MBA Sem. 1 Unit 2 Notes PDF

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT MBA Semester: I SUBJECT: Human Resource Management UNIT 1: Compiled By: Dr. Namika Patel  UNIT 2 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB DESIGN AND JOB EVALUATION Topics 1. Job Analysis : Meaning , fe...

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT MBA Semester: I SUBJECT: Human Resource Management UNIT 1: Compiled By: Dr. Namika Patel  UNIT 2 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB DESIGN AND JOB EVALUATION Topics 1. Job Analysis : Meaning , features, purpose, process and methods 2. Job Description and Job Specification : Meaning, content and Specimen 3. Job Design : Meaning, Purpose and Components of Job Design 4. Job Evaluation : Meaning, objectives, process, methods, advantages and limitations, Competency-Based Job Evaluation, Objectives and Competency-Based Performance Evaluation Methods 5. Training : Meaning, process and methods 6. Development : Meaning, process and methods , Difference between Training and Development JOB ANALYSIS Meaning and Definition of Job Analysis Job Analysis refers to a complete and organised study of jobs to understand the characteristics of people to be hired for vacant positions in an organisation. It is a process of gathering essential job-related information and its analysis. It gives the basis to determine the kind of information to be extracted from the applicant, past employers, and from various other sources. It is the main element of whole human resource practices; so it is very crucial in every organisation. It helps the organisation in transforming the functional goals being developed into some specific human activity. According to Edwin B. Flippo, "Job analysis is the process of studying and information relating to the operations and responsibilities of specific job". According to Donald, "Job analysis is a method of scientifically dissecting a job in order to determine the component elements and their influence upon the length of learning period of the worker, production and labour turnover". According to Dale Yoder, "Job analysis is the procedure by the facts with respect to each job are systematically, discovered and noted. It is sometimes called 'job study suggesting the care with which tasks, processes, responsibilities and personnel requirements are investigated" Features of Job Analysis Job analysis has the following features: 1) Organised Way of Collecting and Analysing Information about a Job: The fundamental element of human resource management is job analysis, which is an organised manner of and analysing the information relating to job content, context, etc. 2) Job Creation: Job analysis aims to create that are aligned to the organisation's work that is required to be completed. Job analysis focused on using a proper system to collect information about the performance of the people in their jobs. This information is used creating job descriptions and job specification 3) Linked to HR Activities: There are a variety methods and sources of data that can be utilized in executing job analysis. The actual assessment of job analysis begins from gathering information and converting it into the description and job specifications for the use HR activities. Proper information regarding t job requirement is necessary to validate actions to the job. In order to be effective, planning, recruitment and selection must aligned to the job requirements and the ability every individual. 4) Re-Designs Jobs: Job analysis gather information on those specific features of job the makes it unique. Re-designing of jobs is another function that can be performed with the help d the information gathered through job analysis However, the basic objective of job analysis is know the tasks that are needed to be performed on the job and the individual capabilities that art required for it. Purposes and Uses of Job Analysis Purposes and uses of job analysis are as follows: 1) Human Resource Planning: Job analysis is used for determining knowledgeable and skilful human resource requirement in an organisation. It helps in making systematic promotion and transfer policy by displaying lateral and vertical links between different jobs. 2) Recruitment: Job analysis helps in identifying the right method and the right time to recruit. people for the future vacancies in the organisation. It is necessary to recognise the skills and positions required for future vacancies to allow managers to plan for recruiting manpower in an organised way. For example, with the help of job analysis, an organisation which recruits MBA students for equity research realises that these vacant positions can be filled by graduates who have an aptitude for analysis. This information can be used by organisations in recruiting graduates who are available in large numbers as equity analysts, and offer them comparatively lower salary. 3) Selection: It is very difficult to choose a suitable person without having a definite idea about what is supposed to be done in a job. For example, if a Mega bazaar manager has not identified distinctly the job responsibilities of a clerk, then it is not easy to find whether the person who has been selected has the ability to place store items, maintain a cash register, or keep up-to- date accounts. 4) Placement and Orientation: When selection is complete, the fresh recruits have to be placed in a job that best suits their interest, behaviour and actions. When we are not assured about the job duties, it is impossible to analyse the most suitable candidate for the job. In without appropriate understanding of job requirements, effective job orientation is not easy to achieve. Fresh recruits should be given a clear training about the job tasks and duties. 5) Training: Appropriate training cannot be imparted until we do not clearly state what the job is and what is required to do on the job. A current recruit or potential candidate may not require extra training, but he can be sure about the job when he is aware of the job requirements identified by job 6) Counselling: Managers offer good career guidance to the employees when they have a better understanding of the types of jobs existing in the company. Similarly, by identifying job requirements, employees become easily aware of their career options. Job analysis also helps employees know the areas which they need to develop in order to move forward in their career. 7) Employee Safety: Job analysis helps the managers in analysing hazardous conditions after studying various operations to be performed in a job. It helps in creating a healthy and safe working, environment by easily improving work situations. 8) Performance Appraisal: Job analysis information is essential for the establishment of performance standards. Value of employees can be evaluated by a thorough understanding of what the employee is meant to do and what is his actual performance. Therefore, on the basis of an employee's performance, the organisations should pay him a fair remuneration. 9) Job Design and Re-Design: The process of integrating different tasks together to make a complete job is called job design. Once the jobs are thoroughly studied, it is easier to take corrective measures by analysing their weak points Thorough and continuous monitoring can be done to remove unnecessary movements, simplifying some steps and improving existing ones. Thus, jobs can be re-designed in order to test the intellectual standard of employees. 10) Job Evaluation: Job analysis helps in identifying the value of a job on the basis of level of difficulty, type of work done, knowledge, skill and abilities required. Thus, it helps in effective designing of an equitable level of wage and salary structure of the jobs. Process of Job Analysis 1) Determination of Uses of Job Analysis: In earlier times, the job analysis process was used mainly for the recruitment and selection of the employees. Later on, it also became important for other areas in order to manage the various difficulties related to human resources. Thus, it is the responsibility of the organisation to clearly define the purpose of job analysis before starting the job analysis process. 2) Strategic Choices in Job Analysis: While conducting the process of job analysis, following five aspects be covered by the organisation: 1) Employee Involvement: Employees are the best source of providing information. The relevant data regarding the functions to be performed. skills required, and responsibilities to be carried-out for the job can be easily collected by the analyst from the employees because they are used to it. ii) Level of Details: Analysis is directly related to the details received. The level of details collected affects the level of analysis, i.e., higher the details collected, more effective the analysis will be and vice-versa. The nature and type of data collected depends on the level of analysis. iii) When and How Often: Analyst should be clear when they have to conduct the analysis and how frequently they can perform it. iv) Past-Oriented versus Future-Oriented: Many organisations follow traditional how the jobs were performed in the past analysis methods which are focused how they are performed in the situation. But with the change organisations need to adopt future- in job analysis methods. The focus of these methods is on preparing employees for future jobs. They can even decide methods to be used to perform the functions in advance. This helps the recruit and train for future jobs best actual transformation. v) Source of Job Data: Employees working the organisation are the major source of information. Though there are various other sources also which may include both human and non-human means. 3) Information Collection: This step inch certain aspects that should be covered collecting data: 1) Types of Job Analysis Information: The information to be collected should be relevant and must recognise the functions to performed, duties to be carried-out, the equipment to be used and other job related issues so that the process of job analysis can be made successful. 2) Persons Involved in Information Collection: The person who is given responsibility of collecting data can collect the data from a senior employee an experienced job analyst or an employee has good experience in that particular job 3) Methods for Data Collection: The techniques used for data collection in analysis interviews, observations, questionnaire, etc. 4) Information Processing: After data collection the information is processed in order to mair useful for HR functions. Job descriptions 'job specifications' are the most common outputs received after the job analysis. Methods of Data Collection of Job Analysis Job analysis can be conducted using various techniques. Diverse methods of gathering data for analysis are as follows: 1. Questionnaire: Though this method collecting data is very time-consuming difficult, but still clerical workers use their method on a large scale. Under this method, the job holders are asked to provide the entire significant data regarding their jobs in written form in their own words. It is a method of gathering information about any job through mail surveys. 2) Checklist: In this method, the employee is given a list of task statements and he has to simply check the tasks performed by him. Unlike questionnaire method, this method is much convenient as the employee is not accountable to anyone. However, a lot of work is done to gather suitable task statements, but it is easy to govern and can be tabulated. 3) Interview: In this method, the interview is usually conducted outside the organisation in which interviewees are either called one-by-one or in a group. The information given by all the interviewees is combined together to have a clear picture about the job. Although this method is also time-taking and expensive, but it proves to be beneficial for the company. 