NMAT Social Sciences Review Handout PDF

Social Sciences Review Handout for National Medical Admissions Test (January 2025) OUTLINE o He was a student of Wundt, hence their similar I. Psychology Cognitive approach to psychology....

Social Sciences Review Handout for National Medical Admissions Test (January 2025) OUTLINE o He was a student of Wundt, hence their similar I. Psychology Cognitive approach to psychology. A. Definition and Psychology Used the method of introspection to identify the basic Overview Abnormal elements or “structures” of psychological experience. B. Structuralism Psychology o The examination or observation of one’s own mental C. Functionalism Personality and emotional processes. D. Gestalt Psychology Emotion, Eventually declined due to subjectivity of perception. Principles of Motivation, and C. FUNCTIONALISM Perceptual Stress Key Person: William James Organization Social E. Psychoanalysis o Most prominent figure of functionalism, although there Psychology Psychoanalytic was no clear leader (which contributed to its decline). II. Sociology Theory Sought to understand how mental processes operate in A. Definition and Psychosocial individuals and how they contribute to their adaptation Overview Theory to their environment. B. Theoretical F. Behaviorism Perspectives IN COMPARISON WITH STRUCTURALISM Classical Functionalism Structuralism focused on breaking things down to their Conditioning Conflict smallest parts, while functionalism focused on how things Operant Symbolic worked together. Conditioning Interactionism Structuralism examined the capabilities of different parts (Social Learning C. Society of the mind, while functionalism examined how the mind Theory) Social Structure functions in different environments. G. Cognitivism Social Structuralism used introspection to study feelings and Cognitive Processes sensations, while functionalism used objective Development Culture techniques to explore the mind. Theory D. Social Institutions Sociocultural Family D. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Theory Economy Key Persons: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Moral Politics Koffka Development III. Anthropology Claims that an individual perceives an object as a whole, Theory A. Definition and not in parts or bits. H. Humanism Overview o Phi Phenomenon: Optical illusion where movement is Hierarchy of B. Biological perceived when there is none. Needs Anthropology People-centered PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION C. Cultural Therapy Anthropology I. Select Concepts and Archaeology Pragnanz: We Theories Sociocultural naturally perceive Developmental Anthropology things in their Psychology Linguistic simplest form or Biopsychology Anthropology organization. PSYCHOLOGY A. DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW Similarity: We The scientific study of human mind and behavior. naturally group items First Psychologist: Wilhelm Wundt together based on o First to use scientific method to study the mind. their similarities (e.g. o First to build psychology laboratory in 1879. color, size, and o Precursor to major schools of thought (broad ways of orientation). thinking/approaches to psychology): § Structuralism: Analyzes the basic elements of the mind through introspection. § Functionalism: Focuses on how mental processes Proximity: We help individuals adapt to their environment. naturally view § Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes perceiving the objects that are near whole rather than its parts in isolation. each other as one § Psychoanalysis: Explores unconscious desires and group. childhood experiences shaping behavior. § Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior learned through environmental interaction. Continuity: We § Cognitivism: Examines mental processes like thinking perceive elements and memory. arranged on a line or § Humanism: Highlights personal growth, free will, and curve as related to self-actualization. each other, while elements that are B. STRUCTURALISM not on the line or Key Persons: Edward Titchener, Wilhelm Wundt curve are seen as o Titchener was the one who coined “structuralism.” separate. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 1 of 16  o Example: Acting overly kind to someone you secretly dislike. Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable Closure: We thoughts, feelings, or impulses onto others. interpret familiar, o Example: Accusing someone else of being angry when you’re the one feeling angry. incomplete forms as complete by filling in Displacement: Redirection of an impulse (usually gaps. aggression) from a riskier onto a safer substitute. o Example: Yelling at a friend after having a bad day at work. Regression: Return to earlier stages of development and abandoned forms of gratification. o Example: Throwing a tantrum as an adult when things Figure and don’t go your way. Ground: We Sublimation: Channeling unwanted or unacceptable perceive certain urges into a productive or admissible outlet. objects as being in o Example: Channeling anger into vigorous exercise or art. the foreground and Denial: Conscious refusal to perceive painful facts that other objects as exist. being in the o Example: Refusing to acknowledge a medical diagnosis. background. Rationalization: Cognitive distortion of the facts to make an event or an impulse less threatening. o Example: Justifying cheating on a test by saying “everyone else does it.” Common Fate: We Note: While the ego is the rational part of the mind, it’s often perceive elements mistakenly associated with pride. In reality, when someone is that move together said to have a ‘high ego,’ it simply means they are using in the same direction defense mechanisms to protect themselves from or have a similar anxiety. trajectory as one group. PSYCHOTHERAPY Intervention that aims to bring the unconscious to the conscious through a therapist-led session. Psychotherapy techniques: E. PSYCHOANALYSIS o Free Association: Encouraging patient to speak freely Key Persons: Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson to uncover unconscious thoughts and feelings. Proposes that a person’s behavior is influenced by their o Dream Analysis: Interpreting patient’s dreams to reveal unconscious drives. hidden unconscious desires and conflicts. Stresses the importance of early life experiences. o Transference: Projecting feelings about significant Key Theories: Psychoanalytic Theory, Psychosocial others onto the therapist for analysis. Theory PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Key Person: Sigmund Freud Age Stage Description Founded to treat mental illnesses (psychopathology). Lips, tongue, and gums are Posits that humans have two primary instincts: the focus of pleasurable o Eros: Life instinct (libido/sex) sensations. o Thanatos: Death instinct (aggression) Sucking and feeding are the Proposes that people move through a series of stages 0-1 yo Oral most stimulating activities. within which they confront conflicts between biological If needs are not met: Thumb drives and social expectations. sucking, finger biting, pencil o How conflicts are resolved determines the person’s chewing, and later smoking and ability to learn, socialize, and cope. overeating. Anus is the focus of PSYCHIC APPARATUS (MODEL OF THE MIND) pleasurable sensations. Id: Instinctual desires seeking immediate gratification, Toilet training is the most causing neurotic anxiety when unchecked. important activity. Ego: Rational mediator between id and superego, dealing 1-3 yo Anal If toilet trained before they are with realistic anxiety when facing external threats. ready or too late: Extreme Superego: Moral conscience imposing societal orderliness (anal-retentive standards, leading to moral anxiety when ideals are personality) or messiness violated. (anal-expulsive personality). Penis is the most important Note: While anxiety type differs depending on its source, it is body part. only the ego that feels it being the one in contact with Castration anxiety: Boy’s reality. unconscious fear of losing his DEFENSE MECHANISMS (WAYS OF PROTECTING EGO) penis like a female; child fears 3-6 yo Phallic that his own father will do the Repression: Withdrawal from consciousness of an same for desiring his mother. unwanted idea, effect, or desire by pushing it down, or Penis envy: Girl’s sense of repressing it, into the unconscious part of the mind. discontent and resentment from o Example: Forgetting a traumatic childhood event. their wish for a penis. Reaction Formation: Fixation in consciousness of an idea, effect, or desire that is opposite to a feared unconscious impulse. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 2 of 16  Oedipus complex: Boy’s A symptom of sexual desire for his mother and the problem; Focuses on Observable hostility toward his father. the bigger part observable Behavior Elektra Complex (concept by of the problem is behavior. Carl Jung): Girl’s sexual desire submerged. for his father and hostility Early habits and Critical even if a toward his mother. patterns can be person does not Resolution through Importance of unlearned with remember it; identification with same sex Childhood proper affects later life parent leads to the emergence punishments and stages. of superego. reinforcements. Sexual instincts temporarily Believes that Proud to be a die down and superego most aspects of science; develops. human 6-12 yo Latent dependent on Acquisition of new social Scientific Status development are verifiable data and values from adults and children beyond reach carefully controlled outside of the family. of scientific experiments. Sexual desires become more experiment. focused on others rather than CLASSICAL CONDITIONING just oneself. Key Person: Ivan Pavlov Individual seeks sexual 12+ yo Genital A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus satisfaction in heterosexual becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and relationships. acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. If successful: Mature sexuality, marriage, childrearing. KEY CONCEPTS Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally Note: Babies tend to be all id at birth. As individuals mature, triggers a response. so do their ego and superego. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY response to the UCS. Key Person: Erik Erikson Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral but becomes associated with the UCS to trigger a similar response. Proposes that personality development is a lifelong process through eight stages. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS. The outcome of each stage is dependent on the outcome of the previous stage. Example: Imagine a child who initially fears loud noises but Age Crisis Mnemonics has no fear of dogs. Baby: Babies, when they Neutral Stimulus (NS): The dog (initially, the child Trust vs. feels no fear toward the dog). Infant enter the world, need a Mistrust Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A loud noise caregiver they can trust. Autonomy vs. Bots: roBOTS are (naturally causes fear). Toddler Unconditioned Response (UCR): The child feels fear Shame autonomous. Building: When you want in response to the loud noise. Initiative vs. Through repeated pairings: Preschool to build something, you Guilt The dog (NS) is consistently present when the loud need initiative. Buckets: Buckets are noise (UCS) happens. Eventually, the dog is associated Grade Industry vs. with the noise. mass-produced in an school Inferiority After conditioning: industry. Identity vs. (for) Blue: Blue, as an The dog becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and Adolescent just seeing the dog now triggers fear, which is the Confusion adjective, is an identifier. Bored: If you are bored, Conditioned Response (CR). Intimacy vs. Young adult that’s probably because Isolation Shortcut: Note that the UR and the CR are the same you are isolated. Middle-aged Generativity vs. Blessed: Blessed people behavior (in the previous example–getting scared), but they adult Stagnation are generous. are only given different names because they are produced by Integrity vs. Bears: Bear rhymes with different stimuli: Older adult Despair despair. Unconditioned: BEFORE (what is natural?) Conditioned: AFTER (what was learned?) F. BEHAVIORISM Key Persons: John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner Trivia: Through the Little Albert Experiment by John Emerged as a response to claims that psychology is a Watson, in which a child was conditioned to fear (CR) a rat pseudoscience; only observable behavior must be (CS) due to its fear (UCR) of a loud noise (UCS), studied. behaviorism posits that individuals acquire phobias Proposes that all behaviors are learned through through classical conditioning. interactions with the environment. Key Theories: Classical Conditioning, Operant OPERANT CONDITIONING Conditioning Key Person: B.F. Skinner A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or IN COMPARISON WITH PSYCHOANALYSIS weakened by its consequences (four types): o Reinforcement: increases likelihood of behavior. Area of Psychoanalysis Behaviorism § Positive Reinforcement: by adding a stimulus. Disagreement § Negative Reinforcement: by removing a stimulus. A destructive Emphasizes the o Punishment: decreases likelihood of behavior. Unconscious fiction that can power of the § Positive Punishment: by adding a stimulus. Mind keep people from unconscious. § Negative Punishment: by removing a stimulus. changing. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 3 of 16 OPERANT CONDITIONING FLOWCHART KEY IDEAS Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social setting. Learning can occur by observing a behavior and the consequences of such. Learning can happen without an observable change in behavior, because we may learn without displaying what we have learned. G. COGNITIVISM Key Persons: Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Lawrence Kohlberg Examples: Focuses on understanding mental processes. Positive Reinforcement: Giving a child candy for Emphasizes the importance of internal mental finishing their homework. structures and representations in shaping behavior and Negative Reinforcement: Removing chores when a learning outcomes. teenager gets good grades. Key Theories: Cognitive Development Theory, Positive Punishment: Scolding a pet for chewing Sociocultural Theory, Moral Development Theory shoes. Negative Punishment: Taking away a child’s video COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY game time for misbehavior. Key Person: Jean Piaget Emphasizes the active role of children in constructing NICE TO KNOW CONCEPTS their understanding of the world. Primary Reinforcers: Inherently rewarding (e.g., food, Proposed that children progress through distinct water, sleep, shelter, sex). stages of cognitive development, each characterized by Secondary Reinforcers: Learned association (e.g., specific cognitive abilities and limitations. money, trophies, good grades). Mnemonics: Some People Can’t Focus. