Canadian Human Resource Management PDF

Part 2 Planning Human Resources This part introduces you to the important task of planning for human resources. Chapter 2 discusses the various approaches to conducting a job analysis. Steps used to create valid job descriptions, specifications, and performance standards are outlined in this chapte...

Part 2 Planning Human Resources This part introduces you to the important task of planning for human resources. Chapter 2 discusses the various approaches to conducting a job analysis. Steps used to create valid job descriptions, specifications, and performance standards are outlined in this chapter. Chapter 3 discusses the various factors that need to be considered when forecasting the demand for and supply of human resources. It also outlines several popular techniques for making such forecasts. Together, these two chapters help you to identify the type, number, and degree of sophistication of human resources needed by your firm. Page 31 Chapter 2 Job Analysis and Design* Job analysis is considered by many HR practice leaders to be a pivotal aspect of effective human resources administration. It has the potential to impact every major core competency area of HR. SAGAR JIVANI1 Page 32 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. LO1 Describe the uses of job analysis information for human resource professionals. 1. LO2 Discuss the various steps in conducting job analysis and methods of job data collection. 1. LO3 Describe the contents of a job description and a job specification. 1. LO4 Discuss the various approaches to setting performance standards. 1. LO5 Define what competencies are and describe competency models.  1. LO6 Outline the key considerations in job design. In this part of the book, we will explain how knowledge about jobs and their requirements must be collected through job analysis (see HR- Guide.com) before any other HR functions can begin. From making the right hiring decision, to developing training programs, to dismissing employees who are not performing to expectations and more, decision- makers need accurate information about a variety of aspects of the job in question. Job analysis and design knowledge is vital to the effective functioning of an organization, as shown in the following example: At Purolator, which employs 11,600 Canadians, including 3,000 couriers, 300 line-haul truck drivers, and 500 call centre operators, the Workers’ Compensation Board bill came in at $13 million. Purolator traced 90 percent of the workers’ compensation claims to employees in two occupations: couriers and sorters. These two jobs require constant lifting, hauling, pushing, and pulling, leading to soft tissue, orthopaedic, and joint injuries—and the majority of the WCB claims. By conducting job analyses for the 25 jobs where most of the injuries were occurring, Purolator was able to identify suitable modified or transitional duties for injured workers. Through its early and safe back- to-work initiative, Purolator was able to reduce its lost day severity, total number of lost days, and number of modified or accommodated days, and keep workers engaged within their workgroups.2 Page 33 Jobs are at the core of every organization’s productivity. If they are not well designed and done right, productivity suffers, profits fall, and the organization is less able to meet the demands of society, customers, employees, and other stakeholders. For HR to be effective, there must be a clear understanding of the jobs found throughout the organization. A job consists of a group of related activities and duties. A job may be held by a single employee or several persons. The collection of tasks and responsibilities performed by an individual employee is called a position. In a department with one supervisor, three animators, and 12 programmers, there are 16 positions, but only three jobs. With hundreds—or even thousands—of positions, it is nearly impossible for the human resource professionals in large companies to know the details of every one. It is, however, unnecessary to collect information on identical positions separately. Consider this example: One transmedia storytelling company has 20 game developers. Each position is the same. Rather than study each position separately, the job analyst can collect data from a random sample of the positions to generate an accurate understanding of the game developer job. LO1 Uses of Job Analysis Information Figure 2-1 lists major HR actions that rely on job analysis information. For example, without job analysis information, HR specialists would find it difficult to evaluate how environmental challenges or specific job requirements affect employees’ quality of work life. To match job applicants to openings, HR specialists must understand what each job requires and know what information to place in job advertisements. Similarly, compensation analysts cannot determine a fair salary without detailed knowledge of each job. HR formalizes the collection, evaluation, and organization of this information. FIGURE 2-1 Major Human Resource Activities That Rely on Job Analysis Information Table Summary: Summary 1. Careful study of jobs to improve employee productivity levels  2. Elimination of unnecessary job requirements that can cause discrimination in employment 3. Creation of job advertisements used to generate a pool of qualified applicants 4. Matching of job applicants to job requirements 5. Planning of future human resource requirements 6. Determination of employee onboarding and training needs 7. Fair and equitable compensation of employees 8. Identification of realistic and challenging performance standards 9. Redesign of jobs to improve performance, employee morale, and quality of work life 10. Fair and accurate appraisal of employee performance This chapter describes the information sought by job analysts and the techniques to collect it. LO2 Steps in the Job Analysis Process Page 34 Job analysis has three phases: preparation, collection of job information, and use of job information for improving organizational effectiveness (see Figure 2-2). Each phase consists of several actions, discussed below. FIGURE 2-2 The Job Analysis Process Table Summary : Summary Phase 1: Preparation for Job Analysis Three key activities are performed in this phase: Step 1: Become Familiar With the Organization and the Jobs Before studying jobs, it is important to have an awareness of an organization’s objectives, strategies, structure, inputs (people, materials, and procedures), and desired outcomes. Job analysis procedures are influenced by the organization character, discussed in Chapter 1. In unionized organizations, job analysis steps also have to meet the various provisions of the collective agreement between the management and the union (more details about this relationship are discussed in Chapter 13). Job analysts may also study industry and government reports about the jobs to be analyzed. In all instances, the intent is to collect relevant and accurate information about jobs and factors determining job success. Step 2: Determine Uses of Job Analysis As shown in Figure 2-1, job analysis plays a critical role in many HR functions. The most common uses of job analysis information are in the recruitment process, the design of performance appraisal and compensation systems, and training.3 Job analysis may also be done to ensure fair treatment across all employee groups4 or to assist in job redesign, as shown in the following example: Jobs in traditional print journalism have declined dramatically. The emergence of digital media in the newspaper industry beginning in the early 2000s transformed the skills required by journalists. Although writing, print design, and editing copy were the top three skills required 30 years ago and are still required today, multimedia skills including multimedia production, video shooting, and social media skills are now fundamental to many journalism jobs.5 The details collected during a job analysis are influenced by the objectives of the study, so it is critical to define the objectives early on. Step 3: Identify Jobs to Be Analyzed Although almost all jobs might benefit from an in-depth analysis, resource and time constraints often preclude organizations from conducting job analyses. Likely targets of job analysis are jobs that are critical to the success of an organization; jobs that are difficult to learn or perform (to determine the extent of training); jobs in which the firm continuously hires new employees (identification of clear job requirements assumes great importance); or jobs that exclude members of the protected classes described in Chapter 4. Jobs should also be analyzed if new technology or altered work environments affect how the job is performed (see HR Guide.com). If inappropriate job requirements are used, the organization may even be in violation of laws, as the following example illustrates: Page 35 In the past, the Vancouver Fire and Rescue Services required that all successful job applicants be at least 175 centimetres (five feet, nine inches) tall. After one of the applicants complained, the Human Rights Board looked into the department’s selection practices and could not find any correlation between the height of a firefighter and injuries or employee productivity. The department was found to be in violation of the Human Rights Act.6 © Tyler Stableford/Stone/Getty Images Discriminatory practices for firefighters are prohibited as long as a person is able to do the job. Women usually are able to carry less weight than men. Should that be taken into account during hiring? In general, senior management and all key supervisors of the firm should be consulted before selecting jobs for in-depth analysis, as the jobs selected for analysis can affect the firm’s strategic success and overall HR policies (e.g., hiring, training). The type, number, and geographical dispersion of the jobs selected for analysis also influence the choice of data collection method. Phase 2: Collection of Job Analysis Information This phase contains three interrelated activities: determining the sources of job data, identifying the data required, and choosing the method for data collection. Step 4: Determine Sources of Job Data Although the most direct source of information about a job is the jobholder, various other sources— both human and nonhuman—may be used for this purpose. Figure 2-3 lists alternative sources of job information. FIGURE 2-3 Sources of Job Data Table Summary: Summary Nonhuman Sources Human Sources Existing job descriptions and specifications Job incumbents Equipment design blueprints Supervisors Equipment maintenance manuals