4) Observation: Observation method provides a clear job description as the analyst personally observes the performance of the employees and the working environment in which he is working. Usually this method is adopted by those organisations where major functions are performed by manpower and the working period is short. This method is expensive, slow and normal work functioning may also get interrupted. 5) Technical Conference: In this method, the main sources of obtaining information about the job are the supervisors and not the employees. But sometimes, the data given by them is not accurate as they provide data on the basis of their previous experiences. Some of the supervisors do not have sufficient knowledge about the jobs which are not performed by them and thus they may give wrong answers. 6) Self-Recording of Diary: It is a systematic way of collecting data regarding the job responsibilities and the time taken to perform these duties. This method is more useful at the top management level as compared to the middle and lower level employees, because it wastes a lot of time and affects the normal working of the employees. Since in this method, employees are asked to write about the activities performed by them on a daily basis in a diary; it becomes really difficult for the employees to carry-out both the things in a limited of time. 7) Critical Incident: Under this method information regarding incidents of both positive and negative behaviour of the employees is collected as it may prove out to be beneficial in the job analysis process. This duty of collecting the information related to such instances is given to the supervisor. These instances can be unlimited and give information regarding critical features of the job. Problems in Job Analysis Major problems associated with job analysis are as follows: 1) Lack of Support from Top Management: Sometimes unsupportive behaviour on the part of higher management lowers down the morale of the employees. Some high level managers create doubts in the minds of employees by not telling them clearly about their job responsibilities. 2) Relies on Single Method for Data Collection: Job analysts prefer using a single technique for evaluation, which may not prove out to be much beneficial. If a combination of two or more techniques is used, it may help in collecting more relevant and accurate data 3) Lack of Training/Motivation: Proper job analysis can take place only if the quality data is available with the analysts. This data is mainly received through the holders. But since these job holders are not trained, they are not able to give the quality data. They are also not appreciated or rewarded for providing data; they refuse to provide accurate information to the analysts. Thus, due to lack of motivation, this information source remains unutilised. 4) Misrepresentation of Information: Due to lack of motivation and training, few job holders even try to misrepresent the data. They may lie about the information because of the negative feeling them. This misleading can be either intentional or unintentional. 5) Non-Involvement of Supervisor and the Employee: Supervisors believe that the job analysis is the sole responsibility of the analysts and thus do not involve themselves in the process. But if they co-operate and support the analyst, the analysis process becomes more accurate and effective. 6) Considered as a Waste of Time by Managers and Supervisors: Job analysis is considered as a waste of time by supervisors and managers. The main reason behind this thought is that they are not aware of the outcome of job analysis and its importance to the organisation. So, they take the whole process very casually information obtained by them seems to be misleading and insufficient. 7) Employees' Fears: Earlier the job analysis was conducted for the expansion of the jobs and to increase the production. For this the employee's salaries were reduced and sometimes they were even suspended. This fear of being thrown out of the job is still there in the minds of the employees. Thus, their fear needs to be eliminated to make the process of job analysis effective. 8) Need to Update Gathered Information: As the requirement of job changes, the information regarding these job changes should be recorded and updated. If the company uses old data for job analysis, the decisions made may prove to be incorrect. Guidelines for Job Analysis Following are the guidelines for job analysis 1) Job Analysis must be a Continuous Process: Job analysis is an on-going process; it is ta one-time activity and should be conformity with changes taking place in y technology. There are modification in the job due to arrival of computers. With technological advancements, everything is becoming online and thus numbers of paperless offices are increasing day-by-day.  2) Individual and Job Based Analysis: Many times when information related to job analysis is gathered, the employee himself become reference point for analysis. Thus, firms focus on individual analysis rather than job analysis. Some employees are better performance achievers than the rest. Job analysis does not include actual employee performance but it involves his future performance. Therefore, any action involving analysis based on employee performance cat ambiguous. 3) Determination of Minimum Job Requirements: Determining minimum requirements is one of the main elements to consider in job analysis. Any activity undertaken for ideal requirements may not true. Though job situations change quickly, what is ideal in present may not be ideal in the future. Therefore, any initiative in job analysis should focus on minimum requirements other than those requirements which are ideal. 4) Use of Various Methods: Using a single methodology may lead to biased results. Therefore, it is advised to use multiple method in which outcome of one methods is verified with the outcome of other methods. JOB DESCRIPTION Meaning and Definition of Job Description Job description is a written statement which answers the questions such as what the job holder does, how the job is done, under which circumstances it is done, and most important one, why it is done? It gives information about the job like job content and working conditions. It is descriptive in nature and explains functions and responsibilities necessary to do a certain specific along with its objectives and areas of work. According to Robert Kreitner, “Job description is a concise document that outlines the role expectations and skill requirements for a specific job". According to Swansburg, "A job description is a contract that should include the functions and obligations and tell the incumbent to whom he or she is responsible" Contents of Job Description Contents of job description are as follows: 1. Job Identification: Job identification, also known as organisational position, includes the job title, alternative title, departments, divisions, plant and code number of the job. The job title recognises and designates the job appropriately. The department, division, etc. indicate the name of the department and its location. The location shows the name of the place. 2. Job Summary: It delivers two significant objectives. Firstly, it gives a brief definition which is as additional identification information. Secondly, it is used as a summary to direct the readers for understanding the detailed information about the job. It provides the reader a 'fast and short explanation' of the job content, generally in a few sentences.  3. Job Duties and Responsibilities: It clearly describes the duties and responsibilities to be carried-out during job with an appropriate understanding of primary, secondary and other duties. It is also considered vital for any job. It also notifies about the time limit of the job. 4. Relation to Other Jobs: It helps in identifying the job in the organisation by putting the job below or above in the job hierarchy. It also shows an idea of the vertical relationship of work and process 5. Supervision: The extent and the nature of supervision needed in each job are also indicated in the job description. Under this, the number of persons to be monitored are given along with their job titles and the level of supervision involved in the form of general, intermediate, or close supervision. 6. Working Conditions: It gives the knowledge about the working environment such as heat, cold, dust, wetness, moisture, fume, odour, oily condition, etc. in which the job holders have to perform their work. 7. Hazards: It gives an idea about the kinds of risks to life and limbs and their chances of happening, etc. Uses of Job Description Uses of job description are as follows: 1) Developing Job Specifications: Job description helps in building-up the job specifications, which are supposed to be valuable for plan recruiting, training and hiring people with necessary skills for the job. 2) Group Discussion: Preliminary drafts can utilised as the base for a fruitful g discussion, especially, if the process begins f the executive level. 3) Orientation of New Employees: Job description is useful for orienting new staff members towards their basic job responsibilities functions. 4) Developing Performance Standards: description is the basic document for the purpose of developing performance standards. 5) Job Evaluation: Job description helps in evaluating the job as a wage and salary administration method. 6) Helps a Manager during Interview: A description helps the manager in framing appropriate questions to be asked while conducting an interview. 7) Vehicle for Organisational Changes: It becomes a medium of organisational change and upgradation. It helps the top management in delegating the responsibilities. JOB SPECIFICATION Meaning and Definition of Job Specification Job specification also known as job requirement is a by-product of job analysis. It covers all the human qualities to be considered such as physical, personal, psychological responsibilities to be acquired, academic qualifications, experience, etc. It converts the job description into human qualifications so that the job can be done in a more efficient way. It aids in hiring the right person for the right position. According to Edwin B. Flippo, "A job specification is a statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities necessary to perform a job properly". According to Dale Yoder, "Job specification as a specialised job description, emphasising personnel requirements and designed specially to facilitate selection and placements". Objectives of Job Specification Objectives of job specification are as follows: 1) To Find out Prospective Candidate: Job specification helps in searching the potential candidate for a vacant position. It helps in evaluating the resume more rapidly and impartially. It also helps in making a list of relevant questions for interview. 2) To Set-Up Competency of Organization: When an organisation has set-up its core competency, the job specification assists in executing the various competency programmes. 3) To Attract Candidates: It is necessary to make the job specification professional and a good representative of the organisation's image to the candidate. For this purpose, the job specification must be active and precise to attract talented candidates. 4) To Identify Competencies: It helps the employers in recognising the accurate duties and skills of the employee. It also makes the prospective candidates capable of ascertaining their of satisfying the job capacity requirements. 