Optional Theme 1: Ethics - Normative Ethics PDF

Optional Theme 1: Ethics Normative Ethics Topic #1: Normative Ethics -The branch of ethics concerned with what is morally right and wrong -This includes the formulation of moral rules that have direct implications for what human actions, institutions, and ways of life should be like. Centra...

Optional Theme 1: Ethics Normative Ethics Topic #1: Normative Ethics -The branch of ethics concerned with what is morally right and wrong -This includes the formulation of moral rules that have direct implications for what human actions, institutions, and ways of life should be like. Central Question: How are basic moral standards arrived at and justified? Central Question: How are basic moral standards arrived at and justified? The answers to this fall into two categories: 1. Deontological: -inherent “rightness” or “wrongness” of actions/standards -obligation/duty -relational criteria (e.g. equality) Central Question: How are basic moral standards arrived at and justified? The answers to this fall into two categories: 2. Teleological: -goodness or value of the consequences of an action -valuable/desirable -material/substantive criteria (e.g. pleasure; happiness) Topic #2: Meta-Ethics the sub-discipline of ethics concerned with the nature and origins of ethical theories (thinking about ethics) -How do people get their moral values? -Are moral principles universal or relative? -Is moral behavior found only in humans? Topic #3: Applied Ethics The application of normative ethics: -biomedical ethics: cloning, genetic engineering, euthanasia, abortion -business ethics: fair trade, child labor -distribution of wealth: poverty, inequality, taxation, charity Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics & Crash Course Philosophy #38 (Aristotle [384-322 BC]: Plato’s student; Alexander the Great’s teacher) -Nicomachean Ethics contains Aristotle’s lessons to his students about how to achieve happiness. -Pleasure (the feeling of happiness) vs. human flourishing or “eudaimonia” (the state of having fulfilled your potential and living well). -Pleasure is fleeting (hedonists), while flourishing is pursued for its own sake–it is the goal of all of our lives. Aristotle’s Arguments The Function Argument The Habituation Argument Virtue Requires Practicing Good Action Pleasure and the Virtues Instrumental Ends vs. Final Ends Instrumental Ends - goals we pursue in order to get closer to another goal Final Ends - the goal for which you cannot reasonably wonder anymore why you are pursuing it–we pursue it for its own sake (Aristotle says this is happiness–eudaimonia–which is different from pleasure, or the mere feeling of happiness.) Break Down the Function Argument Create a flowchart that illustrates Aristotle’s conclusion and premises. Then, determine the underlying assumptions on which his premises are based. For each premise you identified (you should have at least 3), raise a question or a counter-argument. The Habituation Argument - Book 2, Chapter 1 Natural Properties - Properties that we have by nature (like being alive) cannot be changed. Habitual Properties - Properties we acquire by habit (like learning to speak Japanese) can be changed. !!!Aristotle says that VIRTUES are habitual, not natural. The same is true for VICES!!! (We can all learn to be virtuous or vicious…) Virtue Requires Practicing Good Action - Book 2, Chapter 2 Virtues are learned and practiced through action, not by sitting around philosophizing. Moral Particularism - The idea that determining what is right and wrong always depends on the particulars of a case. There are no general moral theories that will ALWAYS guide you in figuring out what a virtuous person would do. Aristotle says that learning to live well is more like learning to diagnose diseases and less like learning to solve equations. Doctrine of the Golden Mean -virtues can be identified by comparing them to their related extremes (defects & excesses) Ex: Courage is the “golden mean” between cowardice & recklessness. Practical wisdom (phonesis) - like street smarts; mediates between our virtues and our actions How do I become virtuous? Learn to live well. How? By doing virtuous things. How? By living well. Aristotle says that we must DO these actions, and not merely philosophize about them. We should look for others who can be “moral exemplars ” and show us what this looks like. Thomas Aquinas’ Natural Law Ethics & Crash Course Philo #34 -Aquinas Christianized Aristotle’s concept of “telos”--that everything has a purpose built into it by its nature. The nature determines the “behaviors” that are natural to it. -For Aristotle, the “final cause” or ultimate purpose for humans was happiness/fulfillment (“eudaimonia”). -For Aquinas, the “final cause” or ultimate purpose for humans was godliness, which involves following the moral law of God (which results in eudaimonia for individuals and society). Four Tiers of Law The eternal law - God’s plan, built into the nature of everything that exists, according to his omnibenevolent nature (this is beyond human understanding) The divine law - God’s revelation to humans in the Bible The natural law - the moral law God created in human nature, discoverable by human reason Human law - the laws that humans make, which should