and records Job experts Training and safety manuals Work colleagues Organization charts and other company records Subordinates National Occupational Classification Customers Videos supplied by appliance/machine manufacturers Professional journals/magazines/publications Internet sources Occasionally, materials published in professional journals and magazines provide information about how jobs are performed in other organizations and settings. This information can be valuable when establishing performance standards and benchmarks for quality. The National Occupational Classification (NOC) in Canada (discussed in greater detail later in this chapter), and the U.S. Department of Labor Employment and Training Administration’s electronic database, the Occupational Information Network (O*NET), provide information on various jobs. As well, the websites of several professional associations and private consulting firms offer a wealth of material relevant to job analysis and job descriptions. Supervisors and those who know the job really well provide the most valid information about the way jobs are performed.7 However, the job incumbent and other parties can also provide important information about jobs: In the case of a salesperson, contacting past customers provides additional insights about job behaviours. In the case of college or university faculty, students may be able to provide important information on in-class behaviours related to effective teaching performance. Step 5: Identify the Data Required To study jobs, analysts must establish the data about the job that must be known for the uses identified in Step 2. Figure 2-4 shows an outline of types of information the job analyst may seek, which can be modified to suit the needs of specific situations. Page 36 FIGURE 2-4 Information Sought in the Job Analysis Table Summary: Summary 1. Job Analysis Identification 1. Job analysis date 2. Job title 3. Department 4. Reports to 5. NOC code 6. Job analysis process (Describe the collection of job analysis information)  7. Verification signatures 2. Duties 1. Job summary (Briefly describe the purpose of the job, its scope, and how the job is done) 2. List duties and the proportion of time each involves: 1. % 2. % 3. % 3. What constitutes the successful performance of each of these duties? 3. Responsibilities (What are the responsibilities involved in this job and how great are these responsibilities?) 1. Decision-making authority (Level of discretion or authority allowed under company policies, procedures, and practices) 2. Supervisory responsibility (Extent to which position controls, directs, or is accountable for work of others) 3. Equipment operation (Use of tools and materials, protection of equipment, tools, and materials) 4. Safety (Personal safety and safety of others) 5. Travel (Percentage of travel time expected for the position, where the travel occurs such as local or in specific countries, and whether the travel is overnight) 6. Other (Please specify) 4. Human Characteristics 1. What are the physical attributes or skills necessary to perform the job and how important are they (unnecessary, helpful, essential)? 1. Vision (near acuity, far acuity, depth perception, accommodation, colour vision, field of vision) 2. Hearing 3. Tasting or smelling 4. Talking 5. Walking 6. Standing 7. Lifting 8. Climbing 9. Kneeling, stooping, or crawling 10. Pulling or reaching 11. Hand–eye coordination 12. Height 13. Attention 14. Reading 15. Arithmetic 16. Writing 17. Mental functions (such as comparing, copying, computing, compiling, analyzing, coordinating, synthesizing) 18. Money skill  19. Other (Describe) 2. Describe the education or training requirements for the job (Indicate levels of training, formal education, and required credentials) 3. Outline the experience required for the job: 1. Amount of experience required in years 2. Type of expertise (academic, technical, or commercial) 3. Prerequisite job experience (list previous job titles) 4. Specific expertise requirements (such as languages, office or other equipment, required licences) 4. Describe the equipment used: 1. Office equipment (e.g., computer, specific software capabilities) 2. Hand tools (e.g., hammer, shovel, screwdriver) 3. Power tools (e.g., radial saw, reciprocating saw, drill, pneumatic hammer) 4. Vehicles (e.g., automobile, tractor, lift, crane) 5. Working Conditions 1. Describe the working conditions of the job including environmental conditions and physical surroundings encountered on the job: 1. Exposure to weather (hot, cold, wet, humid, or windy conditions caused by the weather) 2. Extreme cold or heat (exposure to non–weather-related cold or heat temperatures)  3. Wet and/or humid (contact with water or other liquids or exposure to non–weather-related humid conditions) 4. Noise (exposure to constant or intermittent sounds or a pitch or level sufficient to cause marked distraction or possible hearing loss) 5. Vibration (exposure to a shaking object or surface) 6. Atmospheric conditions (exposure to conditions such as fumes, noxious odours, dust, mists, gases, and poor ventilation that affect the respiratory system, eyes, or skin) 7. Confined/restricted working environment (work is performed in a closed or locked facility providing safety and security for clients, inmates, or fellow workers) 2. Describe safety and health features: 1. Is there exposure to any hazards (such as high heights, electrical shock, toxic or caustic chemicals)? 2. Safety training requirements 3. Safety equipment requirements 6. Performance Standards 1. Describe how performance in the job is measured 2. Describe identifiable factors that contribute to successful performance on the job Page 37 Data requirements typically fall into the following six categories: IDENTIFICATION The information in this section includes job title, division, and title of supervisor(s), and sometimes a job identification  number, such as an NOC code. Without these entries, users of job analysis data may rely on outdated information or apply the information retrieved to the wrong job. Because most jobs change over time, outdated information may misdirect other HR activities: At IC&RC, the world leader in addiction-related credentialling, a new job analysis for alcohol and drug counsellors was released in 2015. All new candidates seeking the Alcohol and Drug Counsellor designation have to complete a test based on the four domains revealed in the job analysis to be essential for practice and knowledge in that field: screening, assessment, and engagement; treatment planning, collaboration, and referral; counselling; and professional and ethical responsibilities. The job analysis for alcohol and drug counsellors is updated every five to seven years to stay relevant to current trends and practices for counselling people with alcohol and drug addictions.8 Page 38 DUTIES A job analysis explains the purpose of the job, what the job accomplishes, and how the job is performed. Often both a summary and specific duties are listed to give detailed insight into the position. RESPONSIBILITIES Questions on responsibility are expanded significantly when the checklist is applied to management jobs. Additional questions map areas of responsibility for decision making, controlling, organizing, planning, and other management functions. HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS Besides information about the job, analysts need to uncover the particular skills, abilities, training, education, experience, and other characteristics that jobholders need. This information is valuable when filling job openings or advising workers about new job assignments. WORKING CONDITIONS Working conditions may explain the need for particular skills, training, knowledge, or even a particular job design. Likewise, jobs must be free from recognizable health and safety hazards. Knowledge of hazards allows HR to redesign the job or protect workers through training and safety equipment. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Performance standards describe to what level an employee needs to be doing the job to be a good performer versus  an average or a poor performer. This information is collected on jobs with objective, measurable standards of performance. Step 6: Choose Method for Data Collection There is no one best way to collect job analysis information. Analysts must evaluate the trade-offs between time, cost, and accuracy associated with each method. Once they decide which trade-offs are most important, they use questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, employee logs, observations, or some combination of these techniques. Questionnaires A fast and cost effective option is to survey sources using job analysis questionnaires. These questionnaires are used to collect job information uniformly. Questionnaires are particularly important when collecting information from human sources. However, depending on the sources surveyed, there can be issues associated with misunderstood questions, incomplete responses, and low response rates. Using multiple sources can help to get clear and comprehensive job analysis information. Various standardized forms have been designed to collect job analysis information. Four of the more popular ones are O*NET, Position Analysis Questionnaire, Functional Job Analysis Questionnaire, and Critical Incident Method: OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION NETWORK (O*NET) The O*NET website contains generic questionnaires for specific domains of information (e.g., abilities, generalized work activities, work context) that can easily be customized to particular organizational needs and branded with the company logo. POSITION ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE (PAQ) Designed to apply to all types of jobs, the PAQ9 is a survey designed to determine the degree to which 194 different task elements in six divisions (information input; mental processes; work output, including physical activities and tools; relationships with others; job context, including the physical and social environment; and other job characteristics, such as pace and structure) are involved in performing a particular job. The PAQ allows grouping of job elements in a logical and quantitative manner and enables easy comparisons between jobs.  