5) To Eliminate Discrimination: It helps in preventing the violation of equal employment opportunities laws. It sets a standard of basic skills for a job description and specifies the basic required qualifications or experience. Contents of Job Specification Contents of job specification relate to: 1) Physical Characteristics: It consists of age, health, strength, size of the body, body weight, poise, vision, etc. 2) Personal Characteristics Fruits of or Temperament: It includes personal appearance good and pleasing manners, emotional stability, aggressiveness or submissiveness, etc. 3) Responsibilities: It involves supervision, responsibility for process, production and equipment, safety of other people, preventing loss in monetary terms, etc. 4) Other Features of Demographic Nature: Age, sex, education, experience, language ability, etc Difference between Job Specification and Job Description 1) Meaning of Job Specification and Job Description  Job specification is a written summary of minimum qualification, appropriate skills, knowledge and a set of characteristics that are required by an individual to fit in a job. Job description is a well written statement which defines roles, tasks, duties and responsibilities expected to be performed in a particular job. It is a primary tool to collect job-related data. 2) Objective It helps the candidates to find-out whether they are eligible to apply for a particular job position or not. It helps the organisations to gather data related to a particular job so that it can be advertised. 3) Importance It facilitates employee development. It helps in better job performance in an organisation. 4) Orientation Its main orientation is towards specific human qualities which are required for a job. Its main orientation is towards task and responsibilities to be performed on the job. JOB DESIGN Meaning and Definition of Job Design Job design means combining different tasks in order to make an entire job. It refers to structuring the job specifications, methods, contents, and job relationships in such a way that it efficiently meets different organisational and technological requirements along with the personal requirements of the job holder. For example, the job design for a mechanist would involve specifications regarding the type of machines that he would be expected to operate, how they would be operated, and the expected performance standards. The job design for a manager may comprise of identification of responsibilities and goals, defining decision- making responsibility areas, and setting up suitable success indicators. According to Davis, "Job design is the specification of the content, methods and relationships of jobs in order to satisfy technological and organisational requirements as well as the social and personal requirements of the job holder". According to Michael Armstrong. "Job design is the process of deciding on the contents of a job in terms of its duties and responsibilities, on the methods to be used in carrying out the job, in terms of techniques, systems, and procedures, and on the relationships that should exist between the job holder and his superior subordinates and colleagues". Purposes of Job Design Following are the main purposes of job design: 1) Enhancing the quality of work life. 2) Meeting the quality and production targets of the company. 3) To increase motivation, satisfaction and safety of employees. 4) Making jobs such that they fulfil the organisational requirements as well as technological 5) To make employees capable of implementing their decision-making power and prudence, and bring about flexibility and prompt response with regard to the diverse needs of the marketplace. Factors Affecting Job Design Following are the different factors which impact job design: 1) Organisational Factors: The following are included under this: i) Characteristics of Task: A number of tasks are combined together to form a job or a group of jobs in a job design. An employee might be designated on major task, made up of many interrelated smaller tasks. Alternatively, task functions might be divided among different teams working together on the same task or attached to each other as assembly line. Following three elements form the internal structure of any task: a) Planning (selecting the appropriate strategy, timing and resources needed). b) Executing (implementing the strategy), and c) Controlling (observing performance and growth, and taking remedial actions when needed). All the three elements must be included in a perfect job design. ii) Workflow: The nature of product or service significantly affects the amount of work done in an organisation. In order to attain efficient results, the balance and correlation between jobs is proposed by the products and services are rendered. For example, before building the fenders of a car, its frame is built, and the doors are attached after this. Balance in the job is obtained only when the sequence in which the tasks are to be done is finalised. iii) Ergonomics: Jobs are designed in such a way that they are physically and characteristically suitable for the people, who are going to perform so that they can work efficiently. With the help of ergonomics, employers can design the jobs in a manner that balances the demands of the job and physical ability of the employees. Ergonomics, without altering the basic characteristic of the job changes the location of the switches, tools and other facilities, keeping in mind that the main concern is proper handling of the job. iv) Work Practices: Work is performed in a definite pattern. This pattern can either be traditional or designed according to the collective intention of the workers. In either case, the HR department has limited options while designing a job, especially when the pattern is a part of management-union relations. If work practices are ignored, the outcomes will not be favourable. 2) Environmental Factors: Following are the environmental factors 1) Employee Abilities and Availability: The ability and availability of the employees, who are performing the task, need to be balanced efficiency consideration against the efficiency consideration. ⅱ) Social and Cultural Expectations: With time, workers knowledge, literacy and awareness has enhanced significantly. Along with this, their expectations from the job have also increased. As a result, the job needs to be designed in such a manner that it meets the worker's expectation. 3) Behavioural Factors: Behavioural factors refer to human needs, and the importance of fulfilling those needs. More consideration is to higher-level needs. The jobs with the following dimensions are considered more satisfying and demanding by people with higher-level needs 1) Feedback: Employees prefer working on a complete product or on some important aspect of it in order to achieve meaningful feedback on their performance. This feedback can be attained by self-evaluation of their achievement and defining the feedback. ii) Autonomy: It refers to taking responsibility for one's work. It also implies having the freedom to control the way one responds to the environment. Employees with jobs that give them the authority to take decisions feel more responsible towards their jobs, and have higher level of self-esteem and recognition. Alternatively, jobs with low level of autonomy employees displaying poor witness performance and lethargy and lack of interest. iii) Use of Ability: The employees must believe that in order to perform their jobs efficiently, they must exercise skills and capabilities that they value. (v) Variety: Errors, that are result of fatigue, can be reduced by personnel specialists by introducing variety in the job. This is because lack of variety causes boredom which in turn causes fatigue, thereby resulting in the mistakes on the part of the workers. Techniques/Components of Job Design Following are the techniques of job design: 1) Job/Work Simplification: This is a technique with the help of which jobs are specialised or simplified. A particular job is fragmented into smaller tasks (eg. building a car) where each task is allocated to different person. Work simplification precisely comprises of: i) Mechanical movement of work, ii) Doing work such as that on assembly line repetitively. iii) Deciding the tools and techniques to be used in advance, iv) Limiting interaction between employees, and v) Need of lesser skills. Simplification of work is done keeping in mind the unskilled and less paid employees also. 2) Job Enlargement: This technique involves an increase in the number of duties and tasks that make up one complete job. Practically, job enlargement is the opposite of work simplification. When more duties and tasks are added to the existing job, it does not imply that enhanced capabilities and skills will be needed to do the task 3) Job Rotation: In the same way with job enlargement, this technique increases the variety of tasks. This is done by shifting workers working at the same level from one task to another task in a given period of time. Job rotation does not involve a fixed time period. It can either be scheduled hourly, daily or weekly. For example, the duties of a nurse might be rotated monthly, taking care of geriatric patients for a month, then rehabilitation patients the nex month, and surgical patients every third month. 4) Job Enrichment: When a job is enriched, it holds more autonomy and responsibilities (vertical enrichment). The variety of tasks also increases (horizontal enrichment) and so does the opportunity to grow. The workers need less supervision and are capable of doing more controlling and planning and self-evaluation. It can also be said that the duties of the supervisor (planning, controlling, supervising and instructing) are now performed by the workers themselves. 5) Autonomous and Self-Directed Teams: As a result of empowerment, the teams become self- directed or independent. An integrated group that responsibly works to complete a segment or an entire work process, the output of which is a product or service to an external or an internal customer, is called a self-directed work team. 6) Team members, to a certain extent join hands to handle regular issues at work, improve operations and efficiently plan and control the task at hand. However, empowered teams too have weaknesses which must not be left unnoticed. Importance of Job Design: Following are the reasons due to which job design is important 1) Gives Job Feedback: Effective job design provides the employees with feedback on their performance which is expected from them. 2) Permits Adjustment: Job design enables the employees to change their tasks according to their habits, social and personal needs, and conditions at the workplace. 3) Motivates Employees: The level of motivation and job satisfaction of the employees are enhanced by job design. Along with this, employees also achieve work life balance and increased level of morale. 4) Improves Performance: The efficiency and overall performance of the organisation are increased by job design. It can also assist the organisation in increasing its profits thereby improving its bottom line. 5) Stresses on Training Employees: Training is a crucial aspect of job design. Job design does not work on the belief of "leave them alone". Rather, it believes in training employees to make them conscious of what work they have to perform and how to it. 6) Schedules Work as well as Rest: By giving a clear picture of the total hours an individual needs devote to his job, job design provides appropriate work and rest schedule. JOB EVALUATION Concept of Job Evaluation: Job evaluation can be defined as a structured and organised method of assessing jobs and classifying them according to their utility in the organisation. It also helps in designing compensation plans. It generally depends upon compensation variables (skills required for job performance, working conditions and job responsibilities) instead of employees. According to Edwin B. Flippo, "The systematic and orderly process of measuring the worth of job within an organisation is called job evaluation". According to Kimball and Kimball, "Job evaluation represents an effort to determine the relative value of every job in a plant and to determine what the fair basic wages for such a job should be". According to Dale Yoder, "Job evaluation is a practice which seeks to provide a degree of objectivity in measuring the comparative value of jobs within an organisation and among similar organisation. It is essentially a job rating process, not unlike the rating of employers". Objectives of Job Evaluation Objectives of job evaluation are as follows: 1) To regulate the real value of jobs, depending upon a systematic evaluation of job complexity and to perform it autonomously, through a set of pre-determined compensation standards, without considering the characteristics and outcomes of the real job performers. 