be based on the natural and divine law. Primary Precepts Synderesis - the habit (or ability) of reason to discover the foundational “first principles” of God’s natural moral law Synderesis rule - the good is what all things seek as their end/goal (telos). This means that human nature has an innate orientation to the good. Primary Precepts : Worship God Live in an orderly society Reproduce Protect & preserve human life Defend the innocent Secondary Precepts Conscientia - the ability of reason to apply the primary precepts to situations or types of actions The judgment we acquire from this is a secondary precept. Ex: euthanasia - The primary precepts don’t say anything specifically about this, but we can use our reason (conscientia) to realize that it goes against the primary precept of protecting & preserving human life. The secondary precept, then, is that euthanasia is wrong. Interior & Exterior Acts Interior acts - occur inside our minds (intentions) Exterior acts - occur outside our minds A good exterior act without a good interior act doesn’t lead to fulfillment because our intentions must be in line with fulfilling our God-given nature (telos). Aquinas’ Moral Virtues (Cardinal Virtues) Prudence Justice Fortitude (bravery; courage) Temperance These virtues can be acquired by habit & practice. A person who gets into the habit of possessing and acting upon these virtues becomes a virtuous person. Aquinas’ Theological Virtues (more important, he argues) Faith Hope Charity (the will embodying perfect love) These are only attainable with the help of God. They offer a person an opportunity to live part of the supernatural/eternal life now. Deontological Ethical Theories -ethical theories that suggest an individual should act based on what they believe to be morally right, regardless of the consequences -Even if the consequences are negative, the morally right action should still be performed. -etymology: duty + science = deontology -Morality is derived from duty or obligation. Examples 1. Honesty 2. Respect 3. Responsibility 4. Fairness 5. Integrity 6. Non-violence 7. Gratitude 8. Forgiveness 9. Humility 10. Moderation Immanuel Kant: Kantian Ethics & the Categorical Imperative -The Categorical Imperative is a moral command that applies to all humans unconditionally. -It is a way of evaluating motives for action. -It is a central concept of Kantian Deontological Moral Philosophy. -It was introduced in Kant’s 1785 work Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. First Formulation -“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” -(Only do it if you would want everyone else to do it!) 1. Form a maxim. 2. Formulate it as a universal law. 3. Is it conceivable in such a world? 4. Could you rationally will to act on this maxim in this world? -If yes, it is morally permissible. Do it! Second Formulation (The Humanity Formulation) -“Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, and never simply as a means.” -(Don’t use other people merely as instruments.) Third Formulation (The Autonomy Formulation) “...the idea of the will of every rational being as a will that legislates universal law.” -(This is similar to the first formulation, but it conceives of lawgivers rather than followers. The idea is that your will/maxim is tested out as something that makes or enacts universal laws.) -(This is less of an imperative and more of a way to test your own actions.) Fourth Formulation (Kingdom of Ends Formulation) -Kant writes about a “kingdom of ends” or a “systematic union of rational beings through common laws.” -He says that we must “act in accordance with the maxims of a member legislating universal laws for a merely possible kingdom of ends.” -(Our moral obligation is to act only on principles that could earn acceptance by a community of rational agents, each having an equal share in legislating principles for their community.) Examples 1. Deception 2. Theft 3. Suicide 4. Breaking promises 5. Idleness 6. Selfishness Some final thoughts on Deontology -Kant’s Categorical Imperative is widely seen as the foundation of deontology. -Deontology urges people to consider their behavior’s morality before deciding to enact it, rather than reflecting on it afterward. -Deontological ethics focus on a person’s duty, rather than the end goal of his actions. Teleological Ethical Theories -etymology: goal + science=teleology -claims that the “rightness” or “wrongness” of an action is exclusively a function of the goodness or badness of the consequences of that action. -The end goal of human flourishing is central to teleological ethics. -Aristotle’s ethics fall under this category, but not neatly so. -Aquinas’ ethics are teleological as the goal is godliness Consequentialism - a type of teleological theory suggesting that the moral value–the moral rightness or wrongness–of an act is entirely a function of the consequences or results of that act. Hedonism (a Consequentialist theory) -a type of consequentialism that states that the pursuit of pleasure should be the highest moral priority. -It differs from utilitarianism in focusing more on individual pleasure than collective good (Scheffler, 2009). -For example, if eating a certain food will bring an individual pleasure but harm others, it is considered moral according to this theory. Utilitarianism (a Consequentialist theory) -a type of consequentialism that states that an action should be judged based on its ability to maximize happiness for most people. -It is often used as a moral tool for decision-making and emphasizes the importance of consequences to determine the morality of an action (Driver, 2014). -For example, killing one person to save five others would be considered moral according to this theory because it would result in greater overall happiness than if no one was killed. Remember the Trolley Problem? Would you save the 5 people? Or the 1 person? Would you push the fat man off of bridge? What if he was unlikeable? Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill Act Utilitarianism (Bentham) -focuses on the consequences of individual actions -Greatest Happiness Principle : assessment of actions is based on Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus (or Felicific Calculus) -individual rights or commonly held notions of justice might be violated, but the action could still be considered “right” based on the calculus. Rule Utilitarianism (Mill) -holds that rules should be written regarding their likely outcomes, not necessarily on their inherent good or bad nature. -This form of consequentialism suggests that following established rules, even when they may lead to negative outcomes, will produce more desirable results in the long run than acting without any rules at all (Hooker, 2002). -For instance, obeying highway speed limits might cause some individuals to miss their destination on time. Still, it will help reduce car accidents, potentially saving many lives. State Consequentialism (Bentham) -looks at how government laws and policies can affect citizens’ lives positively or negatively, depending on their outcome (Scheffler, 2009). -For example, introducing a minimum wage law could potentially increase economic growth while reducing poverty levels if it is successful, thus making it an effective policy from a state-consequentialist point of view. Ethical Egoism (a Consequentialist theory) -a type of consequentialist theory that states that individuals should act out of self-interest and pursue what is best for their own well-being rather than considering what might benefit others or society (Shaver, 2019). -A real-life example of this would be someone who chooses to invest in stocks with higher potential returns, even though doing so has the potential to have unintended consequences on other investors or markets in general. Contractarianism -Thomas Hobbes (17th C.) -also known as Hobbesian Contractualism -a form of the social contract theory -based on the idea of a self-interested bargain or contract between self-interested people for the sake of individual gain (ethical egoism) Ethical Altruism (a Consequentialist theory) -carries the opposite sentiment from ethical egoism. -It looks at scenarios where individuals’ actions are motivated by the desire to benefit others rather than themselves and places value in those acts regardless of their outcome or consequence (Scheffler, 2009). -For instance, according to this theory, choosing to donate money to charities without expecting anything back other than knowing you helped make someone’s life better would be considered an act of altruistic behavior. Negative Consequentialism -Negative consequentialists focus exclusively on avoiding unfavorable outcomes when evaluating decisions or behaviors (Scheffler, 2009). -They reject any notion that positive results justify negative means, as every action carries its own costs and benefits regardless of the intent or purpose behind them. -An example could be taking away someone’s freedom due to suspected terrorist activities. This course of action is justified only if their actions can be proven to be a threat to society, regardless of their intentions or potential benefits. Some final thoughts on Consequentialism… It emphasizes the importance of outcomes in determining the morality of an action rather than relying on predetermined moral principles or personal beliefs. Consequentialism has many forms, including utilitarianism, hedonism, rule consequentialism, and many more, each emphasizing how to maximize net benefits or minimize harm. While consequentialism has been applied to many contexts, from animal testing to war, it has also faced criticism for its lack of consideration of individual rights, reliance on prediction and calculation, and failure to consider values such as justice or fairness. Study Guide for Normative Ethics Quiz #1: Virtue Ethics Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics Eudaimonia Instrumental ends Final ends Pleasure vs. happiness (Aristotle) Habituation argument Moral particularism Doctrine of the Golden Mean Practical wisdom (phronesis) Moral exemplar Aquinas’ Natural Law Ethics Primary Precepts vs. secondary precepts Interior acts vs. exterior acts Study Guide for Normative Ethics Quiz #1: Deontological Ethics & Teleological Ethics Deontology Kantian Ethics Categorical imperative (first and second formulations) Teleology Consequentialism Utilitarianism Hedonism Act Utilitarianism (Bentham) Greatest Happiness Principle Hedonic Calculus Rule Utilitarianism (Mill) State Consequentialism Ethical Egoism Ethical Altruism Negative Consequentialism