Past research, however, has indicated the PAQ to be more useful for lower level jobs.10 Job analysts must purchase the PAQ for each job they analyze. FUNCTIONAL JOB ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE (FJA) The Functional Job Analysis Questionnaire is designed to classify jobs based on types and amounts of responsibility for people, data, and things. The questionnaire also identifies performance standards and training requirements for each job. Page 39 CRITICAL INCIDENT METHOD (CIM) The CIM involves identifying and describing specific events (or incidents) when an employee performed really well and when that employee performed very poorly (such as inducing an accident). From these incidents, the job analyst identifies critical components of the job relating to the situation leading up to the event, the employee’s actions, the results of the employee’s actions, and the effectiveness of the employee’s behaviour. The goal of the CIM is to create a behaviourally focused description of work and related performance standards, in particular, those that differentiate excellent from average or poor performance. When asked to provide critical incidents, train engineers from CP Rail may recall a train derailment near Guernsey, Saskatchewan, on February 6, 2020.11 The job analyst will ask the train engineers about the behaviours and circumstances that led up to the event as well as the duties and tasks that are necessary to prevent this type of incident. The job analyst will translate descriptions of critical incidents into specific job responsibilities, such as these for the position of train engineer found on O*NET: Observe tracks to detect obstructions. Interpret train orders, signals, or railroad rules and regulations that govern the operation of locomotives. Confer with conductors or traffic control centre personnel via radiophones to issue or receive information concerning stops, delays, or oncoming trains.12 For job analysis purposes, about 10 job responsibility statements will suffice. Interviews An interview is an effective way to collect job information. The analyst may use the job analysis questionnaire as a guide but can add other questions as needed. Although the process is slow and expensive, it allows the interviewer to explain unclear questions and probe into uncertain answers. Typically, both jobholders and supervisors are interviewed. The analyst usually speaks with a limited number of workers first and then interviews supervisors to verify the information. This pattern ensures a high level of accuracy. The validity of the information received depends on the representativeness of the sample of the respondents and on the types of questions used. For all of the interviews, a structured list of questions similar to those that appear in Figure 2-4 should be used. Focus Groups In a focus group, typically five to seven jobholders or others who are knowledgeable about the job are brought together by a facilitator to interactively discuss the job’s duties and responsibilities. Focus groups are useful to allow ideas from participants to build off one another and to gain consensus on job duties and responsibilities. One uncertainty, however, is whether jobholders will be willing to share their opinions if a supervisor is included in the focus group as well. Employee Log In an employee log, workers periodically summarize their tasks and activities. If entries are made over the entire job cycle, the diary can prove quite accurate. However, logs are not a popular technique because they are time-consuming for jobholders and HR specialists, which makes them costly. Managers and workers often see them as a nuisance and resist their introduction. Moreover, after the novelty wears off, accuracy tends to decline as entries become less frequent. Infrequently performed tasks may be challenging to capture if they are not performed during the span of keeping the employee log. Observation Another approach is direct observation. Accuracy of observations may be low because the analysts may miss irregularly occurring activities, and workers may perform differently when they know they are being watched. But observation is the preferred method in some situations. When analysts question data from other techniques, observation may confirm or remove doubts. The existence of language barriers with foreign-language-speaking workers may also necessitate the observation approach. In the famous Hawthorne studies, while trying to examine the effects of lighting on productivity, observers found that employee performance went up under conditions of bright light and light as dim as moonlight. The conclusion? Employee performance went up because employees knew they were being watched and interest was taken in their performance, not because of lighting conditions.13 Page 40 Combinations Since each method has its shortcomings, analysts often use a combination of two or more techniques concurrently, especially if locations are geographically dispersed. A survey of 459 HR professionals revealed the most common job analysis methods used in their organizations, as shown in Figure 2-5.14 Key considerations in the choice of job analysis method should include method–purpose fit, practical feasibility, cost, and reliability of the data collected for making valid decisions. FIGURE 2-5 Job Analysis Methods in Common Use Table Summary : Summary  SOURCE: Based on SHRM Survey Findings: Job Analysis Activities, December 11, 2014, http://www.shrm.org/research/surveyfindings/articles/pages/2014-Job- Analysis-Activities.aspx Phase 3: Use of Job Analysis Information The information collected about various jobs is put into such usable forms as job descriptions, job specifications, and job standards, and, more recently, competency models. Together, these applications of job analysis information provide the minimum human resource information system and data necessary to formulate various HR strategies. The remainder of this chapter discusses using job analysis to assist with job design. Job Description A job description is a written statement that explains the duties, working conditions, and other aspects of a specified job. LO3 Contents of a Typical Job Description Within a firm, all the job descriptions follow the same style; between organizations, however, form and content may vary. One approach is to write a narrative description that covers the job in a few paragraphs. Another typical style breaks the description down into several subparts, as shown in Figure 2-6. This figure shows a job description that parallels the job analysis checklist that originally generated the data (see Figure 2-4). FIGURE 2-6 Sample Job Description Table Summary: Summary Job Title: Retail Sales NOC Code: 6421 Associate Job Analysis Date: January 16, Department: Consumer 2021 electronics Reports To: Sales Manager Signatures: Job Summary: Sells a range of electronics products (e.g., TVs, computers) directly to customers. Interacts with customers, promptly responding to all inquiries with detailed and comparative product knowledge in a courteous and efficient manner. Encourages the sale of company products. Duties and Responsibilities: Greet customers and ascertain what each customer wants or needs.  Describe merchandise and explain use, operation, and care of merchandise to customers. Recommend, select, and help locate or obtain merchandise based on customer needs and desires. Display and stock merchandise on shelves. Compute sales prices, total purchases, and receive and process cash or credit payment; balance accounts at the end of each shift. Answer questions regarding the store and its merchandise, product warranties, and delivery terms. Interact with the store’s gift registry database and Lightspeed POS point of sale system, and respond to customer email inquiries using Microsoft Outlook. Watch for and recognize security risks and thefts and know how to prevent or handle these situations. Working Conditions: Works in a well-ventilated retail store environment. Must be able to work shifts. A comprehensive job description for a retail sales associate can be found on O*NET OnLine. The key parts of a job description are as follows: job identity, job summary, job duties, and working conditions. Most job descriptions also identify the author, the work supervisor, and the date on which it was prepared. Job Identity The section on job identity typically includes job title, job location, job code, job grade, and whether or not it is exempt from overtime laws. A job code uses numbers, letters, or both to provide a quick summary of the job and to provide comparisons between jobs. Figure 2-7 explains the coding used in the National Occupational Classification (NOC). The two major attributes of jobs that were used as classification criteria in developing the NOC were skill level (amount and type of education and training) and skill type (type of work performed). Four skill level categories describe the educational and training requirements of occupations. Skill type is defined generally as the type of work performed and is divided into 10 broad occupational categories (0 to 9) in the NOC. Figure 2-8 gives some sample NOC codes. Other factors, such as industry and occupational mobility, were also taken into consideration.15 FIGURE 2-7 NOC Skill Type and Skill Level Categories Table Summary: Summary When the First Digit Is the Skill Type Category Is...... Business, Finance, and Administrative 1 Occupations Natural and Applied Sciences and Related 2 Occupations 3 Health Occupations Occupations in Education, Law and Social, 4 Community, and Government Services 5 Occupations in Art, Culture, Recreation, and Sport 6 Sales and Service Occupations Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators, and 7 Related Occupations Natural Resources, Agriculture, and Related 8 Production Occupations 9 Occupations in Manufacturing, and Utilities  When the First Digit Is the Skill Type Category Is...... the Skill When the Level Second Digit and the Education Level Is... Category Is.. Is …. University education (Professional 1 Skill Level A Occupations) College education (Technical, 2 or 3 Skill Level B Paraprofessional, and Skilled Occupations) High school (Intermediate 4 or 5 Skill Level C Occupations) On-the-job training (Labouring 6 Skill Level D and Elemental Occupations) SOURCE: Based on Employment and Social Development Canada, National Occupation Classification. Reproduced with permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2011. FIGURE 2-8 Examples of NOC Unit Groups and Codes Table Summary: Summary NOC Coding System. A two-digit code is assigned at the major group level. A third digit is added at the minor group level, and a fourth digit is added at the unit group level. For example: Major Group 31—Professional Occupations in Health Minor Group 314—Professional Occupations in Therapy and Assessment  Unit Group 3142—Physiotherapists Using the above coding system, some sample occupations with codes include: 0211 Engineering Managers 0212 Architecture