2) To correlate the jobs in relation to their real value and to decide the complications associated with job and logical job structure. 3) To render a logical base for equal payment of wages and salaries so that equity is maintained. 4) To arrange the jobs according to their significance based on job functions, liabilities and other concerned factors. 5) To attain and keep thorough information of each job or occupation 6) To develop a system for regular review of wage rates. 7) To render a standard for employee's career planning. Process of Job Evaluation Step 1: Identification of Jobs for Evaluation: The initial step of job evaluation is the identification of the jobs to be included in this process. It is a difficult task for an organisation to assess each and every job of the organisation. Hence, it chooses some of the major jobs, which represent a combination of identical jobs for evaluation purpose. After identification of jobs, the next task is to decide the factors to be examined. The evaluator is free to evaluate any number of job factors such as physical and mental efforts, attentiveness, communication and leadership skills, knowledge and experience, job difficulty and pressure, etc. Step 2: Gathering the Relevant Data: In this phase, all the relevant information pertaining to the job being evaluated is collected. For this purpose, evaluators may use any of the data collection methods such as questionnaires, observations, interviews, etc. Step 3: Determination of Job Ranking: Once all the relevant information about a job is examined, an evaluator analyses the extent of availability of the factors selected in the job. Based upon the outcome of this analysis, an evaluator evaluates the ratings for every job. Since many identical factors are analysed during the process of evaluation, as a result the ratings represent the relative value of the job with respect to other jobs in the organisation. Step 4: Selection of Benchmark Jobs: Job evaluation has a primary sary purpose of establishing pay grades for every kind of job. With this view, it becomes important for an organisation to be aware of competitor's pay grades for jobs at similar levels. Therefore, it may not be practical for an organisation to guess the comparative pay grades of all the jobs within the organisation itself. For this reason, the evaluators may choose those jobs, which are prevalent in every organisation, and are comparable in nature. These jobs are commonly known as benchmark jobs and act as a tool in establishing the pay grades of different jobs in the organisation. Step 5: Wage and Salary Surveys: During this step. a survey is organised by the organisation about pay scales of the benchmark jobs in different organisations belonging to the same industry. These surveys may be organised by an organisation either formally or informally. Likewise, an organisation may either organise a direct survey in order to collect the necessary information or utilise the reports published through several professional agencies or magazines. On the basis of these surveys, the organisation decides the financial value of each job. Several organisations, sometimes, opt for the informal sources such as telephones, newspapers and the internet for organising salary surveys. Step 6: Review and Feedback: Changes in the external environment affect the organisations constantly and result in changing internal factors as well. For example, technological changes strongly affect the job characteristics and demands. As a result, organisations are pressurised to analyse the jobs regularly to determine their values in the changing environment. It is necessary to take feedback from various stakeholders such as supervisors, managers, job holders, and unions about the different dimensions of job evaluation to enhance the entire process regularly. Methods of Job Evaluation: Non-Analytical Methods and Analytical Methods In such methods, all the jobs are contrasted against each other without splitting them further and evaluated under their various elements. Various methods are as follows: 1) Ranking System: This method tends to arrange and rank the jobs according to their values from the simplest to the toughest or vice versa, in a sequence. There is no need to have the descriptions, although they are important. At times, a series of grades of zones are developed and all the jobs are organised under that job description. It is very common to organise all the jobs as per their demand by giving them rates and to classify them. Generally, one chooses to rank the jobs as per the whole job instead of ranking them on the basis of quantity of compensation variables. Advantages of ranking system are as follows: i) It is easy to explain this system to the employees (or a union). Hence, it is an appropriate method for small organisations with well-defined jobs. ii) It is comparatively cost effective and needs less administration. iii) Less time-consuming, includes few and less work, until it is carried-out to a detailed level, by the organisation. Disadvantages of ranking system are as follows: i) The specific job demands like skills, effort and responsibility are usually not evaluated individually. More often, a rater's judgmental view seems to be heavily affected by current wage rates. ii) This system only develops a job sequence, but it does not denote to which extent it is more significant than others. It only provides ranks and tells us whether it is higher or more complex than another one, but does not shows the gap exactly. 2) Job Classification or Grading System: In job classification method, jobs are grouped into different grades, each grade holding a specific class description and very often a pay scale is also used for making comparisons. It is a strategy of organising a job as per the current responsibility and duty related to the job. The grade descriptions are the results of the preliminary information about the job which is generally taken from the job analysis. After formulation and study of job description and job specification, jobs are categorised into classes or grades which indicate various pay scales. Certain jobs may then be categorised together into a common rank or classification. Basic grade descriptions are specifically written for each job classification, and at the end these are utilised as a benchmark for allocating a specific pay scale to every job. Advantages of the job classification system are as follows: i) As this method does not demand for extra time or any kind of technical help, it is simple to understand and operate. ii) As a system, job classification allows the administration to deal with different job functions at the same time. iii) It easily resolves the pay determination issues by grouping all the jobs into a classification. These pay grades are set for and delegated to every job classification. Disadvantages of the job classification system are as follows: i) Job classification influences employee efficiency or performance and their hierarchical relationships. Human resources may be re-deployed and they may face difficulty in adjusting with new atmosphere and people. It may affect the performance due to changed standards. ii) In the absence of a detailed job analysis, the judgment with respect to whole job range may provide a wrong categorisation. iii) When number of jobs is more, the job classification system is hard to implement. iv) Understanding the influence of job's rank of a person on the job is a complex task. v) This system is inflexible and inappropriate for big organisations or for jobs with varied nature. Analytical Methods Analytical or quantitative method includes the breaking down of jobs into elements and giving a final and overall rank order score for each element. The various analytical methods are as follows: 1) Factor Comparison Method: In this method, jobs are analysed through benchmark values. It involves determining those jobs which include more number of compensable factors than others. In this case, the analyst or the evaluation committee opts for some 'key' or 'standard jobs for which they have clear job descriptions within the organisation and in the competing organisations as well. They also opt for the standard jobs holding pay grades, which are agreed upon by both the management and labour. In this method, every job is given a rank, one at a time for each selected compensable factor. Advantages of the factor comparison method are as follows: 1) It is an organised and computable method in which explanatory guidelines are provided. ii) To determine a relative value, jobs are compared to other jobs. iii) This method can be easily understood by employees. iv) There is no restriction on the application of values to each factor Disadvantages of the factor comparison method are as follows: i) Expensive installation and a bit hard to execute for one who is not familiar with the basics of job evaluation method. ii) Changes take place in wage levels with time, and their minor deviations may be modified to align all the jobs. iii) When used as a basis of rating, money rates tend to affect the actual rate more than the abstract point. iv) The system is complicated, so it is not properly understood by all employees. 2) Point Ranking Method: This is the most commonly used method of job evaluation. Firstly, it recognises the number of compensable factors (i.e., a variety of job characteristics) and secondly, it determines the extent to which each of these factors is available in the job. Each factor holds a different number of points. As soon as, the degree of each factor is analysed, the equivalent number of points of each factor is combined and the total value is achieved. This method relies upon the belief that it is possible to give points to individual factors which are important for evaluating the job of an individual. Total of these points gives an idea about the relative importance of rated jobs. Advantages of Point Ranking Method 1) Points are given to each factor which makes it easier to allocate values to sum of job points. 2) This method is easily accepted by the workers. 3) The system cannot be manipulated easily. 4) A large number of jobs can be handled by this method and it also seems to be stable as long as the factors remain relevant. Disadvantages of Point Ranking Method 1) Installation and creation of this system is expensive 2) This method consumes a lot of time in defining job factors and it is also clumsy. 3) If numerous rates are used, substantial clerical work is required in recording and concluding the rating scales. 4) It is not easy to determine the level of factors present within the factors and finally allocating the values. Advantages of Job Evaluation 1) Helps in Wage and Salary Fixation: It assists the top management in developing a logical and consistent structure of wage and salary by facilitating a criterion to the wages and salaries. Wage incentive plans are also prepared on the basis of the job evaluation process. 2) Helps in Reducing Grievances: An organisation can make use of job evaluation programmes in order to reduce the disputes and grievances of workers through a systematic procedure. 3) Helps in Recruitment and Selection: Job evaluation helps in determining the need of new employees. When demand is identified, HR department can easily match the job requirement with new employees. Hence, it makes and selection easier. It also helps in deciding promotion and transfer of employees. 4) Enhances Labour-Management Relations: As job evaluation helps to remove inequalities in wages in the organisation, it facilitates in maintaining cordial relations among employees and employee 5) Guarantees Equitable Rewards Distribution: Every employee needs fair and reasonable payment of rewards and job evaluation helps in ensuring equitable distribution of rewards. 