs of assumptions about human beings which he thought were implied by the actions of the managers. Theory X deals with one extreme, based on one set of assumptions and Theory Y, deals with another extreme based on another set of assumptions. These theories are not based on any research, according to McGregor, these are intuitive deductions.  McGregor’s Theory X and Theory X Theory Y This theory is based on the traditional approach to human behaviour. The assumptions generally, held by the managers in this theory are: 1. The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever possible. 2. As the employees are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment to achieve goals, to which they are indifferent. 3. Average employees will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever possible, because they have relatively little ambition. 4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work. These assumptions about human nature are negative in their approach.  McGregor’s Theory X and Theory X Theory Y Managers advocate these views feel that extreme control is most appropriate for dealing with irresponsible and immature employees. This is an autocratic style of leadership based on the traditional theory of what workers are like and what management must do motivate them. Workers have to be persuaded and pushed into performance.  McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory Y This approach assumes that management by direction and control is a questionable method for motivating such people whose physiological and social needs have been satisfied and whose social esteem and self actualisation needs are becoming more important. For such people Theory Y, seems to be applicable, which is the contrast of Theory X. This theory makes the following assumptions about people : 1. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work as natural or enjoyable as rest or play. 2. Employees will exercise self direction and self control in the attainment of the objectives to which they are committed. 3. Given proper working conditions, average person can learn to accept and even to seek responsibility  McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory Y 4. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. 5. All the people are capable of making innovative & creative decisions and the decision making is not the sole province of the people in management positions. This theory has assumed a new approach in management. It emphasises on co- operation between management and employees. The individual and organizational goals do not conflict in this approach. This theory places greater emphasis on satisfaction of high level needs of the employees. McGregor himself holds that the assumptions of Theory Y are more valid than Theory X. Thus Delegation of authority, job enlargement, management by objectives and McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Fredrick Herzberg and his associates developed the MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY commonly known as the two factor theory, in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Herzberg and associates conducted a research based on the interview of 200 engineers and accountants who looked for 11 different firms in Pittsburgh area, U.S.A. The purpose of the research was to find out as to what variables are perceived to be desirable goals to achieve and conversely, undesirable conditions to avoid. During the course of the interviews, these people were asked to describe a few  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Based upon the answers received from these 200 people, Herzberg concluded that there are certain factors that tend to be consistently related to job satisfaction and on the other hand, there are some factors, which are consistently related to job dissatisfaction. The last of job conditions he referred to as MAINTENANCE OR HYGIENE factors and the first job conditions as MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS. The motivational factors are intrinsic in nature and the hygiene factors are extrinsic in nature.  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Hygiene Factors Hygiene Factors. Hygiene factors or the maintenance factors do not motivate people, they simply prevent dissatisfaction and maintain status quo. Such factors do not produce positive results but prevent negative results. If these factors are not there it will lead to job dissatisfaction These are not motivators, as they maintain a zero level of motivation or in other words , factors do not provide any satisfaction but eliminate dissatisfaction.  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Hygiene Factors Hygiene Factors. According to Herzberg there are ten maintenance or hygiene factors : i. Company Policy & Administration ii. Technical Supervision iii. Inter-personal relations with Supervisor iv. Inter-personal relations with peers v. Inter-personal relations with subordinates vi. Salary vii. Job security viii.Personal life ix. Working conditions x. Status  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Motivational Factors Motivational Factors. These factors are intrinsic in nature and are related to the job. The motivational factors have a positive effect on job satisfaction and often result in an increase in total output. Thus, these factors have a positive influence on morale, satisfaction, effi ciency and productivity. Herzberg concluded that six factors motivate the employees: i. Achievement ii. Advancement iii. Possibility of growth iv. Recognition v. Work itself vi. Responsibility  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Motivational Factors Any increase in these factors will improve the level of satisfaction. Thus these factors can be used for motivating the employees Based on his research, Herzberg stated that managers have hitherto been very much concerned with hygiene factors. As a result they have not been able to obtain the desired behaviour from the employees.  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory Motivational Factors In order to increase the motivation, it is necessary to pay attention to the motivational factors. He further concluded that today's motivational factors are tomorrow’s hygiene factors. Because once a need is satisfied, it stops influencing the behaviour. Further, one person's hygiene may be another person's motivator, because motivation is also influenced by the personality characteristics of individuals.  Herzberg’s Motivation Theory CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE THEORY Herzberg's theory is appreciated on the ground that it provides an insight into the task of motivation by drawing attention to the job factors which are often overlooked. It shows the value of job enrichment in motivation. Thus, Herzberg's theory has solved the problems of managers who were wondering why their policies failed to motivate the employees adequately. However, this theory has also not gone unchallenged. It has been criticised on the following  Not conclusive  Methodology  ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY Clayton Alderfer reformulated Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory. The ERG theory developed by Alderfer, condenses five needs given by Maslow into three needs. Existence Needs: The existence needs combine the physiological and safety needs of Maslow's model. The existence needs are satisfied by material incentives. These needs include the basic survival needs of human beings, needs for physical and psychological safety from threats to people’s existence and well being. Relatedness Needs. The relatedness needs, include Maslow's social and esteem needs, which are derived from other people. These include relationships with other people we care about. These needs are satisfied by personal  ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY Growth Needs. These needs are similar to Maslow's self actualisation needs. This need involves persons making creative efforts to achieve full potential in the existing environment. These needs will be satisified only if an individual involves himself in the activities of the organisation and searches for new challenges and opportunities.  ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY Maslow's need hierarchy follows a rigid, step like progression. The ERG theory on the other hand assumes that more than one need may be operative at the same time. It is not necessary that the existence needs must be satisfied first, only then he can move on to relatedness needs or to growth needs. A person may be working on his growth needs even though his existence needs may be unsatisfied.  ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY The ERG theory also improves the Maslow's theory on the ground that a person does not stay at a certain level until that need is satisfied. Maslow was of the opinion that a person will move to the next level only if the needs of the previous level are satisfied. The ERG theory counters this by saying that when a higher level need is frustrated, the individual's desire to increase a lower level need takes place. For example, if a person can not satisfy his growth oriented needs, he will increase his social interaction or the relatedness need. If his efforts are frustrated in meeting these needs also, he will move back to existence needs and may ask for more material benefits  ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY- Advantages Alderfer's ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Every individual will have different importance for different group of needs depending upon his education, family background and cultural environment. A very qualified person will value the growth needs more than the social needs or even the existence needs. On the other hand, a person who belongs to a very poor family will rate the existence needs more important. In this context, ERG theory is more relevant as compared to the Maslow’s theory ERG theory takes the strong points of the earlier content theories but it is less  ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY- Limitations The ERG theory does not offer clear cut guidelines. This theory says that an individual can satisfy any of the three needs first. But how will we determine which of the needs is more important to that person. This theory is a new concept as compared to the Maslow's theory. Alderfer's research has indicated some degree of support for the theories but yet it is too early to pass judgement on the overall validity of the theory.