and Science Managers 2231 Civil Engineering Technologists and Technicians 4163 Marketing Consultant–Market Research 6531 Tour and Travel Guides 4012 Tutor–Post-Secondary Teaching Assistant 5241 Graphic Designers and Illustrators 1226 Conference and Event Planners Professional Occupations in Advertising, Marketing, and 1123 Public Relations SOURCE: Based on Employment and Social Development Canada, National Occupation Classification. Reproduced with permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2011. Job Summary and Duties Following the job identification (in Figure 2-6), the next part of the description is the job summary. It summarizes the job in a few sentences, telling what the job is, how it is done, and why. Page 41 Then, in a simple, action-oriented style, the job description lists the job’s responsibilities or duties. In essence, this section explains what the job requires. The effectiveness of other HR actions depends upon this understanding because each major duty is described in terms of the actions expected. Working Conditions A job description also explains working conditions, which may go beyond descriptions of the physical environment. Hours of work, safety and health hazards, travel requirements, and other features of the job expand the meaning of this section. Approvals Because job descriptions affect most HR decisions, their accuracy should be reviewed by selected jobholders and their supervisors. Then, supervisors are asked to approve the description. This approval serves as a further test of the job description and a further check on the collection of job analysis information. There are many form-fillable templates available online to assist in creating job descriptions. A variety of template formats can be found at templatelab.com/job-description/. Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC) has a downloadable handbook to guide generating job descriptions on the NOC website. Page 42 Job Specifications Page 43 Whereas the job description focuses on the job tasks and duties, the job specification indicates the human knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary to do a job. These requirements include experience, training, education, and physical and mental demands. Whether part of a job description or a separate document, job specifications include the information illustrated in Figure 2-9. The data to compile specifications also come from the job analysis checklist. FIGURE 2-9 Sample Job Specification Table Summary: Summary Job Specification—Retail Sales Associate Job Title: Retail Sales Associate NOC Code: 6421 Job Analysis Date: January 16, Department: Consumer 2021 electronics Reports To: Sales Manager Signatures: Education: High school diploma or equivalent Experience: Prior selling experience of 1 year in a consumer goods industry is desirable  Job Specification—Retail Sales Associate Knowledge: Customer and Personal Service—Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services (including assessing customer needs, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluating customer satisfaction) Sales and Marketing—Knowledge of principles and methods for showing, promoting, and selling products or services (including marketing strategy and tactics, product demonstration, sales techniques, and sales control systems) English Language—Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language, including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and grammar Mathematics—Knowledge of arithmetic, statistics, and their applications Technology Skills: Database User Interface and Query Software: Gift registry software Email Software: Microsoft Outlook Point of Sale (POS) Software: Lightspeed POS  Job Specification—Retail Sales Associate Skills: Active Listening—Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times Persuasion—Persuading others to change their mind or behaviour Speaking—Talking to others to convey information effectively Service Orientation—Actively looking for ways to help people Negotiation—Bundling product offerings together and achieving optimal sales A comprehensive job description for a retail sales associate can be found on O*NET OnLine. A job specification should include specific tools, actions, experiences, education, and training (i.e., the individual requirements of the job).16 For example, it should describe “physical effort” in terms of the special actions demanded by the job. “Lifts 40-kilogram bags” is better and more specific than “Lifts heavy weights.” Clear behaviour statements give a better picture than vague generalities. Specifications of mental effort help HR experts to determine the intellectual abilities needed to perform the job. Figure 2-9 contains several examples of the kind of information about physical and mental efforts needed by customer service representatives working for a retail store. Page 44 Do the working conditions make any unusual demands on jobholders? The working conditions found in job descriptions may be translated by job specifications into demands faced by workers. Figure 2-10 provides examples for the job of hospital orderly and helps to show how tasks and duties from a job description can produce human requirements for a job specification. It shows that a simple statement of working conditions found in the job description can have significant implications for jobholders. For example, compare points 2 and 3 in the job description column with points 2 and 3 under job specifications. FIGURE 2-10 Translation of Working Conditions for Job Description to Job Specification Table Summary: Summary Hospital Orderly Job Description Job Specification Statement of Working Interpretation of Working Conditions Conditions 1. Works in physically 1. This item on the job description comfortable makes no demands on jobholders. surroundings 2. Deals with physically ill 2. Exposed to unpleasant situations and diseased patients and communicable diseases 3. Deals with mentally ill 3. May be exposed to verbal and patients physical abuse © Evgeniy Zhukov/Shutterstock The job specifications for this worker should clearly state that working outdoors under extreme conditions is a regular part of the job. What consequences could there be if that information was not provided? LO4 Job Performance Standards Job analysis has a third application: job performance standards. These standards serve two functions. First, they become objectives or targets for employee efforts. The challenge or pride of meeting objectives may serve to motivate employees. Once standards are met, workers may appreciate their accomplishment and achievement. Second, standards are criteria against which job success is measured. They are indispensable to managers or HR specialists who attempt to promote good work performance. Without standards, there is no yardstick for good versus average or poor job performance. Job performance standards are developed from job analysis information, and then actual employee performance is measured. When measured performance strays from the job standard, corrective action is taken. The corrective action, in turn, may result in changes in either the standards (if they were inappropriate) or feedback to improve actual job performance. TD Bank made headlines after anonymous salespeople suggested that they were pressured to make sales “by not acting in their customers’ best interest, behaving unethically, and sometimes breaking the law.”17 Performance standards were reviewed to determine whether they needed to be lowered to serve customers’ best interests, or whether employees required additional training to meet customer interests along with sales targets. Page 45 When the standards are wrong, they alert managers and HR specialists to problems that need correction. The example also underscores the need for keeping job analysis information current. Spotlight on HRM Job Descriptions Can Help Meet New Hires’ Expectations of the Job Sixty-one percent of employees participating in a survey by Glassdoor said aspects of their new job differed from expectations set during the hiring process. Employee morale was most commonly cited to be different from what new hires expected, followed by job responsibilities, work hours, and the supervisor’s personality.a When job expectations are unmet, it can lead to a psychological contract breach, where the new employee feels that the organization failed to meet its promises.b Job postings and information conveyed by recruiters during hiring should both accurately reflect the duties, responsibilities, and working conditions of the job. However, some aspects of the job can be difficult to convey, such as company culture and characteristics of the work group and supervisor. How can you create a comprehensive job description to minimize unmet new hire expectations? Beyond the job description, how else can you ensure that new hire expectations are met on their first day? Job performance standards are obtained either from job analysis information or from alternative sources. For example, industry standards may be used as benchmarks for performance in certain jobs (especially service functions such as HR).18 Job analysis information is usually sufficient for jobs that have the following features: Performance is quantified. Performance is easily measurable. Performance standards are understood by workers and supervisors. Performance requires little interpretation. Jobs with short work cycles often exhibit these features. An example is an assembly-line job. For these jobs, questions on the job analysis checklist may generate specific, quantitative answers. When confirmed by supervisors, this information becomes the job performance standard. In the case of some service jobs, quantifiable “outputs” may not be readily available; but even here, performance can be appraised by looking at the behaviours of the jobholders. More details of performance standards will be discussed in Chapter 8. LO5 Competency Models More recently, competency-based job descriptions and specifications have become increasingly popular. A competency is a knowledge, skill, ability, or behaviour required to be successful on the job.19 Competencies are broader in scope than the KSAOs discussed earlier in this chapter; examples are interacting and presenting, leading and deciding, and creating and conceptualizing.20 A competency model (competency framework) describes a group of competencies required in a particular job, with typical jobs defined with between 10 and 15 competencies. Competency models can be developed for individuals, specific jobs, teams, work units, or the total organization. Page 46 There are three key differences between