6) Helps in Analysis of Company: It acts as an important technique for organisational analysis and recognising the gaps or overlaps in the duties and responsibilities. 7) Helps in Wage and Salary Negotiations: A logical base is provided by job evaluation in order to negotiate the wage and salary with trade unions. 8) Evaluates Hierarchy of Job: Job evaluation helps in determining the exact utility and the hierarchy of the job in the organisation. Limitations of job evaluation are as follows: 1) Non-Scientific Technique: It is not a scientific but a systematic method of rewarding the job. It does not produce results with scientific precision because it is very difficult to assess each and every factor accurately. 2) Adjustment Problems: Although different ways are available to apply the techniques of job evaluation, rapid technological changes and supply and demand of some spills have resulted in adjustment problems. 3) Unrealistic: There are considerable variations between the job factors and the factors being focused in the market. These variations are wider in such cases where the average pay given by the organisation is lower than the current pay in other organisations for the same position in the same industry, or in the same geographical region. 4) Organisational Limitations: It is time- consuming to install the job evaluation in any organisation. In addition, it needs to be installed by experts and is expensive too. 5) Opposition by Workers: It is supposed to be a suspicious tool by the trade unions of the organisations because it relies upon some set of principles and usually, it ignores the outcomes. Certain methods of job evaluation are not easy to understand. Thus, workers usually have a fear that the job evaluation method will eliminate collective bargaining. 6) Subjective: A number of factors are used in evaluating jobs but there is no standard list of factors to be considered. Definition of factor varies from company to company. Various researches depict that factors utilised in job evaluation are not given due consideration or individual importance. There is more dependency on internal standards and assessment of rate fixation. 7) Limitations of Evaluator: In case, if the methods and principles of job evaluation are not well-known to the evaluator, job evaluation is supposed to produce inconsistent outcomes In addition, if the evaluator is biased to any specific job, he will give more weightage to that job 8) Nature of Job: It is a presumption that jobs hold equal value are equally pleasing to all workers, but it is not true. If a job offers good future prospects, it will succeed in attracting more people. COMPETENCY-BASED JOB EVALUATION Introduction A technique of job evaluation where skill, experience or competency acts as a standard for measurement is known as competency-based job evaluation. With the help of this method, the quality needed by each job profile is measured and assigned a weight or value In case an organisation has not prepared profile then it possesses no information about competency required by each profile hence, job evaluation programme lacks its effectiveness. Whereas, on the other hand, job evaluation becomes easy and it delivers better outcomes when organisation maintains competency profile. Job evaluation programme is usually offered by consultants in the form of readymade and expensive package. Objectives of Competency- Based Job Evaluation The basic objectives of competency based job evaluation are: 1) To assign a weight or value to workers as per the competencies needed to perform tasks at various levels and roles in organisation. 2) To measure the value of role and employees contribution against these criteria. 3) To promote, develop and implement integrated HRP process. Competency-Based Performance Evaluation Methods Most of the good organisations try to on board and retain most talented workforces. Further, management must introduce proper performance management programme in order to ensure whether employees are getting proper support and better quality of tools to work and raise performance standard. It must also inform employee about the level of performance delivered by them. The methods of performance evaluation which provide feedback on predefined objectives and competencies are mentioned below: 1) Organisational Competencies Method: There are few organisations which maintain their basic competency level like internal competitive skill of organisation. These competencies are very crucial to sell goods and services to the customers. Organisation prefers to develop those competencies which can deliver maximum benefits to customer and it can also enhance organisational profit level. Further, these competencies of the organisation can also be included in organisational performance evaluation programmes. For example, an organisational core competency includes leadership skill, creativity and innovation, critical thinking, effective communication, etc. 2) Job Competencies Method: The skills, abilities and knowledge which are crucial to meet organisational objective are included in job competencies. There are few organisations which use knowledge, skill and ability to design the evaluation programme. It is popularly known as KSA (knowledge, skill and ability). Here, knowledge means information regarding a function which a person possesses through his/her education and experience. Skills mean expertise needed to execute any job and ability means capacity required for performing any function. 3) Personal Competencies Methods: There are some inborn competencies present in each person and few people who know their personal competencies, enjoy it. Like a person is good at football but he/she never worked as professional player. People with personal competency prefer to work in the areas where their personal competency lays and hence they perform better. Further, there are few companies which use different methods in order to recognise the personal competencies of their employee so that they can use those competencies in favour of organisation. For example, quick and good judgement skill, creativity and innovative quality, influencing crowd through public speaking, etc. are some examples of personal competencies of a person. 4) The Performance Evaluation: When an organisation gives a due concern to each competency then it uses a competency evaluation method in order to know the areas where employees are performing well or the areas where there is a performance gap. Therefore, it helps organisation to identify the most suitable employee development programme which needs to be implemented. The competencies needed for a particular profile as mentioned in job description simply states the organisational expectation for its growth and development. When an organisation uses competency-based job evaluation then it avails the benefit of using all the available competencies in favour of organisational growth and development. Advantages of Competency- Based Job Evaluation Advantages of competency-based job evaluations are as follows: 1) The competency-based job evaluation puts a great emphasis on such issues which are directly related to performance. 2) This method focuses on the role of each employee in an organisation. 3) This method measures both employees and their jobs under same standards 4) It clearly defines the organisational objectives. It further defines the needs which are essential in order to meet the employee's career growth. 5) It delivers a structure which facilitates self-managed learning and continuous development of employee. 6) This method promotes organisation to enhance its skills. 7) It helps organisation to build a clear HRM approach where both policies and process mast act together. Disadvantages of Competency-Based Job Evaluation Disadvantages of competency-based job evaluation are given as follows: 1) Competency-based job evaluation relies on the definition of competency and its levels through functional and other forms of analysis. Whereas, the structure of competency is mostly developed without any hard analysis. The definition of levels and factors given are unclear and inappropriate 2) Unlike other methods of job evaluation, this method could be much inflexible and hard to implement and control. 3) The structure of this method needs to be updated constantly. The process of updating this structure is time taking. 4) While assigning weight or value, organisation can face issue of gender biasness in its competency based pay system. Thus, organisation can face problem in analysing comparative values unless a new method for comparison is not developed. Further, it is also likely that organisational generic role definition also tends to be biased. 5) The meaning of term competency varies with the understanding of different people thus it might create a sense of confusion in the mind of employees. 6) This method may have many difficulties and jargons which make this system highly complex and therefore for line managers it becomes unacceptable. 7) The focus of this system is more on input instead of output. In other words, it focuses on employee's knowledge, behaviour and skills instead of outcomes delivered by them. Training Meaning and Definition of Training Human resource management has various functions such as manpower planning, recruitment, selection, compensation, etc. But training is one of the most important functions of human resource management. Training can be defined as the systematic attempt to enhance the specific skills, desired behaviour, and knowledge of employees which are necessary for performing a job effectively. Employee training begins soon after the orientation process. It is for a short time period and it is for non-managerial personnel. It is essential for the growth of the organisation as well as for the employees. According to Dale S. Beach, "Training is the organised procedure by which people learn knowledge and/or skill for a definite purpose". According to H. John Bernardin, "Training is any attempt to improve employee performance on a currently held job or one related to it". According to Edwin B. Flippo, "Training is an act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job". Features of Training Features of training are as follows: 1) Specific Dimensions: Training is the procedure which clear and definite dimensions. It has a well-defined beginning and end points. Training activities are organised in such a manner that there is a noticeable progressive movement and development of the process itself. All the activities in the training process are coordinated in a cordial way. 2) Planned Sequence of Events: Training is a planned series of activities that make it possible for the trainees to do things which they have not done before. The whole process is supported by the programme that has certain learning objectives. 3) Makes Optimal Use of Opportunities for Learning: It can also be viewed as the process of providing ample opportunities for the employees to learn and grow. It aims to enhance the enthusiasm of the employees by polishing their skills to do a particular task. 4) Promotes Behavioural Changes: Training helps in bringing a positive change in the behaviour of employees by imparting special skills and helping them to perform better. It helps in improving the quality of the social and personal life of employees, which enhances their work quality and leads to self-improvement. Thus, it expands its area of applicability much wider than the work environment. 5) Enhancing Capabilities: Training is not only restricted to acquiring a particular skill for doing a particular assigned task, but at the same time it is also related to the development of the overall capabilities to manage the complex situations and problems. A trainee should be aware about how to develop and adapt capabilities, by using his wisdom, to accomplish the given task efficiently. 6) Exploring the Inner Self: The most important aspect of the training is that it not only improves the existing skills but also explores the hidden talent within the employees and motivates them to perform well. It makes the employees aware about their strengths and weaknesses. It also aims to help the employees to overcome their weaknesses, and leads to self-development and growth. 7) Removes Mental Blocks: Training helps in clearing the doubts and insecurities of trainees about their job so that they can put their best possible effort to make maximum utilisation of their potential and abilities. Purposes Training Purposes of training are as follows: 1) To Increase Employee Efficiency: Training aims to increase the efficiency of the by imparting the skills needed to perform the task in a better way. It reduces the gap between the actual and desired performance. 2) To Upgrade Employee's Skills: In this ever changing environment of technical advancement, organisations are required to keep a close watch on the different and changes occurring within environment. Here, the job of keeping the employee fully armed with the information and skill needed for the performance of a specific task becomes more necessary. Training is essential to keep the employee updated in advance and incorporate the technological changes in accordance with the systems and procedures of the organisation. 3) To Avoid or Delay Managerial Obsolescence: If there is no initiative taken on the part of the managers in adopting the recent trends of technology, it will be considered as a failure of the management to cope up with the changes within the environment. This failure also reduces the organisational performance. Hence, training aims to avoid such situation in the organisation. 4) To Prepare Employees for Undertaking Higher Positions: Training generally aims to prepare the employees to handle more responsibilities by imparting additional skills required for the performance of a challenging task. It increases the confidence of employees to perform in a better way. 5) To Reduce the Employee Turnover: Training aims to reduce the employee attrition rate by simply infusing enthusiasm and motivating them to perform their job in a smooth manner. At the same time, employees are rest assured about the career progress. Training stimulates and restores dedication among the employees for the organisation. Thus, managers are supposed to facilitate proper training programmes, especially for the bright employees. 6) To Achieve Organisational Excellence: Training sharpens the existing skills of the employees which ultimately results in better performance of the employees, reduced rate of accidents, lower breakdowns of the machines and ultimately a more competitive organisation with a skilled workforce. All these factors enhance the organisational sustainability by creating a pool of educated and skilled workforce who can help the organisation in managing the competitive edge. Methods of Training Organisation makes a lot of investment every year on various training and development programmes of its employees. The main purpose of the organisation for doing so is to augment the productivity of the company by enhancing the skills and knowledge of the employees. At one point or another, need for training arises, as the possibility of getting most eligible and trained person every time is very less. Thus, in to make the employees skilful, training is provided to them by using various training methods. These training methods not only motivate the employees to develop their skills, but also prepare them to meet the upcoming organisational demands. Thus, companies adopt various methods to train their employees. Some of them are as follows: Methods of Training A On-the-Job Training Methods 1. Job Instruction Training (JIT) 2. Apprenticeship 3. Job Rotation 4. Coaching 5. Understudy 6. Mentoring B. Off-the-Job Training Methods 1. Lectures 2. Simulations 3. Role-Play 4. In-Basket Exercise 5. Conference 6. Seminar 7. Group Discussion On-the-Job Training Methods: On-the-job training methods are based on the concept of learning by doing. In this method, trainees are provided with real job settings to do their jobs. In some situations, they are given sole responsibility to handle the issues on their own and this is how they learn by doing their task. Also, the new employees gain knowledge of what is to be done from the existing employees and improve their skills under the guidance of experienced ones. This type of training method has become very popular and is used by most of the corporations. Some of the crucial on-the-job training methods are discussed below: 1) Job Instruction Training (JIT): Under this training process, trainees are given instructions systematically one-by-one. These instructions are given by the experienced trainers who are well- known with the techniques and procedures to be used and the functions to be performed during the job. In this training method, the learners first observe their instructors while performing the task and then follow them by performing the task on their own. This helps the trainers to easily point out the faults committed by the trainees and rectify them as soon as possible. 2) Apprenticeship: It follows the principle of "earning while learning". In this method, an expert and experienced person gives his knowledge and skills to the trainee who desires to learn that skill. Once the trainee has completed apprenticeship programme, trainee can apply for the permanent job, if there is any. 3) Job Rotation: It is that process in which the employees are given the opportunity to perform the functions of other departments in the organisations. When the employees are 8 rotated from one department to another department or from one division to other division, they gain new knowledge and experience about the different jobs performed by different people in the organisation. Job rotation takes place either in the form of promotions in which the employees are promoted from lower level to higher level or in the form of lateral transfers, in which only the job responsibility changes, not the position of the employee. Thus, this training method is the best way to transform an employee to an expert. 4) Coaching: The guidance given by the superiors of the organisation to their subordinates is called coaching. Besides being an unofficial and unplanned training method, it improves the bonding between the employees and their superiors. The senior manager acts as a coach or instructor and guides the employees about how to perform the task and how the mistakes done can be rectified. Later, they also evaluate the performance of these employees. 5) Understudy: It is the method of preparing the trainees to perform the responsibilities of his trainer or to occupy the position of his senior in future. In this method, when the superior or manager is about to get separated from the due to the reasons of transfers, resignation, retirement etc., his position is allotted to that employee who has received training under him. This method is different from coaching in the sense that the manager can select employee from his department for understudy. 6) Mentoring: In this method, training is given by a specialised and experienced person. In organisations, mentoring is usually done by senior employees where they try to enhance the skills of junior employees. Many organisations use mentoring as a nurturing tool which fosters the understanding and proficiency of their employees. Off-the-Job Training Methods: Unlike on-the-job training methods, off-the-job training methods are not on the concept of 'learning by doing but it follows the rule of 'learning by gaining knowledge. Under this method, the trainees are called upon in a classroom which may be situated inside the company or some outside place such as institutes or centres to provide the training. Because of outside location, trainee can learn freely without the stress of job work. The main focus of this guidance is to improve the knowledge of the new employees. Some of the well-known off - the-job training methods are as follows: 1) Lectures: When there is a requirement of imparting technical knowledge to the new employees, lecture method proves to be the best way to clear the notion, ideas and hypothesis to the trainee. It is a one-way communication method in which the mentor collects the entire relevant data for the trainees and conveys a lecture using various teaching aids such as models, chart papers, visual aids, audio aids, etc. Thus, it is the simplest method of providing knowledge to the trainees. 2) Simulations: This training method depicts a real- life situation of the job that may have happened in the organisation in the past such as damage to any valuable thing, any serious enquiry that may have adversely affected the company, any mistake that had costed the company a lot, etc. Several realistic examples can be shown to the trainees to prepare them to handle the situations accordingly. By this, the organisation prepares the trainees well in advance about what may happen on the job and how they have to deal with these types of situations. This method is used in those industries where on- the-job training can be expensive or destructive, such as, in an aeronautical industry. 3) Case Study: Under this method, the real business cases are framed and they are provided to trainees. Trainees have to discuss it and give their ideas on how they would have tackled that situation. This method is called case study method and is one of the very common ways of imparting knowledge based on business situations. 4) Role-Play: In this method, trainees are provided with an imaginary or real problem which is generally concerned with the organisation. They are asked to assume identity of a particular person and behave as if they are in that particular situation. In order to enhance their managerial skills, employees can make use of various visual aids and tips given by their mentor while executing their performance. 5) In-Basket Exercise: In this method, the trainee is given all the relevant things like letters, reports, records, etc. that are needed by managers. The trainee is given a specific situation which managers confront regularly. He is asked to assess the situation, prioritise the things, justify his reasons and give final decision on the issues raised during the exercise. The exercise gives the manager a snapshot of learner’s ability to perform the executive functions and roles in the job. The whole exercise is video-recorded and the concerned candidates are tested on the grounds of proposed set of their abilities such as of problem solving ability, time management, etc. 6) Conferences: A structured method of communicating thoughts to a large number of audiences who are attending the event is called as a conference. Experts from specific fields come together to share their views on a common topic and also obtain answers to their questions, if they have any. 7) Seminar: Another word for "Seminar" is "Seed Plot" which means it is a base ground for gaining knowledge. These are conducted by experienced and expert people who not only prepare the topic of discussion and deliver it in front of learners but also help them to share their ideas and explore their views towards the topic of discussion. Since, it is focussed on any particular topic, learners are able to understand the things more clearly and respond effectively. 8) Group Discussion: It is one of the very common training methods adopted by numerous organisations. Under this method, a topic is given to the group of trainees and they are asked to actively participate in it and give their outlook towards the issue. The discussion topic is given on the spot and thus, no time is given to the trainees to prepare the topic. This method not only helps in solving the problem related to an organisation but also creates a higher rate of interest and enthusiasm among the trainees as they are able to share good experience and gain new ideas and knowledge about the subject. Process of Training There are various steps in the training should be followed systematically, so that the training can become successful. These steps process: 1) Assessment Organisational Objectives and Strategies: Before starting training process, it is important to assess the objectives and strategies of the organisation. Organisations should be clear about their business goals, strategies, and their vision. Unless and until all these things are clear, the organisation will not be able to assess the potential and weakness of its workforce. 2) Training Needs Assessment: Many organisations spend a lot of money on various training and development courses. But such a huge investment on these processes is useless until the management is aware about the needs of these training programmes. Therefore, training needs should be identified to help the employees to deal with present as well as future challenges of the company. 3) Establishment of Training Goals: The goals of training programme play a significant role as without them any training programme cannot be constructed and the effectiveness of that programme cannot be measured. Thus, after assessing the needs of the training, it is necessary to establish apparent and assessable training purpose that can be understood easily by the employees. Though the attitude of any individual is unpredictable but still setting up a certain standard can help the organisation to achieve the expected results. 4) Designing Training and Development Programme: Once the goals for the training series are established, the process of training design starts. It is the basis for a successful training and development programme. For this, most experienced and specialised instructors art hired who search for the most appropriate content that may be required within the programme. It includes a brief introduction about the entire programme and then the details are given such as what is the need for this training, how this training can prove to be beneficial for them, what impact this training is going to have on their skill improvement, etc. 5) Execution of Training Programme: After designing of instructional programme, it is the time for the execution of this programme. To carry-out training process, firstly an organisation has to search for a common place where the trainees can be called, and then the other arrangements are done such as timings, space, etc. Finally the programme is conducted under the guidance of expert and the progress of trainees is observed by the supervisors. The trainers engaged for this programme should have perfect knowledge about the company's history, its objectives, and its working environment. He should also have good communication and creative skills. But implementation of any training programme is not an easy task and thus brings certain problems with it. Sometimes, the problems are related to the managers as they do not want to waste their efforts in such training programmes and hence it becomes really difficult to find appropriate instructors. 6) Evaluation of Results: Since an organisation invests a lot of money on training and development process; their results have a great impact on the productivity of the organisation, therefore, evaluation of training is necessary. Evaluation results mainly ensure whether the training process has proved to be useful to the employees as well as to the organisation or not. Though, there are large numbers of organisations who take this process very leniently, but if the assessment is done systematically it enhances the performance of the employees as well the organisation. Management Development Management Development is a structured process by which an organization enhances the skills, knowledge, and abilities of its managers and potential leaders. It focuses on improving the overall effectiveness of managers in their current roles and preparing them for future challenges and higher-level responsibilities. Management development can involve formal training programs, mentoring, coaching, job rotation, and other experiential learning opportunities. Management development is crucial for organizational success as it not only enhances the current performance of managers but also prepares them for future leadership roles. It involves a comprehensive approach that includes both formal and informal learning methods, targeting the development of a broad set of skills. The distinction between training and development lies in their focus, with training aimed Definitions of Management Development 1. Dale Yoder: "Management development is the process by which managers acquire not only skills and competencies in their present jobs but also capabilities for future managerial tasks of increasing complexity and scope." 2. Flippo: "Management development is a systematic process of training and growth by which individuals gain and apply knowledge, skills, insights, and attitudes to manage work in organizations effectively." 3. Michael Armstrong: "Management development is concerned with improving the performance of managers and with developing their skills as managers." Features/Characteristics of Management Development 1. Continuous Process: Management development is an ongoing process rather than a one-time event, focusing on long-term growth and improvement. 2. Strategic Focus: It aligns with the organization's goals and prepares managers to meet current and future challenges. 3. Skill Enhancement: Emphasizes the development of both technical skills and soft skills like leadership, decision-making, and communication. 4. Individual and Organizational Growth: Benefits both the individual manager and the organization by enhancing performance and capability. 5. Diverse Methods: Involves various approaches such as training programs, mentoring, coaching, job rotation, and action learning projects. (Real world problems, they are done in teams, with cycles of planning, action and reflection). 6. Targeted at top Levels: While often associated with senior management, management development can be relevant for levels of management within an organization. 7. Customized Approach: Programs are often tailored to the specific needs of the organization and the individual managers. Purpose of Management Development 1. Leadership Preparation: Prepares managers for higher-level responsibilities and leadership roles within the organization. 2. Performance Improvement: Enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of managers in their current roles. 3. Succession Planning: Ensures that the organization has a pipeline of capable leaders ready to step into key roles as they become available. 4. Adaptability: Equips managers with the skills to navigate and lead through change, whether due to internal shifts or external market dynamics. 5. Employee Retention: Contributes to job satisfaction and retention by investing in the growth and development of employees. 6. Innovation and Problem Solving: Encourages creative thinking and effective problem-solving by developing managers' strategic thinking abilities. 7. Organizational Culture: Reinforces and perpetuates the desired culture and values within the organization through consistent management practices. Difference between Training and Development Training and development are both critical components of human resource management aimed at improving the capabilities of employees, but they serve different purposes and focus on distinct aspects of employee growth. 1. Purpose  Training: o Focus: Training is designed to improve or enhance specific skills or knowledge needed to perform a job effectively. o Goal: The primary goal of training is to improve an employee's performance in their current job by teaching them how to complete specific tasks or use specific tools, systems, or processes. o Example: Teaching a new employee how to use accounting software or a customer service representative how to handle customer queries.  Development:  o Focus: Development is more holistic and focused on the overall growth of an individual, preparing them for future roles and responsibilities within the organization. o Goal: The aim of development is to cultivate employees’ broader skills, such as leadership, decision-making, problem-solving, and strategic thinking, often with a long-term view. o Example: Leadership development programs for managers, mentorship programs, or career development workshops. 2. Time Frame  Training: o Short-term: Training is usually conducted over a short period, focusing on immediate needs or skills. o Example: A two-day workshop on project management software or a week-long training on compliance regulations.  Development: o Long-term: Development is a continuous process aimed at long- term personal and professional growth. o Example: A series of coaching sessions over six months designed to develop leadership capabilities. 3. Scope  Training: o Narrow: Training is typically job-specific and task-oriented. It teaches employees how to perform particular tasks or use specific tools that are essential for their current role. o Example: Technical training for software developers or safety training for factory workers.  Development: o Broad: Development encompasses a wide range of skills and knowledge, often not directly tied to the employee’s current job but focused on future roles and personal growth. o Example: Emotional intelligence training, strategic thinking, or team-building skills for managers. 4. Who Receives It  Training: o All Levels: Training is generally more common for employees at all levels, especially those in entry-level or operational roles. It’s frequently used when new employees are on boarded or when there is a new system, tool, or process that requires learning. o Example: New hires receiving onboarding training.  Development: o Future Leaders: Development is typically targeted toward high- potential employees, managers, or leaders who are being groomed for future responsibilities. It’s often used for succession planning. o Example: A middle manager undergoing development programs to prepare for a senior leadership role 5. Focus Areas  Training: o Hard Skills: The focus of training is on technical or job-specific skills. It may involve learning how to operate machinery, use software, follow procedures, or improve technical proficiency. o Example: Learning a coding language or attending a workshop on financial analysis.  Development: o Soft Skills and Competencies: Development often focuses on soft skills, such as leadership, communication, teamwork, and emotional intelligence. It’s aimed at preparing employees for a wide range of challenges. o Example: Developing negotiation skills or participating in a leadership seminar. 6. Reactive vs. Proactive  Training: o Reactive: Training is often reactive and occurs when there is an immediate need to improve performance or introduce new skills. o Example: After introducing new technology, employees are trained on how to use it.   Development: o Proactive: Development is proactive and ongoing, with a long-term vision. It aims to prepare employees for future roles and challenges. o Example: A leadership development program designed to prepare employees for future management roles. 7. Methods Used  Training: o Methods: Training methods are typically structured and include formal approaches such as workshops, seminars, on-the-job training, and e-learning. o Example: Classroom training or online courses to teach specific software or procedures.  Development: o Methods: Development methods are often less formal and include mentoring, coaching, job rotation, cross-functional projects, and personal development plans. o Example: One-on-one coaching, attending leadership conferences, or undergoing 360-degree feedback. 8. Impact on Organization  Training: o Immediate Impact: Training typically has an immediate impact on job performance by addressing specific skill gaps or needs in the organization. o Example: Improved efficiency in job tasks after learning a new software program.  Development: o Long-term Impact: Development has a long-term impact, as it builds future capabilities within the workforce, contributing to succession planning and preparing the organization for future challenges.  o Example: A manager who has undergone development programs may eventually be promoted to an executive position. Conclusion  Training is focused on enhancing specific skills for current job performance, usually within a short timeframe.  Development, on the other hand, is a broader, long-term investment in an employee’s personal and professional growth, often with an eye on future roles within the organization. In summary, training is about "how to do the job now," whereas development is about "preparing for the future." Both are essential for the overall growth of individuals and the organization. Methods of Management Development Management Development refers to the process of improving the skills, knowledge, and abilities of managers to enhance their effectiveness in leading and managing people, teams, and organizations. This process is essential for preparing managers for current and future leadership roles, ensuring that they are equipped to handle the complexities and challenges of their roles. There are several methods of management development, each designed to develop different competencies and leadership qualities. Here’s a detailed explanation of the major methods of management development: 1. On-the-Job Methods These methods focus on learning through practical experience while performing the job itself. They allow managers to develop leadership and managerial skills in real-time, facing actual challenges. a) Job Rotation  Definition: Job rotation involves moving managers across different departments, functions, or positions within the organization for a set period.  Purpose: It helps them gain a broader understanding of the business, improves their versatility, and exposes them to different managerial challenges and decision-making scenarios.  Example: A finance manager may be rotated to the marketing department for six months to gain insights into customer behavior and marketing strategies.  Benefits: o Increases cross-functional knowledge. o Enhances decision-making abilities. o Encourages adaptability and problem-solving. b) Coaching  Definition: Coaching involves a more experienced manager or an external coach providing personalized guidance and feedback to a less experienced manager.  Purpose: It helps improve specific managerial skills, such as communication, delegation, or leadership, by offering practical, one-on- one support.  Example: A senior executive might coach a middle manager on how to handle team conflicts or improve time management.  Benefits: o Provides tailored development. o Encourages reflection and self-improvement. o Strengthens leadership abilities. c) Understudy Assignments  Definition: In this method, a manager is assigned as an understudy to a senior leader, working closely with them to learn their roles and responsibilities.  Purpose: The understudy learns by observing and participating in decision-making processes and handling responsibilities gradually.   Example: An assistant manager might shadow the operations manager, learning how to manage daily operations and handle crisis situations.  Benefits: o Provides direct insight into leadership roles. o Prepares individuals for succession planning. o Facilitates learning through experience. d) Action Learning  Definition: Action learning involves placing managers in teams to solve real organizational problems. They work on a project or a specific challenge that requires strategic thinking and problem-solving.  Purpose: It develops critical thinking, collaboration, and leadership skills as managers learn by doing and reflecting on their actions.  Example: A cross-functional team may be tasked with designing a new product strategy for the company.  Benefits: o Fosters practical, hands-on learning. o Encourages teamwork and collaboration. o Promotes innovation and creative problem-solving. 2. Off -the-Job Methods Off-the-job methods are designed to enhance management skills through more formalized and structured learning programs, often conducted outside the work environment. These methods allow for focused development without the pressures of day-to-day responsibilities. a) Lectures and Seminars  Definition: These are formal presentations or instructional sessions where managers learn from experts in various fields, such as leadership, management theory, or industry-specific trends.  Purpose: Lectures and seminars aim to provide theoretical knowledge, new perspectives, and the latest developments in management practices.  Example: A seminar on leadership styles or an industry conference on digital transformation in business.  Benefits:  o Exposure to new ideas and trends. o Opportunity to network with peers. o Develops broader management knowledge. b) Workshops and Case Studies  Definition: Workshops involve interactive learning sessions where managers participate in discussions, activities, and case studies to develop problem-solving and analytical skills.  Purpose: Case studies, in particular, allow managers to analyze real-world business problems and discuss solutions in a structured environment.  Example: Managers may analyze a business case where a company faces declining market share and propose strategies to regain market leadership.  Benefits: o Enhances analytical and decision-making skills. o Encourages group discussion and learning from peers. o Develops practical problem-solving abilities. c) Role-Playing  Definition: In role-playing exercises, managers act out different scenarios that they may encounter in their roles, such as conflict resolution, decision- making, or negotiating.  Purpose: It helps managers practice interpersonal and leadership skills in a simulated, risk-free environment.  Example: A manager may role-play handling a difficult employee or negotiating a business deal with a client.  Benefits: o Improves communication and negotiation skills. o Develops empathy and understanding of different perspectives. o Builds confidence in handling real-life situations. d) Management Simulations and Business Games  Definition: These are interactive learning experiences where managers participate in simulations that mimic real business situations, allowing them to make decisions and see the outcomes of those decisions.  Purpose: Simulations and business games develop strategic thinking, decision-making, and teamwork in a dynamic, competitive environment.   Example: A management simulation where teams compete to run a virtual company, making decisions on marketing, finance, and operations.  Benefits: o Provides a safe environment to experiment with decisions. o Encourages strategic thinking and long-term planning. o Teaches the impact of decisions on overall business performance. e) Case Study Method  Definition: The case study method involves detailed analysis and discussion of real-life business scenarios to enhance decision-making and problem-solving skills.  Purpose: It allows managers to explore multiple aspects of a business issue and consider different approaches to solving it.  Example: A case study of a company’s strategic failure might be used to teach lessons about risk management.  Benefits: o Develops critical thinking and analytical abilities. o Encourages applying theoretical concepts to real-life situations. o Promotes discussion and collaborative learning. f) Formal Education Programs (MBA, MDP)  Definition: Many managers pursue formal education programs such as Master of Business Administration (MBA) or attend short-term Management Development Programs (MDPs) offered by business schools.  Purpose: These programs provide in-depth learning in areas such as leadership, strategy, finance, and global business trends.  Example: An executive MBA program designed for working managers or an MDP focused on strategic leadership.  Benefits: o Provides a structured, comprehensive education. o Enhances credentials and career advancement. o Develops both theoretical and practical management skills. 3. Mentoring and Counseling a) Mentoring  Definition: Mentoring involves a senior, more experienced manager guiding a less experienced manager by offering advice, sharing experiences, and providing support in their professional development.  Purpose: It helps mentees gain insight into leadership, organizational culture, and career progression from someone who has already been successful in their role.  Example: A senior executive mentoring a new manager on how to navigate organizational politics and build a successful career path.  Benefits: o Provides personal and professional guidance. o Builds long-term relationships for career growth. o Enhances leadership and problem-solving skills. b) Counseling  Definition: Counseling focuses on helping managers deal with personal or work-related challenges that may be affecting their job performance.  Purpose: It helps managers reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, and career goals and offers emotional support or guidance during stressful situations.  Example: A manager may receive counseling on how to handle work-life balance or manage stress during a period of organizational change.  Benefits: o Improves emotional intelligence and self-awareness. o Provides coping strategies for work-related challenges. o Helps in overcoming personal barriers to growth. 4. Special Projects and Assignments a) Project-Based Learning  Definition: Managers are assigned special projects or tasks outside their usual responsibilities, often requiring them to collaborate across departments.  Purpose: This method helps them apply their management skills in new contexts and take on additional leadership roles.   Example: A manager is assigned to lead a cross-functional team for launching a new product.  Benefits: o Enhances leadership and project management skills. o Develops experience in handling complex, multi-functional tasks. o Encourages innovation and teamwork. b) Committee Assignments  Definition: Managers are assigned to various committees, such as strategic planning or quality improvement committees, which allow them to contribute to high-level decision-making processes.  Purpose: It exposes managers to broader organizational issues and helps them understand the strategic direction of the company.  Example: A manager is selected to serve on a committee that advises the CEO on corporate social responsibility initiatives.  Benefits: o Develops strategic thinking and problem-solving skills. o Involves managers in key organizational decisions. o Enhances collaboration with senior leaders. Process of Management Development Management development is a systematic process to enhance the skills, knowledge, and capabilities of individuals in managerial roles. It is aimed at preparing managers to handle future responsibilities effectively and to contribute to organizational growth. The process generally includes identifying training needs, creating development programs, and evaluating outcomes. Steps in the Management Development Process 1. Identify Organizational Objectives and Managerial Needs Purpose: This step involves understanding the organization’s short-term and long-term goals and the skills needed by managers to achieve those objectives.  Organizational Objectives: Define what the organization aims to achieve in terms of performance, growth, and strategy. For example, if the goal is to expand into a new market, the managers need to be trained in international business or market entry strategies.   Managerial Needs: Assess current managers' competencies and identify gaps. This can be done through performance reviews, skill assessments, and interviews. Common areas for improvement include leadership, decision-making, communication, and strategic thinking. 2. Assess the Skills and Competencies of Managers Purpose: Once the organizational needs are identified, the next step is to evaluate the current skill levels of managers.  Skills Inventory: This involves listing the skills, knowledge, and capabilities each manager currently possesses.  Assessment Methods: These can i