Introduction to Psychology - Lecture Notes 2018 PDF

Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Chapter One: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:  Define psychology  Goals of psychology  Understand the merits of an education in psychology ...

Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Chapter One: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:  Define psychology  Goals of psychology  Understand the merits of an education in psychology  Understand the importance of Wundt and James in the development of psychology  Appreciate Freud’s influence on psychology  Understand the basic views of Gestalt psychology  Appreciate the important role that behaviorism played in psychology’s history  Understand basic beliefs of humanism  Appreciate the diversity of interests within psychology  Understand basic interests and applications in each of the described areas of psychology  Demonstrate familiarity with some of the major concepts or important figures in each of the described areas of psychology  Define research  Explain different methods of data collection  Understand the ethics of research 1.1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Definition Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. Let’s explore the critical parts of this definition: scientific, behavior, individual, and mental.  The scientific method consists of a set of orderly steps used to analyze and solve problems. This method uses objectively collected information as the factual basis for drawing conclusions.  Behavior is the means by which organisms adjust to their environment. Behavior is action. The subject matter of psychology largely consists of the observable behavior of humans and other species of animals. Smiling, crying, running, hitting, talking, and touching are some obvious examples of behavior you can observe.  The subject of psychological analysis is most often an individual.  Many researchers in psychology also recognize that they cannot understand human actions without also understanding mental processes, the workings of the human mind. Much human activity takes place as private, internal events— thinking, planning, reasoning, creating, and dreaming. Introduction to Psychology Page 1  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 The Goals of Psychology The goals of the psychologist conducting basic research are to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior.  Describing What Happens. The first task in psychology is to make accurate observations about behavior. Behavioral data are reports of observations about the behavior of organisms and the conditions under which the behavior occurs.  Explaining What Happens. Explanations in psychology usually recognize that most behavior is influenced by a combination of factors. Often a psychologist’s goal is to explain a wide variety of behavior in terms of one underlying cause.  Predicting What Will Happen. Predictions in psychology are statements about the likelihood that a certain behavior will occur or that a given relationship will be found. Thus, if we believe your roommate to be shy, we could confidently predict that he would be uncomfortable when asked to give a speech in front of a large class.  Controlling What Happens. Control means making behavior happen or not happen. The ability to control behavior is important because it gives psychologists ways of helping people improve the quality of their lives. Merits of An Education in Psychology An education in psychology is valuable for a number of reasons.  Psychology students improve critical thinking skills and are trained in the use of the scientific method. Critical thinking is the active application of a set of skills to information for the understanding and evaluation of that information. For example, critical thinking involves maintaining an attitude of skepticism, recognizing internal biases, making use of logical thinking, asking appropriate questions, and making observations.  Psychology students also can develop better communication skills.  Psychology students come to understand the complex factors that shape one’s behavior. They appreciate the interaction of our biology, our environment, and our experiences in determining who we are and how we will behave.  They learn about basic principles that guide how we think and behave, and they come to recognize the tremendous diversity that exists across individuals and across cultural boundaries. 1.2. PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY II. Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. However, despite his efforts to train individuals in the process of introspection, this process remained highly subjective, and there was very little agreement between individuals. Introduction to Psychology Page 2 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 III. Functionalism William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist who advocated a different perspective on how psychology should operate. James was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected. As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism. Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment. IV. Psychoanalytic Theory Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology’s history was Sigmund Freud. Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was a diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a storehouse of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution of the patient’s problems. According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis and examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades. For instance, many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. V. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Kohler (1887– 1967) were advocated Gestalt psychology. Instead of considering separate parts that make up thinking, Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the ‘whole’. Their slogan is ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’. Gestalt means shape, form or configuration. A major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception. VI. Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University. Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism.  Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Introduction to Psychology Page 3  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018  Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, and its influence can still be felt today.  Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially experimentation.  Behavior modification is commonly used in classroom settings. Behaviorism has also led to research on environmental influences on human behavior. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist. Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior. VII. Humanism Humanism is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Two of the most well-known proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior.  Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior.  According to Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential.  The focus on the positive aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is evident. Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people. Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. 1.3. SOME BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY (FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION) 1. Biopsychology As the name suggests, biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior. Many biological psychologists want to understand how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior. Biopsychology typically focuses on the immediate causes of behavior based in the physiology of a human or other animal. 2. Cognitive Psychology The cognitive revolution created drive for psychologists to focus their attention on better understanding the mind and mental processes that underlie behavior. Thus, cognitive psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions. 3. Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology is the scientific study of development across a lifespan. Developmental psychologists are interested in processes related to the physical changes associated with aging, as they also focus on changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes. Introduction to Psychology Page 4 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 4. Personality Psychology Personality psychology focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique. Rather than explaining how personality arises, research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation. 5. Social Psychology Social psychology focuses on how we interact with and relate to others. Social psychologists conduct research on a wide variety of topics that include differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts. 6. Industrial-Organizational Psychology Industrial-Organizational psychology (I-O psychology) is a subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings. I-O psychologists are often involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment. Businesses often seek the aid of I-O psychologists to make the best hiring decisions as well as to create an environment that results in high levels of employee productivity and efficiency. 7. Health Psychology Health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. This particular approach is known as the biopsychosocial model. Health psychologists are interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research. They may research effective ways to motivate people to address patterns of behavior that contribute to poorer health. 8. Clinical Psychology Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior. As such, it is generally considered to be a more applied area within psychology; however, some clinicians are also actively engaged in scientific research. 9. Counseling Psychology Counseling psychology is a similar discipline to clinical psychology that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy. 10. Forensic Psychology Forensic psychology is a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system. For example, forensic psychologists will assess a person’s competency to stand trial, assess the state of mind of a defendant, act as consultants on child custody cases, consult on sentencing and treatment recommendations, and advise on issues such as eyewitness testimony and children’s testimony. Introduction to Psychology Page 5 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 1.4. RESEARCH METHODS Definitions and General Remarks Theodoson and Teodoson in their modern dictionary of sociology (N.Y, 1969) defined research as ‘any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to add to man’s knowledge of a problem.’ Processes of The Research Regardless of the problem type the general methods employed in psychological research are:  Identifying and clearly stating the problem;  Generating hypothesis;  Deciding the research procedure;  Decide the type of data;  Gather the Data;  Analyze the data by means of statistical techniques.  Conclusion and recommendations. Basic Terms and Concepts related to Research  Theory is a general idea or framework that helps to organize what we know and want to know about a topic.  Basic research is a research designed to test theory to expand the borders of knowledge.  Applied research is a research designed to address a practical problem. A researcher might try to discover a good way to reduce smoking, or increase literacy, or reduce violent crime.  Hypothesis is a testable idea derived from a theory. It is predictable statement between two variables.  Population is the group of people that one is interested in studying.  Sample is of a group of people, the subset that participates in one’s study.  A variable is something that undergoes changes. If the variable in the research is, for example, intensity of a tone, intensity is the variable. There are two major types of variables.  Independent Variable is any factor whose change is expected to affect the event that is being studied.  Dependent Variable is the event that is expected to change when the independent variable is altered. Suppose a doctor wants to investigate the effect on tooth decay of the addition of fluoride to drinking water. The independent variable in this research design is addition of fluoride. Tooth decay is the dependent variable. Introduction to Psychology Page 6  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Methods of Data Collection 1. Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is research that involves observing behavior in its natural setting. Suppose you want to know how marriage ceremonies are conducted in Ethiopia. 2. Case Study ( Clinical Method) Case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person or small group of people. Case studies are typically conducted because there is something distinctive and potentially informative about the or group. For example, The unit of study can be a family, a group of delinquents, dropouts and teenagers. 3. The Survey Method It is a method of getting information regarding peoples’ characteristics attitudes, opinions or behavior by asking them all the same question. Example: the central statistical office (CSO) conducts a large-scale survey. It enables to establish the size, distribution and characteristics of the population.  Survey research tells us a great deal about people. Questioning every household produces accurate information.  People sometimes give misleading answers either deliberately or accidentally; particularly if the concern is a touching area, such as sex, money or race relations. 4. Correlational Research Correlational research seeks to discover if two variables are correlated, that is, related or associated in some way.  One reason to conduct correlational research is that correlations help us to predict one variable from another. For example, people who work in university admissions might be interested to know whether GSLE scores are correlated with college performance.  Correlations can range from -1 to 1.  If a correlation is a positive number, this indicates that the two variables rise and fall together. For example, we might expect time spent studying and grades to be positively correlated. As studying goes up, grades go up. As studying goes down, grades go down.  If a correlation is a negative number, this indicates that the variables move in opposite directions. As one variable rises, the other falls. For example, we might expect skipping classes and grades to be negatively correlated. As the number of classes skipped goes up, grades go down. But, as the number of classes skipped goes down, grades go up.  If two variables are correlated zero, then they are uncorrelated or unrelated, so knowing one tells nothing at all about the other.  Correlation does not imply causation. If we know two variables are correlated, this does not indicate that one of them causes the other. For example, suppose we find that self-esteem and GPA are positively correlated. It would not be surprising to hear someone say that we need to build up students’ esteem because then their grades will go up. But the idea that raising esteem will cause an increase in GPA would only make sense if esteem causes GPA, and there are at least two reasons why we cannot conclude this from a correlation. Introduction to Psychology Page 7 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018  First, the direction problem is that, if two variables are correlated, we cannot know which might cause which. For example, if esteem and GPA are correlated, esteem might cause GPA, but GPA might cause esteem.  The third variable problem has to do with the fact that two variables could be correlated and neither might cause the other. For example, if esteem and GPA are correlated, it might be that esteem doesn’t cause GPA and GPA doesn’t cause esteem either. Then how can they be correlated? They can be correlated because both are caused by something else, some third variable. Perhaps good nutrition causes people to have high esteem and also causes them to get good grades. Correlation is not Causation Example: A correlation between self-esteem and GPA does not indicate that esteem causes GPA because: Direction problem: Esteem could cause GPA but GPA could cause esteem Esteem GPA Third variable problem: Some other variable could cause both Esteem GPA 5. The Experimental Method Experimental research seeks to discover if one variable causes another. We often want to know this. For example, does violent TV increase aggression?  Extraneous variables that can affect the result of the experiment can be controlled.  In experimental research method there are two groups.  Experimental group are the participants who receive the factor (e.g., a drug, a violent film) that the researcher is investigating.  Control group are the participants who do not receive the factor (e.g., a drug, a violent film) that the researcher is investigating. The control group is used as a standard or baseline against which the experimental group is compared. Introduction to Psychology Page 8 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 APA Ethical Guidelines You should know and understand the ethical guidelines established by the APA (American Psychological Association) for human research. Research involving human subjects must meet the following standards: 1. No coercion: Participation should be voluntary. 2. Informed consent: Participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent. 3. Anonymity or confidentiality: Participants’ privacy must be protected. Their identities and actions must not be revealed by the researcher. 4. Risk: Participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk. Research that might cause someone long-term mental or physical harm must be avoided. 5. Debriefing: After the study, participants should be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about the results. When research involves deception, it is particularly important to conduct a thorough debriefing. Introduction to Psychology Page 9  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Chapter Two SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:  Distinguish between sensation and perception  Describe the basic concepts related to sensation and perception  Understand the importance implication of signal detection theory  Describe the basic concepts related to sensation and perception  Discuss the roles attention, motivation, and sensory adaptation play in perception  Explain the figure-ground relationship  Define Gestalt principles of grouping  Describe how perceptual set is influenced by an individual’s characteristics and mental state 2.1. SENSATION VERUS PERCEPTION Sensation and perception are fundamental topics. Because our behavior is so much a reflection of how we react to and interpret stimuli from the world around us. Sensation and perception are the starting points for all other psychological processes. They supply the data we use for learning and remembering for thinking and problem solving, for communicating with others, for experiencing emotions, and for being aware of ourselves. Without sensation and perception we would not form thoughts or feelings. Basic Terms and Concepts related to Sensation and Perception To have a better understanding of the subject matter of sensation and perception, we need to define related basic terms. 1. Stimulus: It is a source of physical energy that produces a response in the sense organs. The energy could be sound waves, light waves, and heat pressure to which an organism is capable of responding. A sensation is a response to that energy by a sensory system. Stimulus and sensation have cause and effect relationship. Example: Color----- visual stimulation Musical pitch------auditory stimulation Example: brightness, loudness Stimuli vary in both type and intensity. Different types of stimuli activate different sense organs. 2. Response: It is any reaction of an organism to or in the presence of a stimulus. 3. Sensation: It is the process by which an organism’s sense organs respond to a stimulus. It is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells (in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the skin) sends nerve impulses to the brain. 4. Sense Receptors: specialized cells that convert physical energy in the environment into electrical energy that can be transmitted to the brain. 5. Transduction: The conversion of one form of energy to another. 6. Perception: It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving information order and meaning. It takes into account experiences stored in our memory, the context in which the sensation occurs and our internal state (our emotions and motivations). It is the process of forming hypotheses about what the senses tell us. Example: Hearing sounds and seeing colors are sensory processes; whereas, listening sweet music and detecting depth in a two dimensional picture Introduction to Psychology Page 10 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 are perceptual processes. Without sensation of some kind perception could not occur. There are Several Factors that affect our Perception. Some of these are: A. Context and Expectation In an experiment by Bruner and Minturn (1955, cited by Baron), participants were shown sequences either of letters or of numbers, for example: C D E F G H or 8 9 10 11 12 When perceived with a figure/number I3 that could be either B or 13, those who had seen the sequence or letters tended to perceive it as B, while those who had seen the numbers perceived it as 13. The context in which it was seen produced expectation and induced a particular set. B. Attention Attention plays a significant role in determining what is sensed versus what is perceived. Imagine you are at a party full of music, chatter, and laughter. You get involved in an interesting conversation with a friend, and you tune out all the background noise. If someone interrupted you to ask what song had just finished playing, you would probably be unable to answer that question. C. Motivation Motivation can also affect perception. Have you ever been expecting a really important phone call and, while taking a shower, you think you hear the phone ringing, only to discover that it is not? D. Beliefs, Values, Prejudices, Expectations and Life Experiences Our perceptions can also be affected by our beliefs, values, prejudices, expectations, and life experiences. The shared experiences of people within a given cultural context can have pronounced effects on perception. E. Personality Personality might affect perception. Individuals who hold positive attitudes toward reduced-fat foods are more likely to rate foods labeled as reduced fat as tasting better than people who have less positive attitudes about these products (Aaron, Mela, & Evans, 1994). 7. Psychophysics studies the relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its sensory response. In other words it studies the relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and people’s sensory responses to them. 8. Absolute Threshold: It is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to be detected. For a stimulus to be detected by our sense organs it must become strong enough. The following research findings on absolute threshold are taken from the works of Galanter (1962).  Sight: a candle flame can be seen 30 miles away on a dark, clear night.  Hearing: the ticking of a watch can be heard 20 feet away under quiet conditions.  Taste: A teaspoon of sugar can be detected in nine liters of water  Smell: A drop of perfume can be detected when one drop is present in a three room apartment. Introduction to Psychology Page 11  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018  Touch: The falling of a bee’s wing from a distance of one centimeter can be felt on a cheek. 9. Difference Threshold: it is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. A noticeable difference depends on the value of the initial intensity of the stimulus. Example: A person in a quiet room is more sensitive to the ringing of a telephone than a person in a noisy room. In order to produce the same amount of sensitivity in a noisy room, the ring has to be very loud. 10. Sensory Adaptation: It is an adjustment in sensory capacity following long period of exposure to stimuli. Example: Repeated hearing of a rock musical sound regularly makes a person to adjust as if it were softer. 11. Attention: Attention is a general term referring to the selective aspects of perception which function so that any instant an organism focuses on certain features of the environment to the exclusion of other features. Factors which determine whether or not we pay attention to a stimulus are:  Intensity: a bright color will attract us more than a dull one.  Size: a large thing is more likely to catch our attention than something small.  Duration of repetition: a quickly running stimulus will not catch our attention as easily as one, which persists or is repeated.  Emotional content: a stimulus, which creates emotional feeling, attracts our attention more than a neutral one.  Suddenness or novelty: sudden stimulus is likely to catch our attention more easily than one we have been expecting.  Contrast: contrasting stimulus will attract attention more easily than those which are similar to each other.  Movement: a stimulus, which moves, is more likely to attract attention than something stationary. Distinction between Sensation and Perception  While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from the environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that affects how we interact with the world.  Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced.  How we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts.  Sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is psychological. 2.2. THEORIES RELATED TO SENSATION AND PERCEPTION I. Signal Detection Theory This theory addresses the role of psychological factors in detecting stimuli.  Is this person HIV-positive?  Is the person lying?  Is this athlete using drugs?  Will this college applicant succeed? For instance, physicians who are seeking to identify the presence of a tumor in an x-ray are influenced by their expectations, knowledge, and experience with patients. From this we can understand that the ability to detect a stimulus depends not only on the type and intensity of the stimulus but also on psychological factors. Introduction to Psychology Page 12  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 People can make mistakes in their attempt to detect a stimulus. According to signal detection theory there are two kinds of errors made by people in their attempt to detect a stimulus. These are:  Reporting a stimulus as existing when it is non-existent;  Reporting a stimulus as non-existent when it actually exists; In such conditions, using signal detection theory, psychologists are able to obtain an understanding of how observer’s expectations, motivations, and judgment affect individual’s ability to detect a stimulus. Signal detection theory has practical applications, such as increasing air traffic controller accuracy. Controllers need to be able to detect planes among many signals (blips) that appear on the radar screen and follow those planes as they move through the sky. II. Directions in perception The processing of Perception proceeds along two directions. These are top-down processing and bottom-up processing. 1. Top- down processing The top- down processing of perception is guided by a higher-level of knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations. Patterns can be recognized easily and rapidly, because we expect certain shapes to be found in certain locations. Example: When we read a sentence, we perceive that sentence with the missing letters in it. This is because we had past experiences. Therefore, it is not important to decode the meaning of each word. If an additional word is inserted, we may not notice that it is there: STUDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO PUTOFF THEIR MOBILES BEFOR THEY ENTER THE THE LIBRARY. In this example ‘the’ is often not noticed at all. Our expectation also plays a role in what we are reading. If a student, for example, is reading a text in psychology material, he expects sentences from psychology not lines from a poem. In the top- down processing, the context in which we perceive objects is important. The figure “IЗ”, for example, is perceived as the letter B in a row that consists of the letters A through F. The same figure can be perceived as the number 13 in a row that contains the numbers 10 through 14. Therefore, our perception of the figure is affected by our expectations about the two sequences. A 13 C D E F 10 11 12 B 14 2. Bottom-up processing The bottom-up of perception consists of recognizing and processing information about the individual components of the stimuli. In the above mentioned example it may be difficult to recognize the sentence without being able to perceive the individual shapes that make up the letters. Therefore, partly perception requires the recognition of each separate letters. Conclusion: top-down and bottom- up processing occur simultaneously and interact with each other, in our perception of the world around us. Introduction to Psychology Page 13 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 III. Gestalt Principles of Perception The word gestalt literally means form or pattern, but its use reflects the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychologists translated these predictable ways into principles by which we organize sensory information. 1. The figure-ground relationship: We tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background. Our perception can vary tremendously, depending on what is perceived as figure and what is perceived as ground. The concept of figure-ground relationship explains why this image can be perceived either as a vase or as a pair of faces. Introduction to Psychology Page 14 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 2. Proximity: This principle asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together. The Gestalt principle of proximity suggests that you see (a) one block of dots on the left side and (b) three columns on the right side. For example, we read this sentence like this, notl iket hiso rt hat. We group the letters of a given word together because there are no spaces between the letters, and we perceive words because there are spaces between each word. Here are some more examples: Cany oum akes enseo ft hiss entence? What doth es e wor dsmea n? 3. Similarity: This principle asserts things that are alike tend to be grouped together When looking at this array of dots, we likely perceive alternating rows of colors. We are grouping these dots according to the principle of similarity. Introduction to Psychology Page 15 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 4. Continuity: The law of continuity suggests that we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines. Good continuation would suggest that we are more likely to perceive this as two overlapping lines, rather than four lines meeting in the center 5. The principle of closure states that we organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts. Closure suggests that we will perceive a complete circle and rectangle rather than a series of segments. You probably feel fairly certain that your perception accurately matches the real world, but this is not always the case. Our perceptions are based on perceptual hypotheses: educated guesses that we make while interpreting sensory information. These hypotheses are informed by a number of factors, including our personalities, experiences, and expectations. Introduction to Psychology Page 16 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Chapter Three LEARNING Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:  Define learning  Differentiate the performance that due to maturation and learning  Recognize and define three basic forms of learning—classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.  Explain how classical conditioning occurs  Summarize the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination  Define operant conditioning  Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment  Distinguish between reinforcement schedules  Define observational learning  Discuss the steps in the modeling process  Explain the prosocial and antisocial effects of observational learning 3.1. WHAT IS LEARNING? One of the most important, universal and distinctive characteristics of human beings is their capacity to learn. Our habits, skills, knowledge, attitudes, interests and characteristics are largely the result of learning. The capacity to learn, progresses throughout the life span until death. It is through the process of learning that human behavior changes or undergoes modification. The knowledge, understanding and skills obtained from the process of learning help mankind have to control and change their environment for their own benefit. Definition- Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of practice and experience. The above definition contains the following components  One has to distinguish between performance due to maturation and changes brought about by experience;  One has to distinguish between short-term changes in behavior due to fatigue,; tension, stimulants and changes that are due to actual learning.  The changes in behavior could be for worse or better; Some Psychologists claim that learning can only be inferred indirectly by observing changes in performance. Others argue that learning and performance are the same. According to them, the emphasis is should be on observable performance than the mental component of learning. 3.2. BEHAVIORIST LEARNING THEORIES  Behaviorists view learning as the product of the association between stimulus conditions (S) and the responses (R).  It is sometimes referred as the S-R model of learning.  The behaviorist closely observes responses and then manipulates the environment to bring about the intended change.  The two basic models of learning in behaviorism are classical conditioning model and operant (instrumental) conditioning models. Introduction to Psychology Page 17  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 3.2.1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING The theory of classical conditioning aims to account for the way in which reflex behavior may become associated with a new stimulus that does not naturally activate that behavior. It emphasizes the importance of stimulus conditions and the associations formed in the learning process. Classical Conditioning Terminology  Classical conditioning: The type of learning that occurs when a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that naturally produces a response (the unconditioned response) is paired with a stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) that doesn’t naturally produce the response (the conditioned response). Typically after many pairings, the conditioned stimulus begins to produce the conditioned response.  A neutral stimulus (NS), a stimulus that has no particular value or meaning to the learner.  Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): The stimulus that naturally produces the unconditioned response.  Unconditioned response (UCR): The response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus.  Conditioned stimulus (CS): The stimulus that produces the conditioned response only after learning.  Conditioned response (CR): The response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus only after learning. Pavlov (1927), the Russian physiologist, was studying the salivary reflex in dogs. When he observed that the dogs salivated not only at the sight and smell of food, a natural response, but also at the sight of the food container alone.  According to this model of learning, a neutral stimulus (NS), a stimulus that has no particular value or meaning to the learner is paired with a naturally occurring unconditioned or unlearned stimulus (UCS) and unconditioned response (UCR).  After a few such pairings, the neutral stimulus alone, elicits the same response.  Through a series of experiments, he demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to other unnatural stimuli such as a buzzer being sounded slightly before the presentation of food. Such a pairing caused an association to be formed between the buzzer and the food subsequently between the buzzer and the salivation response. The process of classical conditioning model of learning. UCS-------------------------------------------------------------- UCR (before conditioning) (Food) (Salivation) NS+UCS------------------------------------------------------- UCR (during conditioning) (Buzzer + Food) (Salivation) (Several pairings) NS------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCR CS------------------------------------------------------------------- CR (after conditioning) (Buzzer) (Salivation). Introduction to Psychology Page 18 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 General Processes in Classical Conditioning 1. Acquisition Acquisition is the initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.  During acquisition, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.  Timing is important for conditioning to occur. Typically, there should only be a brief interval between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus(this interval is as little as five seconds).  Frequency is also important for conditioning to occur. Several times should be presented CS with UCS. 2. Extinction Extinction is the disappearance of a response when the UCS no longer accompanies the CS. Pavlov found that when a CS was repeatedly presented in the absence of food, the CR of salivation became weaker and eventually stopped. Example: Visitors who feel discomfort in one hospital subsequently go to other hospitals to see relatives or friends without smelling offensive odors, and then their discomfort and anxiety about hospitals may be lessened after several such pairings. 3. Spontaneous recovery Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinct response after some time has passed. Example: It is so difficult to give up unhealthy habits, and addictive behaviors such as smoking, alcoholism or drug abuse. A cured addict of khat or alcohol may suddenly relapse to chewing or consuming if he/she is continuously exposed to khat or alcohol. 4. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Generalization is the tendency of initial learning experience to be easily applied to other similar stimuli. For example, it is not uncommon for patients to report anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV) when they see the oncology nurse who administers their drugs or when they attend the same hospital for another matter. 5. Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus discrimination is the tendency, after a CS-UCS association has been learned, for other CSs to not produce the response if they are sufficiently different from the original CS.  The opposite process to generalization is discrimination.  With more varied experiences individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli. For example, if two different tones were sounded but food was presented with only one of them, the dog would learn to salivate discriminately. 6. Systematic Desensitization Systematic desensitization is type of behavioral therapy in which individuals are gradually presented with stimuli that more and more closely resemble their fear, in an attempt to reduce the anxiety provoked by this stimulus.  Fear can be learned and unlearned or extinguished. Introduction to Psychology Page 19  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 For example, patients with ANV is treated for the following procedures.  First, patients are taught progressive muscle relaxation techniques.  Next, the patient and the therapist construct what is known as an ‘anxiety hierarchy’, a list of feared situations relating to the chemotherapy treatment (e.g. driving to the hospital or seeing the oncology nurse). This hierarchy of anxiety- provoking situations is ordered from the least to the most unpleasant. As the patient reaches a state of deep relaxation they are asked to imagine or are confronted by the least threatening situation in the hierarchy.  The patient repeatedly imagines or is confronted by this situation until it fails to elicit anxiety, indicating that the counter-conditioning has been successful.  This process is repeated while working through all of the situations in the hierarchy. 3.2.2. OPERANT CONDITIONING Definition-It describes learning as strengthening or weakening voluntary response, depending on its positive or negative consequences. Example: Working industriously can bring about a raise in salary or bonus. In operant conditioning, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence. Law of effect: States that behaviors that lead to unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated, but behaviors that lead to pleasant consequences are more likely to be repeated. The model focuses on the behavior of the organism and the reinforcement that occurs after the response. B.F. Skinner has largely developed and popularized the model. Working with Thorndike’s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning. He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber, which has come to be known as a “Skinner box”. Basic Steps followed by Skinner in Operant Conditioning 1. A hungry animal (a cat, a rat, a pigeon) is placed in a laboratory setting (example- Skinner box) 2. The animal will wander in the box, exploring its environment in a random way. 3. The animal will press a lever by chance, which enables it to receive food from the food container. 4. The first time the response occurred, the animal will not learn the connection between lever pressing and the stimulus (food). 5. As the frequency of lever pressing increases, the animal learns that the receipt of food is dependent on lever pressing behavior. Introduction to Psychology Page 20 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 (a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. In discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday words; positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, positive means you are adding something, and negative means you are taking something away. Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response. Now let’s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement Punishment Positive Something is added to increase the Something is added to decrease likelihood of a behavior. the likelihood of a behavior. Negative Something is removed to increase Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. the likelihood of a behavior. General Processes in Operant Conditioning 1. Reinforcement The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement. In positive reinforcement, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior. For example, you tell your five-year-old son, Omer, that if he cleans his room, he will get a toy. Omer quickly cleans his room because he wants a new toy.  Being praised for doing a good job is also a reward.  Positive reinforcement as a learning tool is extremely effective. Introduction to Psychology Page 21 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep, beep” until you fasten your seatbelt. 2. Punishment In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of positive punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, rats might typically receive food regularly, but food might be withheld when they are climbing on the walls of the cage; alternatively, children might typically be able to play with certain toys, but the toys might be withheld when the children are fighting.  Punishment, especially when it is immediate, is one way to decrease undesirable behavior.  Physical punishment on children may teach fear. Children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the teacher and try to avoid school.  Punishment may cause children to become more aggressive and prone to antisocial behavior and delinquency. While positive punishment can be effective in some cases, Skinner suggested that the use of punishment should be weighed against the possible negative effects. Today’s psychologists and parenting experts favor reinforcement over punishment—they recommend that you catch your child doing something good and reward her for it. 3. Shaping Shaping means to reward successive approximations of a target behavior. Shaping is needed because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously. In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. The specific steps used in the process are the following:  Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior.  Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response.  Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.  Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior. Shaping is often used in teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors. 4. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers  Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are primary reinforcers. Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer.  A secondary reinforcer has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforce. Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things. Introduction to Psychology Page 22 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 5. Reinforcement Schedules There are two types of reinforcement schedules Continues Reinforcement  When an organism receives a reinforce each time it displays a behavior, it is called continuous reinforcement.  The continuous reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new behavior.  Timing is important here: you will be most successful if you present the reinforcer immediately after he performs desired behavior, so that he can make an association between the target behavior and the consequence. Partial Reinforcement  In partial reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior.  There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules. 1. A fixed interval reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes). 2. A variable interval reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes). You have experienced a VI schedule if you’ve taken a course with a professor who gave occasional, irregularly scheduled pop quizzes. Did you study your notes each day before class? 3. A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses). 4. A variable ratio reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses). 3.3. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (MODELING) In observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say. The individuals performing the imitated behavior are called models. Albert Bandura and other researchers proposed a brand of behaviorism social learning theory, which took cognitive processes into account. According to Bandura, pure behaviorism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement. He felt that internal mental states must also have a role in learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation. According to Lefrancois (2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur: 1. You learn a new response. 2. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. 3. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations. Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic.  A live model demonstrates a behavior in person.  A verbal instructional model does not perform the behavior, but instead explains or describes the behavior.  A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, television shows, video games, or Internet sources. Introduction to Psychology Page 23 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Steps in The Modeling Process Of course, we don’t learn a behavior simply by observing a model. Bandura described specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.  Attention: You must be focused on what the model is doing.  Retention: You must be able to retain, or remember, what you observed.  Reproduction: You must be able to perform the behavior that you observed.  Motivation: You must have motivation. You need to want to copy the behavior, and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the model was reinforced for her behavior, you will be more motivated to copy her. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. On the other hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be less motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious punishment. Bandura concluded that we watch and learn, and that this learning can have both prosocial and antisocial effects.  Prosocial (positive) models can be used to encourage socially acceptable behavior. If you want your children to read, then read to them.  The antisocial effects of observational learning are also worth mentioning. Research suggests that this may help to explain why abused children often grow up to be abusers themselves (Murrell, Christoff, & Henning, 2007). Some studies have found a link between viewing violence and aggression seen in children (Graham-Bermann, 2012). Introduction to Psychology Page 24 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Chapter Four MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:  Define motivation  Understand that instincts, drive reduction, incentives, and cognitive motives have all been proposed as theories of motivation  Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs  Define emotion  Explain the major theories of emotion 4.1. MOTIVATION Motivation: It is the factor that directs and energizes the behavior of humans and other organisms. Motive is a need or desire that prompts us to do something. The study of motivation answers the following questions. 1. Why do people behave as they do? 2. Why does behavior take one form and not another? 3. What makes people behave differently or similarly? 4. How can we motivate people to behave in particular ways, such as eating certain foods or quitting smoking? 4.1.1. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION There are different conceptual approaches to the study of motivation. They differ in their focus on biological factors, cognitive factors and social factors 1. The Instinct Approaches to Motivation This theory states that motivation is the result of an inborn, biologically determined pattern of behavior. According to this approach, people and animals are born with programmed sets of behavior essential to their survival. For example, in humans, instincts may include behaviors such as an infant’s rooting for a nipple and sucking. 2. Drive Reduction Approach to Motivation (DRT) Theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior. This theory suggests that when people lack some basic biological requirements such as water and food, a drive to obtain these requirements is produced. According to DRT, being hungry is uncomfortable because I’m out of homeostasis. To reduce this tension and restore balance, I look for something to eat.  A drive is tension, arousal that pushes behavior in order to fulfill some need. Example: hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and sex. 3. Incentive Approaches to Motivation This approach attempts to explain motivation in terms of the nature of the external stimuli; incentives that direct and energize behavior. According to this view, properties of external stimuli are major causes for a person’s motivation. Example: after eating our meal, we choose to eat a sweet cake. Such behavior is motivated by the dessert itself but not to satisfy internal drives. Introduction to Psychology Page 25 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 4. Cognitive Approaches to Motivation This approach focuses on the role of our thought, expectations, and understanding of the world. In line with this approach, there are two forms of motivations.  Intrinsic Motivation: It is motivation by which people participate in an activity for their own enjoyment, not for the reward it will bring. For example, you enables to work hard, produce higher quality work and be perseverant.  Extrinsic Motivation: It causes us to do something for a tangible reward. For example, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents. 5. Maslow’s Motivational Theory Maslow’s theory that people desire to fulfill physiological needs first, then safety needs, then social needs, then esteem needs. Once all other needs are met, people desire to reach their full potential(self-actualization). Basic Assumptions of the Theory  Different motivational needs are arranged in a hierarchy in a pyramidal shape.  The more basic needs are at the bottom and the higher level needs are at the top.  Before higher ordered needs are satisfied in the hierarchy, the primary needs must be satisfied.  Physiological needs are based on body needs (e.g., food, water,)  Security need is a need for sense of confidence, safety, and freedom from fear or anxiety, particularly with respect to fulfilling ones present and future needs.  Love and belongingness needs include the need to obtain and give affection and contributing to members of some group or society.  Esteem need relates to the development of a sense of worth by knowing that others are aware of one’s competence and value.  Self- actualization is a state of self- fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential. Introduction to Psychology Page 26 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 6. Achievement motivation theory It is a stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence.  People with high achievement motivation tend to compete against some standards and prove themselves successful. They tend to choose tasks that are of intermediate difficulty.  People with low achievement motivation tend to be motivated primarily by a desire to avoid failure. As a result they choose easy tasks.  The outcome of high achievement motivation is generally positive. Research shows that high achievement motivation is associated with future economic and occupational success. Introduction to Psychology Page 27 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 4.2. EMOTIONS An emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings such as happiness, despair, and sorrow that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements influencing behavior. Example: Physiological  Heart rate increases  Jumping for joy Cognitive  Understanding and evaluating of the meaning of the act we do when we are happy 4.2.1. THEORIES OF EMOTION 1. The James-Lange theory The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal. Theory states that emotional experience is a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment. We feel sorry because we cry. We feel angry because we strike. We feel afraid because we tremble. Event-----Physiological changes---Emotion James and Lang proposed that human beings experience emotions as a result of Physiological changes that produce specific sensations. The brain interprets the sensations as particular kinds of emotional experiences. 2. The Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon (1932) and Phillip Bard disagreed with the James-Lange theory. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional feelings and bodily arousal occur at the same time. Thus, if you see a dangerous snake, brain activity will simultaneously produce bodily arousal, running, and a feeling of fear. 3. The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience. The two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic nervous system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and our experience is that of fear. 4. Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory Lazarus developed the cognitive-mediational theory that asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious. Introduction to Psychology Page 28 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 This figure illustrates the major assertions of the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer two- factor theories and Lazarus’ cognitive-mediational theoryof emotion. Introduction to Psychology Page 29 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 4.3. EXPRESSION OF EMOTION Non- verbal behavior is a major means of communicating and revealing people’s emotions. The Non- verbal behavior communicates using several channels or paths. These are:  Facial expressions;  Eye contact;  Bodily movements;  Tone voice;  Positioning of the eyebrows. From all these ways, facial expressions represent the primary means of communicating emotional states. Facial expression communicates the following six most distinctively identified basic emotions.  Happiness  Anger  Sadness  Surprise  Disgust  Fear Members of the human race regardless of the situation express these six emotions universally. The facial-affect program hypothesis assumes that each primary emotion is universally present at birth. Introduction to Psychology Page 30 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Chapter Five LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:  Define Lifespan Development  Define and distinguish between the three domains of development: physical, cognitive and psychosocial  Understand the three major issues in development: continuity and discontinuity, one common course of development or many unique courses of development, and nature versus nurture  Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson  Discuss Piaget’s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition  Describe the stages of prenatal development and recognize the importance of prenatal care  Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood  Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs during adolescence  Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in adulthood 5.1. WHAT IS THE LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Developmental psychologists try to study how humans change and grow from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.  Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.  Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. 5.1.1. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human development. Developmental psychology focuses on how people change, and keep in mind that all the approaches that we present in this chapter address questions of change:  Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)?  Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are there many different patterns of change (one course of development versus many courses)?  How do genetics and environment interact to influence development (nature versus nurture)? Introduction to Psychology Page 31 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 1. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?  Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills. With this type of development, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year.  Discontinuous development believe that development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an infant’s ability to conceive object permanence. The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a smooth slope of progression, whereas discontinuous development sees growth in more discrete stages. 2. Is There One Course of Development or Many? Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children (i.e., there is one course of development) or does development follow a different course for each child, depending on the child’s specific genetics and environment (i.e., there are many courses of development)?  Do people across the world share more similarities or more differences in their development?  How much do culture and genetics influence a child’s behavior? Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a unique effect on each of us. For example, researchers once believed that motor development follows one course for all children regardless of culture. However, child care practices vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking. How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture (our environment and culture)? This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. For instance: Introduction to Psychology Page 32 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018  Why do biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because of genetics or because of early childhood environment and what the child has learned from the parents?  What about children who are adopted—are they more like their biological families or more like their adoptive families?  And how can siblings from the same family be so different? We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment. 5.2. LIFESPAN THEORIES I. Psychosocial Theory of Development Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development. Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. Stages of Development 1. Trust versus Mistrust Stages(0-18months): Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and searching to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. 2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Stage(18months-3years): by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, if denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. 3. Initiative versus Guilt Stage(3–6 years): They are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage, with their initiative failing may develop feelings of guilt. 4. Industry versus Inferiority Stage (6–12 years): Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don’t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities? Introduction to Psychology Page 33 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 5. Identity versus Role Confusion Stage(ages 12–20): According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future. 6. Intimacy versus Isolation Stage(20- 40 years): People in early adulthood are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. 7. Generativity versus Stagnation Stage (40-60 years): The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. 8. Integrity versus Despair Stage(60 years and older): Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. II. Cognitive Theory of Development Piaget focused on children’s cognitive growth. His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages. Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information.  First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: assimilation is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know.  Accommodation describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Introduction to Psychology Page 34  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 1. Sensorimotor Stage(0-2years) During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds.  Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists..  In Piaget’s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people..  Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can’t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response. 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years old) In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic.  Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge.  Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.  During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. For example, 3 year olds play the hide and seek game. They hide their face against a wall covering their eyes, although they are still in plain view. It seems to them that if they cannot see, no one else will be able to see them. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years old) In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events.  They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division.  In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water.  Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. For example, reversing a ball of clay into a sausage shape and back to a ball shape. 4. Formal Operational Stage (adolescence) The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory is the formal operational stage, which is from about age 12 to adulthood.  Children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Introduction to Psychology Page 35  Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018  Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. 4.3. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Developmental psychologists often divide our development into three areas: physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development. We will discuss prenatal, infant, child, adolescent, and adult development. 4.3.1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Let’s take a look at what happens to the developing baby in each of these stages. 1. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2) Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote.  A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point.  During the first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus (implantation). Once it does, the next stage begins. 2. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8) Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo.  The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.  Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. 3. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40) When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus.  From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate.  At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible.  By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb.  Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28.  Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. Introduction to Psychology Page 36 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 Prenatal Influences During each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors can affect development.  The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for life. It is important that the mother takes good care of herself and receives prenatal care, which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus.  According to the National Institutes of Health ([NIH], 2013), routine prenatal care is important because it can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus during pregnancy. women may be advised, for example, to take a vitamin containing folic acid, which helps prevent certain birth defects, or to monitor aspects of their diet or exercise routines.  Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something harmful, the child can show life-long effects. A teratogen is any environmental agent biological, chemical, or physical that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus. There are different types of teratogens.  Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders with life-long consequences for the child ranging in severity from minor to major. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood.  Smoking is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).  All prescription medicines are also considered teratogens.  Other teratogens include radiation, viruses such as HIV 4.3.2. INFANCY THROUGH CHILDHOOD The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviors—these reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4–5 months old. Let’s take a look at some of these newborn reflexes.  The rooting reflex is the newborn’s response to anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby’s cheek, she naturally turns her head in that direction and begins to suck.  The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants do with their mouths.  The grasping reflex, in which a baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms.  The Moro reflex is the newborn’s response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries. Introduction to Psychology Page 37 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 I. Physical Development In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body’s physical development is rapid.  On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn’s weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year.  By 2 years old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds.  The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old.  Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5–7 pounds and grow about 2–3 inches per year.  Once girls reach 8–9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.  We are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have about 100–200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information. However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop.  The size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.  Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).  Gross motor skills focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping). As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child’s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention. Introduction to Psychology Page 38 Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes 2018 II. Cognitive Development There are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate.  For example, infants shake their head “no” around 6–9 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like “wave bye-bye” or “blow a kiss” around 9–12 months.  Piaget’s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013).  Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects. Preschool-age children (3–5 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development.  Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story.  They can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their developing curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask “Why?”  Piaget described 2–3 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others’ points of view.  Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6–11 years old).  Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information.  Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals.  They can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause- and-effect relationships.  By 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences.  By 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. III. Psychosocial Development Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their fee