competency-based job analyses and other forms of job analyses. First, whereas duties or tasks might apply only to a single job within an organization, competencies might be job spanning, meaning that they contribute to success on multiple jobs (or even all jobs) within the organization. All jobs within the organization may require a particular competency, albeit how the competency should be enacted for strong performance will vary across jobs. A product knowledge competency may span multiple jobs, including sales associates and product maintenance staff. However, product knowledge may be demonstrated differently in the varying roles. Whereas sales associates might demonstrate their product knowledge by answering customer inquiries on product features, prices, services, and delivery terms, product knowledge for maintenance staff might include troubleshooting when a product is not functioning properly. A second difference is that job-spanning competencies may vary in importance across job roles. A competency matrix lists different levels of skill for a combination of competencies and indicates to what level multiple jobs across the firm should have mastery of each competency. Figure 2-11 shows an example of a competency matrix in an engineering firm. Each of the six competencies is measured at seven levels (Level 1 being the lowest; Level 7, the highest). Employees may be expected to possess all competencies, albeit to varying degrees. An engineer may be required to possess high technical expertise and medium problem-solving abilities, whereas a manager may have to possess more sophisticated higher problem-solving skills and lower levels of technical expertise; both are expected to have adequate communication abilities. Use of a competency matrix shifts the focus from performing specific duties to developing broader skills. It also empowers employees to assume new responsibilities. Such a system must be supported by an effective training and development strategy and a competency-based compensation system. These will be discussed in later chapters. FIGURE 2- 11 An Example of a Competenc y Matrix in an Engineering Firm Table Summary: Summary A third distinct feature of competency-based job analyses is that competencies contribute not only to job performance but also to the success of the organization. Competencies explicitly support the firm’s vision, strategic direction, and values.  At the YMCA of Greater Toronto, seven association-wide competencies and seven leadership competencies support the organization’s vision, values, and strategic plan, and they are the foundation for all jobs. The 14-competency framework helps employees to understand what is expected of them, how to be successful, and how they will be rewarded. These competencies are used in job descriptions, training and development, recruitment and selection, performance evaluation, and succession planning. They are also a critical component used in the Y’s employment branding.21 Some organizations have used competencies as the foundation for job design, new performance management systems, selection and career paths, compensation, training, and development. Competencies are identified after a careful analysis of the work of high performers and a thorough examination of the organization’s strategic direction. This may be done through observation, listings of critical incidents at work, interviews, focus groups, employee logs, or otherwise, and by examining the organization’s mission, vision, and values.22 In generating job- specific competencies, the process of data collection and sources discussed earlier in the chapter for job analysis will be useful. Consistent with job analysis, the process for generating the competency model should be well documented.23 However, it is important to offer one cautionary note: When competencies become increasingly job-spanning and are no longer supported by specific duties and tasks, the legal defensibility of decisions based on these competencies is unknown. As competency models are tested within the legal system in Canada over the coming years, HR professionals will have a better indication of how broad or narrow competencies can be to support their staffing practices and decisions and to avoid unintentional discrimination. Page 47 Spotlight on ETHICS Job Design, Supply Chain, and Company Values A small Canadian wild foods company prides itself on providing specialty restaurants with hand-picked wild and foraged ingredients. It promises customers wild fruits and vegetables, and foraged mushrooms, herbs, teas, honey, and nuts without needing to clear or till land, plant seeds, or irrigate. Many of the staff work on short-term contracts during the short foraging seasons. They hike into various backcountry territories, being knowledgeable about where to find and how to identify and pick the specific products they forage for (e.g., morel mushrooms), often camping out in the woods during the foraging season. Relying only on picking and foraging products in the Canadian climate means that not all products are available throughout the year. The company is considering adding a greenhouse to stabilize its product supplies, but the greenhouse would go against the original value proposition made by the company of only wild and foraged foods. Moreover, a different skill set would be required for employees in a greenhouse versus those required for foraging (e.g., hiking, product identification, withstanding insects). Is it possible for the company to (a) be profitable, (b) provide consistent year- round supplies to its customers, (c) meet its wild and foraging promises, and (d) create jobs that are meaningful and yet provide a living for employees? How might the company best move forward? LO6 Job Design Worldwide competition, complex technology, and increasing worker expectations have necessitated the redesign of many jobs. Technological advances have brought about a revolution that has changed millions of jobs. While some jobs have grown more challenging, others are increasingly being automated or eliminated altogether. And yet, despite this vast increase in automation and computerization, human resources have become more, not less, important in today’s organizations. For example, the cost of human error in a nuclear plant or in flying a supersonic jet can be enormous. Whether it is the high-speed computer or the traditional auto assembly plant now run by robotics, the contribution of human beings continues to be critical. Indeed, new technologies may be dangerous or unforgiving when operated by uncommitted or poorly skilled persons. A good example of human error is the meltdown in the reactor of the Chernobyl nuclear power station in April 1986 in Ukraine, caused by a faulty test execution. The explosion released 100 times more radiation than the atomic bomb explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The long-term impact to the health of over 7 million people is still unfolding. The contamination stretched to Norway and Germany. Page 48 How well people perform is shaped, at least in part, by the characteristics designed into their jobs. Not only is productivity affected, but quality of work life is also tied to job design.24 Jobs are the central link between employees and the organization. Poorly designed jobs not only lead to low productivity but can cause employee turnover, absenteeism, complaints, sabotage, unionization, and other problems. One high-end purse and bag maker’s experience of redesigning jobs is noteworthy in this context: At Louis Vuitton, each worker had narrowly defined responsibilities, such as cutting leather or canvas, attaching zippers or buckles, and stitching seams. Each worker performed a specific function and sent the product to the next person in the line of 20 or 30 workers. The result was that no one was responsible for completion of a single product. Vuitton moved to a team- based design where workers were trained to complete multiple tasks and  could shift production quickly according to consumer demands. Workers learned new skills, job satisfaction went up, and the time to produce the same bag dropped from eight days to one day.25 In this case, the company had to consider the various environmental, organizational, and employee-related factors before redesigning the jobs. Typically, job redesign results in some trade-offs. Under the new structure at Vuitton, each worker needed to have knowledge of several activities. Therefore, more training for these workers was necessary. And, as the workers became more qualified, the company needed to pay them higher salaries. Figure 2-12 illustrates five critical elements that deserve consideration when designing jobs: organizational, ergonomic, employee, job specialization, and environmental. Each is discussed below. FIGURE 2-12 Key Considerations in Effective Job Design Table Summary: Summary Organizational Considerations Simply put, each job should contribute to the overall organizational objectives effectively and efficiently. The overall organizational mission is accomplished through a series of interrelated tasks or activities. If the organization is to remain successful and grow, these tasks and activities should be performed in a timely, effective, and efficient manner. This involves two interrelated concepts: efficiency and work flow. Efficiency High task efficiency is concerned with achieving maximum output with minimum expenditure of time, effort, or other resources. As discussed earlier, time standards are established by recording the time needed to complete each element in a work cycle. Industrial engineers study work cycles to determine which, if any, job elements can be combined, modified, or eliminated to reduce the overall time needed to perform the task. Task specialization was suggested as a key strategy to improve efficiency. According to these engineers, when workers are limited to a few repetitive tasks, output is usually higher because specialized jobs lead to short job cycles. The automotive industry is a good example of such industrial engineering practices:26 For example, an assembly-line worker may pick up a headlight, plug it in, twist the adjustment screws, and pick up the next headlight within 30 seconds. Completing these tasks in 30 seconds means this worker’s job cycle takes half a minute. The job cycle begins when the next headlight is picked up. Page 49 Headlight installation is a specialized job, so specialized that training takes only a few minutes. The short job cycle means that the assembler gains much experience in a short time. Said another way, short job cycles require small investments in training and allow the worker to learn the job quickly. Training costs remain low because the worker needs to master only one job. The above approach stresses efficiency in effort, time, labour costs, training, and employee learning time. Today, this technique is still widely used in assembly operations. But the efficient design of jobs also considers such organizational elements as work flow, ergonomics, and work practices. Work Flow The work flow in an organization is strongly influenced by the nature of the product or service. The product or service usually suggests the sequence of, and balance between, jobs if the work is to be done efficiently. For example, the frame of a car must be built before the fenders and doors can be added. Once the sequence of jobs is determined, the balance between jobs is established: Suppose it takes one person 30 seconds to install each headlight. In two minutes, an assembler can put on four headlights. If, however, it takes four minutes to install the necessary headlight receptacles, the job designer must balance these two interrelated jobs by assigning two people to install the receptacles. Otherwise, a production bottleneck results. Therefore, the work flow demands two receptacle installers for each headlight installer. Ergonomic Considerations Optimal productivity requires that the physical relationship between the worker and the work be considered in designing jobs. Derived from the Greek words ergo meaning “work” and nomos meaning “laws,” ergonomics in a general sense means the “laws of work” and focuses on how human beings physically interface with their work.27 The study of ergonomics is multidisciplinary, using principles drawn from biology (especially anatomy and physiology), the behavioural sciences (psychology and sociology), and physics and engineering. Although the nature of job tasks may not vary when ergonomic factors are considered, the locations of tools, switches, and the work product itself are evaluated and placed in a position for ease of use. In other words, ergonomics focuses on fitting the task to the worker in many instances rather than simply forcing employees to adapt to the task.28 On an automobile assembly line, for example, a car frame may actually be elevated at a work station so that the worker does not become fatigued from stooping. Similarly, the location of dashboard instruments in a car is ergonomically engineered to make driving easier. Attention to details of work settings can lead to significant improvements in efficiency and productivity: As seen in this video clip, Ford uses state-of-the-art manufacturing and job design techniques—including industrial engineering, ergonomics, and behavioural considerations. Cars pass through the assembly line on hydraulic lifts that allow employees to raise or lower the cars to suit their own height. Employees are allowed to ride the platform to minimize their steps walking to and from cars, thereby conserving energy. Ergonomic considerations are also important to maintaining safety in the workplace. Job analysis data can provide doctors with information about the job to determine an injured employee’s ability and timeline to safely return to work. Job analysis data are also used to provide work options to employees during their recovery from an illness or injury.29 Ignoring a proper fit between work station and worker can be catastrophic. In Canada in 2018, 264,000 lost time claims were reported to the provincial Workers’ Compensation Boards. These claims came at a cost to Canadian firms of $6.68 billion.30 A significant percentage of these accidents stemmed from poor workplace or task design.  © Adam Gault/age fotostock If an employee has to remain in a seated position for many hours, an ergonomically correct seat and a suitably placed monitor are essential. What are other benefits of ergonomic considerations? Page 50 Ergonomics will become more important in the future as the Canadian workforce ages: Because aging results in a decrease in several hand functions (e.g., grip strength, precision), lowered muscular strength, and reduced vision and hearing, the need for ergonomics-based work improvements to reduce physical demands will be higher than ever before. Items such as mechanical assists for lifting (e.g., tilters, vacuum lifts) and for assembly (e.g., screw guns, adjustable tables) will be essential. Such improvements will also be needed for lighting arrangements and size of character displays in terminals to respond to older workers’ diminished visual capabilities.31 Employee Considerations Jobs cannot be designed by using only those elements that aid efficiency. To do so overlooks the human needs of the people who are to perform the work. Instead, job designers draw heavily on behavioural research to provide a work environment that helps satisfy individual needs. In general, jobs have to be designed not only to maximize productivity but also to help employees achieve better work–life balance.32 This section briefly describes the job characteristics model, shown in Figure 2-13, which discusses the importance of high autonomy, variety, task identity, feedback, and task significance in a job design context.33 According to this model, these five characteristics result in three psychological states: meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of outcomes. Employees who find themselves in jobs that provide these experiences tend to have higher motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity, and lower absenteeism and turnover. FIGURE 2-13 The Job Characteristic s Model Table Summary: Summary Autonomy Autonomy refers to the concept of assuming responsibility for what one does. It is the freedom to control one’s response to the environment. Jobs that give workers the authority to make decisions tend to increase employees’ sense of recognition, self-esteem, job satisfaction, and performance. The absence of autonomy, on the other hand, can cause employee apathy or poor performance: In the online marketing field, Chase Sagum provides his recruits with autonomy on multiple fronts to avoid losing them to his competition. Rather than concern himself with how much time employees spend on personal social media sites or watching videos, he focuses only on whether his employees get their job tasks done and done well. Additionally, he provides employees with a sizable credit card budget and autonomy in choosing their technology, and allows them to assign tasks up to him when changes are needed.34 Page 51 Variety A lack of variety may cause boredom. Boredom in turn leads to fatigue, and fatigue causes errors. By injecting variety into jobs, HR specialists can reduce fatigue-caused errors. Past research studies have found that variety in work may be related to effective performance and can be a major contributor to employee satisfaction. Task Identity One problem with some jobs is that they lack any task identity. Workers contribute to one part of the piece of work but do not get to point to a complete piece of work. They have little sense of responsibility, may lack pride in the results, and have little sense of accomplishment. When tasks are grouped so that employees feel they are making an identifiable contribution—to see the job through to completion—job satisfaction may be increased significantly. In the earlier Louis Vuitton example, we saw that productivity and satisfaction increased when employees became responsible for an identifiable and sensible group of tasks. Feedback When jobs do not give the workers any feedback on how well they are doing, there is little guidance or motivation to perform better. For example, by letting employees know how they are doing relative to the daily production quota, Louis Vuitton gives workers feedback that allows them to adjust their efforts. Providing feedback leads to improved motivation. Task Significance Closely related to the above dimensions is task significance. Doing an identifiable piece of work makes the job more satisfying for employees. Task significance, knowing that the work is important to others within the organization or outside it, makes the job even more meaningful for incumbents. Their personal sense of self-importance is enhanced because they know that others depend on what they do. Pride, commitment, motivation, satisfaction, and better performance are likely to result. A good example was the Porsche car company. Mechanics who assembled complete engines punched their names into the engine block, an action that was for them a source of extreme pride but also was useful for feedback purposes. Rationalization eliminated this procedure, resulting in lower satisfaction, lower quality, and higher turnover. Job Specialization Considerations As workers become more educated and affluent, routine jobs that are very specialized, such as assembly-line positions, hold less and less appeal for many people. These jobs seldom offer opportunities for accomplishment, recognition, psychological growth, or other sources of satisfaction. To increase the quality of work life for those who hold such jobs, HR specialists often use a combination of job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, and employee involvement and work teams. Job Rotation Job rotation moves employees from job to job. Jobs are not actually changed; only the workers are rotated. Rotation breaks the monotony of highly specialized work by calling on different skills and abilities. The organization benefits because workers become competent in several jobs rather than one. Knowing a variety of jobs improves self-image, provides personal growth, and makes the worker more valuable to the organization. The shutdown during the COVID-19 pandemic gave employees at Quail’s Gate Winery in British Columbia the opportunity to try out many different jobs at the winery. Staff who usually work in the storefront and offer tastings to patrons were given the chance to work on the vines, work with the wine makers, conduct maintenance and cleaning tasks, and deliver food from the restaurant. The result is a greater knowledge of operations at the winery, cross-training to cover for future absences and vacancies, and a strong sense of loyalty to the organization for creatively keeping all staff employed when not all jobs were possible. Page 52 A caution about the use of job rotation: it does not improve the jobs, as the relationships between tasks, activities, and objectives remain unchanged. It may even delay the use of more effective techniques while adding to training costs. Implementation should occur only after other techniques have been considered. Job Enlargement Job enlargement expands the number of related tasks in the job. It adds similar duties to provide greater variety although the duties are not more complex. Enlargement reduces monotony by expanding the job cycle and drawing on a wider range of employee skills. When looking to prevent musculoskeletal injuries in poultry processing, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration found that risk factors were reduced when employees were cross-trained so that sufficient support was available for peak production, to cover breaks, and when job enlargement programs were instituted.35 Job Enrichment Job enrichment adds new sources of needs satisfaction to jobs. It increases responsibility, autonomy, and control. Adding these elements to jobs is sometimes called vertical loading. Enrichment views jobs as consisting of three elements: plan, do, and control. Whereas job enlargement (or horizontal loading) adds more related tasks, enrichment (vertical loading) attempts to add more planning and control responsibilities. This, coupled with rethinking the job itself, often leads to increased motivation and other improvements: For over 20 years, Statistics Canada has sampled information from over 6,000 Canadian workplaces about workforce characteristics and job organization, with specific questions regarding decision-making, quality circles, teams, suggestion programs, feedback, and self-directed work. Two researchers used the data to determine whether enriched jobs result in higher motivation and job satisfaction. The study included feedback from 43,917 employees. The results strongly support the hypothesis that enriched jobs increase motivation and satisfaction.36 When the diagnosis indicates that jobs are unchallenging and limit employee motivation and satisfaction, HR professionals may find job enrichment to be the most appropriate strategy. However, job enrichment techniques are merely tools, and they are not applicable universally. Employee Involvement and Work Teams To increase employee involvement at the workplace, work teams are often used. Work itself is increasingly being organized around teams and processes rather than activities or functions. A survey by Lee Hecht Harrison Knightsbridge revealed that 92 percent of leaders view teams as critical for workplaces to be successful.37 Self-managed and autonomous work teams have become a normal part of many Canadian organizations, including CIBC, Xerox Canada, and Vancity. These and other employee involvement approaches are discussed in detail in Chapter 11. The intent of all such approaches, however, is to provide more autonomy, feedback, and task significance to workers, and they may also lead to increased innovation: Multinational giant IBM uses innovation portals in the form of specially designated chat rooms, where employees with new ideas or projects can recruit team members, secure resources, or tap into location or domain expertise across the entire firm within hours. More than 90,000 IBM  employees have worked on these global teams, decreasing project launch times from six months to 30 days.38 As in the case of job enrichment, employee involvement and teams may not be appropriate for all organizations or all situations. The introduction of team management, if not accompanied by changes in other systems (e.g., performance appraisal, compensation), may cause frustration. To be successful, top management has to be truly committed to the notion of employee empowerment —that is, granting employees the power to initiate change and take charge of what they do. Page 53 Use of Job Families in HR Decisions Often, in the context of job design, HR looks at job families rather than single jobs. Job families are groups of jobs that are closely related by similar duties, responsibilities, skills, or job elements. The jobs of barber, hairstylist, hairdresser, and cosmetologist constitute a job family, for example. Job families can be constructed in several ways. One way is by careful study of existing job analysis information. Matching the data in job descriptions can identify jobs with similar requirements. A second method is to use the codes in the National Occupational Classification discussed earlier in this chapter. Similarities in the job codes indicate similarities in the jobs. A third approach is to use the PAQ, also discussed earlier in this chapter, and statistically analyze information on tasks and worker traits to identify clusters of similar jobs. Job families allow HR to plan job rotation programs and make employee transfer decisions. The compensation levels of jobs that form a family should also be comparable; this means that equitable compensation strategies cannot be formed without considering the entire job family. In some instances, it may also be economical to use similar recruitment methods and sources to hire individuals who belong to the same job family. Environmental Considerations The environments within which the firm and job exist also need to be considered when redesigning jobs. As with most HR activities, job designers cannot ignore environmental considerations—the influence of the external environment, which affects workforce availability, values, and practices. Workforce Availability Efficiency considerations must be balanced against the abilities and availability of the people who will actually do the work. An extreme example underlines this point: Governments of less developed countries often think they can “buy” progress. To be “up to date,” they seek the most advanced equipment they can find. Leaders of one country ordered a digital oil refinery, necessitating a level of technology that exceeded the abilities of the country’s available workforce. As a result, these government leaders hired expatriate Europeans to operate the refinery. In less developed nations, the major risk is jobs that are too complex. But in industrialized nations with highly educated workers, jobs that are too simple can produce equally disturbing problems. For example, even when unemployment rates are high, many simple and overly specialized jobs are sometimes hard to fill, as longstanding job ads for janitors attest. Social Expectations The acceptability of a job’s design is also influenced by social expectations. For example, working conditions that would have been acceptable to some early Canadian immigrants are no longer acceptable to our present generation. When rail lines were being laid across Canada, many persons were willing to work long hours of hard labour. They had fled countries where jobs were unavailable, which made a job—any job—acceptable to them. Today, industrial workers are much better educated and have higher expectations about the quality of work life. Even where work flow might suggest a particular job design, the job must meet the expectations of workers. Failure to consider these expectations can create dissatisfaction, poor motivation, and low quality of work life. Work Practices Work practices are set ways of performing work. These methods may arise from tradition or from the collective wishes of employees. HR’s flexibility to design jobs may be constrained, especially when such practices are part of a union– management relationship. Failure to consider work practices can have undesired outcomes. Job analysis identified process changes for cereal production companies in Turkey that could save 75 percent of the labour cost of enterprise in logistics activities and reduce the total time of packaging and loading by 47 percent.39 However, new work practices would have to be adopted by employees before these efficiencies could be realized. Job Analysis in the Gig Economy Page 54 Global competition, fast technological obsolescence, changing worker profiles, and rapid increases in knowledge requirements for various jobs have made accurate and timely job descriptions difficult. Many employees are no longer responsible for producing specific outcomes; rather, they are members of teams entrusted with many responsibilities. Other employees work short-term contracts rather than work at permanent jobs. Another trend is towards job crafting, where employees are allowed to customize the work they do for an organization according to their preferences and strengths. When job crafting is done to increase job resources and add challenging job demands (as opposed to removing hindrances), the result is higher work engagement and less burnout.40 How do organizations that operate in fast-changing environments conduct valid job analyses? How can the task and person requirements identified today be relevant for an unknown tomorrow? Of course, there are no simple solutions. A few attempts have been made to meet these challenges. One strategy has been to adopt a future-oriented style when describing job activities and specifications. Rather than asking what the current jobholder does, the focus is on what the jobholder must do to effectively carry out and further organizational strategies and the new competencies required of the jobholder. Thus, present and future requirements, rather than past actions, guide job descriptions and the hiring and training of employees. Regardless, job analysis will continue to be relevant for legal compliance and defensibility in the event of a court action.41 Traditional sources of information (such as jobholders and supervisors) may, however, need to be supplemented by data emerging from customers, peers, and technical experts to incorporate the ever-changing job demands. SUMMARY Job analysis information provides the foundations for many other HR functions, such as recruiting, training, and compensation. Analysts seek to collect specific data about jobs, jobholder characteristics, and job performance standards. Job analysis information can be collected through interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, employee logs, direct observation, or some combination of these techniques. Once collected, the data are compiled into job descriptions, job specifications, and job standards. Competencies have emerged as another approach to collecting job information. Job analysis information is used for job design. Essential elements of job design include organizational considerations (such as efficiency and work flow), ergonomic considerations, employee considerations (such as autonomy, feedback, variety, task identity, and task significance), job specialization (and increasing quality of work life through job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, and work teams), along with environmental considerations (such as workforce availability, social expectations, and work practices). TERMS FOR REVIEW autonomy competency competency matrix competency model (competency framework) efficiency employee log environmental considerations ergonomics feedback focus group interview job job analysis job analysis questionnaires job code job description job design job enlargement job enrichment job families job identity job performance standards job rotation job specification National Occupational Classification (NOC) observation position social expectations task identity task significance variety work flow work practices working conditions Page 55 REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Suppose you work for an organization that does not conduct job analysis. What arguments will you make to introduce it? What method(s) of collecting job analysis information will you recommend and why? 2. Define job descriptions and job specifications, illustrating how the two are related yet different. 3. Why are clear job specifications important? What are the costs of imprecise specifications? 4. How can performance standards be set for production jobs when job analysis information is insufficient? How would you set performance standards for a software developer if you were the chief software developer? 5. What factors need to be considered when redesigning jobs? Of these, which is (are) most important? Page 56 SHORT CASE 2-1: Maritime Wooden Boats At Maritime Wooden Boats, the focus is new yacht interiors, restoration of vintage yachts, and new custom yacht builds up to 16 metres. Jobs at the company include Metal Works, Wood Works, Yardhand, and Sales Representative. After studying each job for a considerable amount of time, you identify the activities below associated with each job. There are also some tasks to prepare a completed yacht for delivery to the customer including cleaning and waxing the boat, which are outside the jobs identified, but which need to be done at the end of each project. To efficiently complete projects at Maritime, no job is currently tasked with coordinating the overall project management and making a project plan, which has led to lengthy project delays and cost overages when one job is waiting for another job to complete a task before they can make further progress. With two or three boat projects underway at any given time, it commonly occurs that one job (e.g., Metal Works) will be in demand on all projects and another job (e.g., Wood Works, Yardhand) will be idle, waiting for the previous steps to finish. The job in demand depends on the types of projects underway, but bottlenecks are frequent where employees are waiting for tasks to be finished and other workers to step out of the way for them to begin work again. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Thinking through what you know about job enrichment, job enlargement, job rotation, and employee involvement and work teams, what job redesign techniques would you recommend for these jobs? 1. Metal Works: Basic metal skills include filing, thread cutting, and swaging; bending, folding, and rolling a steel plate; and basic cutting skills (hacksaw, guillotine, punching, and casting). More advanced metal skills include machining skills (milling, drilling, and grinding), and assembly skills (welding, brazing, soldering, and riveting). The basic skills require some practice to master but can become monotonous over time. The more advanced skills  require extensive training and practice. New yacht builds and new yacht interiors involve extensive basic and advanced metal works, whereas the amount of metal work required for restoration projects varies by project. 2. Wood Works: Basic wood skills include nailing in wood, shortening wood, sawing with a bandsaw, planing wood manually and mechanically, placing wood screws, sanding wood mechanically, and wood picking skills (choosing timber). Advanced wood skills include preparing wood, ordering wood, shaping wood with steam and heat-forming, assembling wood, carving wood, sail-making, and ropeworks. The basic wood skills require some practice to master but can become monotonous over time. The more advanced wood works require extensive training and practice. Restoration projects rely heavily on wood works, whereas the amount of wood work and amount of skill required for new yacht builds and new yacht interiors varies by project. 3. Yardhand: Skills included in this job are maintaining a safe and clean working environment, tool maintenance, making blocks, operating a pendulum, and splicing steel wire. Additional boat skills include determining dimensions for restorations, drawing the ship’s frame plan, building models, determining the lines of the boat, measuring the dimensions of the boat, and taking moulds of a boat. The basic boat skills require some training and practice to master and are usually done under the supervision of the Metal Works or Wood Works experts. The Yardhand job also involves going back and forth between the Metal Works and Wood Works jobs to coordinate timelines and handoffs between metal and wood tasks. At times, the Yardhand job is independent (such as making models or conducting measurements); at other times, it is assisting Metal or Wood Works; and the remaining time is spent tidying the work environment and maintaining tools. 4. Sales Representative: Skills in this job include talking to customers, answering customer inquiries, suggesting customized additions to customers, and liaising between the customer and  Metal Works and Wood Works to determine project specifications, timelines, and pricing. The Sales Representative job does not require actually touching a boat, but knowledge is required of both Metal Works and Wood Works to speak knowledgeably to the customer and to complete pricing. Because the Sales Representative job is customer-focused, this job often makes promises to the customer on project specifications and timelines that Metal and Wood Works then need to deliver upon. When specifications or timelines cannot be met, the Sales Representative must then communicate back to a potentially unhappy customer. 2. How can job analysis information help Maritime better meet its timelines and pricing estimates? Page 57 CASE STUDY Starbright Casino Using Job Analysis for Job Rotation and Redesign The casino was all set for another busy and profitable Friday night. The tribute band would be starting in another hour and the restaurants and bar stools were nearly full with preshow diners. Many of the show seekers would return to try their hand at tables or slots before the evening was out. As Shea looked around the casino floor, she could feel the energy just starting to ramp up as the night’s hopeful gamers were trickling in, replacing the coffee-drinking day crowd now cashing in their remaining chits and chips. Shea scanned the day shift employees, knowing they would be counting down the time until they could rest their tired backs and feet with their shift behind them. As shift manager, she couldn’t help but keep a casual lookout for the table-game dealers, slot-machine attendants, and casino cashiers who would be taking over as the evening crew during the shift change in 15 minutes. Just then, Shea spotted Bin walking quickly in her direction, a grim look on his face. “Angelo was supposed to be working in the cage tonight, and he just called in sick.” Shea could tell from the tone of Bin’s voice that he was questioning whether Angelo was actually sick or just avoiding taking his turn exchanging bills for chips and turning chips into cash as a cashier in the cage. Shea silently acknowledged that the absence rates when staff members were scheduled to work cage shifts were significantly higher than when they were scheduled to work the tables or slots. She knew that being closer to the gambling action was more exciting than being in the cage and made the shift pass by more quickly. As well, there was always the possibility that lucky gamblers would share a chip or two with their dealers. Her mind switched to solving the problem at hand. The two cages each needed two cashiers for that night’s shift. With one now away, she would have to pull one of the table-game dealers or slot-machine attendants. No one would be happy to forgo their scheduled work for a shift in the cage. Shea aimed to schedule cage shifts evenly across all of the table-game dealers and slot-machine attendants for each night they normally worked to be as fair as possible in giving each staff member time on the floor. Well, except for the craps table dealers, Shea thought. They didn’t have to take a turn in the cage, and Shea knew this was a point of contention for the other staff. Four-person teams managed each craps table, and the quick math and complexity of the game, owing to the number of gamblers and bets to keep track of, meant that fewer staff could handle the game. Other employees coveted the craps table, in part so they could avoid the cage. Shea looked to the remaining table-game dealers and slot attendants. They would have to offer one table game fewer tonight, which meant the casino would likely leave some gamblers with a little more money in their pockets at the end of the night than Starbright would have hoped. She glanced at the evening shift staff now entering the floor, mentally eliminating the four who had worked the cage last Friday. Shea could move one of the slot attendants into the cage, and then one of the table-game dealers to the slots, but then realized she would be disappointing two staff instead of only one. She saw Marcel heading toward the Texas Hold ’Em tables, but she dismissed the idea of moving him to the cage. He had covered for another last-minute absence in the cage last Saturday. Her gaze rested on Cecilia. Shea knew Cecilia handled disappointment better than some of the others, but that meant she was called upon all too frequently to cover these absences. Just then, Shea saw Gabe walking in and recalled he was set to deal blackjack. She went to tell him the news that he would be working in the cage that night. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What recommendations would you make for Shea to improve her implementation of job rotation? How could she make the system fair to all employees (including Angelo following his absence)? 2. What are some other strategies that Shea could use to enrich the cashier job? 3. How would you go about conducting a job analysis for the cage attendant job? Referring back to Figure 2-2, make an action plan for each of the six steps. 4. The table games have a clear hierarchy in terms of staff desire to work at them, with the craps table the most desired, followed by other table games, then the slots, then working as a cashier. How is job analysis useful in determining hiring, training, and compensation requirements across these four jobs in this job family?