NSC 205 Developmental Psychology PDF

NSC: 205 Developmental Psychology Human growth and development from conception through childhood and adolescence to old age. Human growth and development Several key principles, including lifelong change, multi-directionality, multidimensionality, and plasticity, underpin our understanding of hum...

NSC: 205 Developmental Psychology Human growth and development from conception through childhood and adolescence to old age. Human growth and development Several key principles, including lifelong change, multi-directionality, multidimensionality, and plasticity, underpin our understanding of human growth and development. Human development is a wondrous and intricate multidirectional journey, with change evident across the lifespan. This multidirectional nature, involving gains in some areas and losses in others, adds a layer of intrigue to our understanding of human growth and development. The complexity of this journey is both fascinating and engaging, drawing us into the study of human development. The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, and the propensity for disease and illness. The cognitive domain encompasses changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language. The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends. Development is characterised by plasticity, our remarkable ability to change and adapt. This means that many of our characteristics are malleable, and early experiences play a crucial role in shaping them. Understanding the influence of these factors not only enriches our knowledge about the complexity and richness of human development but also empowers us with the responsibility of early interventions in shaping it. Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as a whole. It is a continuous and comprehensive process, a vast and deep journey through which physical, emotional, and intellectual changes occur. It is a more extensive term than growth, and it is also possible without growth. Elizabeth Hurlock (1978) defines development as a progressive series of changes that happen in an orderly, predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience. Growth 1 In the context of human development, growth refers to the increase in mass and size of the body and its organs. This increase typically occurs through the multiplication of cells and an increase in intracellular substances. Growth is a continuous process that occurs throughout life, but the rate of growth varies. In humans, growth is fastest until maturity, after which it slows down. The stability of the skeleton is a key indicator of growth, as it must become stable for the child to develop. The process of ossification, which is the formation of bone, is crucial for the stabilisation of the skeleton, a key indicator of growth. For instance, when a child begins to sit, it is a sign that their skeleton is becoming stable. Ossification is the process by which new bone is produced. It starts about the third month of fetal life in humans and is completed by late adolescence. The process takes two general forms: one for compact bone, which makes up roughly 80 per cent of the skeleton, and the other for cancellous bone, including parts of the skull, the shoulder blades, and the ends of the long bones. INCREASE IN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT 2 During adolescence (usually considered age 10 to the late teens), boys and girls reach adult height and weight and undergo sexual maturation (puberty). The timing and speed with which these changes occur vary and are affected by both heredity and environment. In developmental psychology, the rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty is called a growth spurt. A growth spurt is a period of rapid growth in which the body releases growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens, leading to significant increases in height and weight. Growth spurts happen in all long bones and most other skeletal elements. Girls typically experience their growth spurt about two years before boys. Boys normally grow 30 centimetres, and girls grow 25-27 centimetres during puberty. Girls usually stop growing after puberty, while boys continue to grow slowly and reach their final height around age 18. CHANGE IN SIZE AND FUNCTIONAL CAPACITY OF INTERNAL ORGAN A child is born in a complete state, including the heart, lungs, etc. The organs aid the child's development and growth and must be commensurate with that growth. MATURATION Maturation is a key aspect of development that takes place in the absence of learning (including specific experience or practice). It is the natural process of reaching a certain level of physical and mental ability that allows us to perform certain tasks. Maturation is relative and varies. It implies the neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and chemical changes that are taking place in the body, over which an individual has slight control. In the process of maturation, potentials unfold, certain parts of the body begin to develop, and certain behaviours are formed. Thus, maturation essentially triggers changes in the capacity to perform certain skills in the process of development. This concept was pioneered by American Psychologist Arnold Gesell (1925). Maturation can be defined as the changes in thinking, sense of responsibility, and better ability to adjust to meet daily issues successfully. There are mainly two types of Maturation: 1) PHYSICAL MATURATION- It refers to the physical growth and development that humans go through till old age. For example, a child mainly depends on their reflexes in the early stages of development. Growth in weight, height, body mass, and expansion of muscle tissue is seen 3 in the process of maturation. Children, as they grow older, develop their motor skills and co- ordination skills, control of gates, along with gross motor skills and fine motor skills. 2) COGNITIVE MATURATION- This can be understood as the way we change our thinking patterns, problem-solving, attitudes, and judgments throughout our lifespan. Some important aspects of cognitive maturation are information processing, language development, reasoning skills, memory, etc. Cognitive maturation begins right in infancy and continues through adolescence (Turkheimer, 2003). Maturation and practical understanding continue even after completion of the adolescent age, where individuals keep learning new skills and enriching their deposit of knowledge about self and environment. LEARNING: It is a relatively permanent change in behaviour. This change in behaviour in performance results from experience, especially training, observation, and exercise or practice. The Concept of critical development The critical period of development indicates that normal development proceeds through a number of stages that are marked by increased receptivity to environmental conditions. This receptiveness, according to psychology, is called READINESS for certain experiences in development. One stage of development profoundly affects the next stage of development, making it important to learn potentially and develop at that stage. The first six years of development are particularly crucial and must be well-designed because they are critical stages of development. This awareness of the importance of the first six years keeps us attentive to the needs of early childhood development. THE SEQUENTIALITY OF DEVELOPMENT It is very important to the process of human development. It assumes that growth is continuous, orderly, predictable, and sequentially patterned, and it is general to all human beings even though the rate of growth can be variable. LAW OF GRAVITY 4 Growth trend principle of development: Every human being's growth follows this principle. It dictates the direction of human growth and development. The Principles are: (i) Principle of Cephaulocaudal. This states that human development proceeds from the head downward, or top to bottom. Cephalocaudal development, or the cephalocaudal principle or trend, is a term used to describe the universal "head-to-toe" direction of human growth and functional motor development. It is most obviously observed in infants' spatial proportions changing, continuing to adulthood. The cephalocaudal refers to the development proceeding from head to toe. In an embryo, the head is approximately half the total body length. However, by the time of birth, the proportion of the head is reduced to approximately one-third of the total body length and becomes decreased further as the limbs and trunk grow increasingly faster. The infant shows voluntary control of the head and shoulders before control of the lower limbs. Proximodistal development proceeds from the centre of the body to the periphery. For instance, infants acquire control over the muscles of the neck and trunk before coordination of the hands and fingers. Comparison of Growth and Development 1. Growth refers to physiological Development refers to the individual's changes. overall changes. It involves changes that are orderly and coherent toward the goal of maturity. 2. Changes in the quantitative Development changes in the quality respect are termed growth. along with quantitative aspects. 3. Growth does not continue Development continues throughout throughout life. life. 4. Growth stops after maturation. Development is progressive. 5. Growth occurs due to the Development occurs due to both multiplication of cells. maturation and interaction with the environment. 5  6. Growth is Development is organisational. cellular 7. Growth is one of the parts of the Development is a wider and more developmental process. comprehensive term. 8. Growth may be referred to Development describes the changes in describe the changes in the organism as a whole. particular aspects of the body and behavior of the organism. 9. The changes produced by The development brings qualitative growth are subjects of changes that are difficult to measure measurement. They may be directly. They are assessed through quantified and observable in keen observation of behaviour in nature. different situations. 10. Growth may or may not bring Development is possible without development. growth. Periods of Development 6  Age Period Description It is a miraculous journey that starts at conception, continues through the embryo's implantation in the Prenatal uterine wall, and culminates in the birth of a new life. Infancy and Toddlerhood Begins at birth and continues until two years of age Starts at two years of age and continues until six Early Childhood years of age Starts at six years of age and continues until the Middle and Late Childhood onset of puberty Adolescence Starts at the onset of puberty and until 18 Emerging Adulthood Starts at 18 and until 25 Early Adulthood Starts at 25 until 40-45 7  Middle Adulthood Begins at 40-45 until 60-65 Late Adulthood Starts at 65 and onward Infancy and toddlerhood: The first two years of life are a period of astonishing growth and change. A newborn with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child. Figure 1 Infancy and Toddlerhood. Early Childhood: This period is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a two-to-six-year-old, the child is busy learning language, gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. Middle and Late Childhood: The ages of six to the onset of puberty comprise middle and late childhood, and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Adolescence: Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of intriguing cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. 8 Emerging Adulthood: The period of emerging adulthood is a transitional time between the end of adolescence and before individuals acquire all the benchmarks of adulthood. Continued identity exploration and preparation for full independence from parents are demonstrated. Although at one’s physiological peak, emerging adults are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. Early Adulthood: The twenties and thirties are identified as early adulthood. Intimate relationships, establishing families, and work are primary concerns at this stage of life. Middle Adulthood: Middle adulthood is referred to as the forties through the mid-sixties. This is a period in which ageing becomes more noticeable and when many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. Figure 1.5: Middle Adulthood. Late Adulthood: Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two categories: the young, who are 45-65 years old, and the oldest, who are 70 years and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young are still relatively healthy, productive, and active, and the majority continue to live independently. With both age groups, the risks of diseases such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increase substantially. 9 The developmental stages of man and their influence on individual behaviour The developmental stages of humans play a crucial role in shaping individual behaviour, as each stage is marked by specific physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes. Various theories, including those of Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Sigmund Freud, provide frameworks for understanding these stages. A few of the theories will be reviewed, and their influence on individual behaviour will be discussed. Erik Erikson’s theory and stages of Psychosocial Development Brief history of Erik Erikson 1902-1994 Erik Homburger Erikson was an American child psychoanalyst known for his theory on human psychosocial development. He coined the phrase "identity crisis." these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social). Erik Erikson (born June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and died May 12, 1994, in Harwich, Massachusetts, U.S.) He was a German-born American psychoanalyst whose writings on social psychology, individual identity, and the interactions of psychology with history, politics, and culture influenced professional approaches to psychosocial problems and attracted much popular interest. He postulated the theory of psychoanalysis. Table 1: A summary of the eight stages of development of Erik Erikson. 10 Table 2: A detailed summary of the eight stages of development of Erik Erikson. Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in human development and growth. Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for the following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve 11 them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self. In Erik Erickson's first stage (Trust vs. mistrust) of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. It should be noted that no child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% Doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present. The second stage is (Autonomy vs. shame/doubt) Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. The role of independence and potty training is essential at this stage; toilet (training was a vital part of this process.) The outcome of this stage is that children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. The third stage is initiative vs. guilt. This stage of psychosocial development occurs during the preschool years. At this point, children begin to assert their power and control over the world by directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills feel guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. The outcome of this stage is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. The fourth Stage, which is Industry vs. Inferiority, takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to an understanding of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. The outcome of this stage is that children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a sense of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. 12 The fifth stage is Identity vs. Confusion. The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity, which will continue to influence behaviour and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to create an understanding of self and individual identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop an understanding of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations. While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Young adults need to create intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. It should be noted that a successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation 13 Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or making a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Adulthood is a time when we continue to build our lives, focusing on our careers and families. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine whether they are happy with the life they lived or if they regret the things they did or did not do. Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they think they should have. 14 References E.B Hurlock. 2001. Developmental Psychology Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education Genetic Processes. Annual Review of Psychology 56: 263–286. Gottesman, Irving I., and Daniel R. Hanson. 2005. Human Development: Biological and Gottlieb, Gilbert. 1991. Experiential Canalization of Behavioral Development: Theory. Developmental Psychology 27: 4-13. NSC 205@ Dr Oduola. 15 Human growth and development from conception through childhood and adolescence to old age. Erikson’s developmental tasks for different stages of life. Theories of Learning. Psychology of Learning and the Nurse. The nature and structure of intelligence. Individual differences. Environment and behaviour. Determinants of human health behaviour. Attitudes. Psychological influence on health and illness. Care and coping strategies in illness situations, especially for children, adolescents, and the elderly. 16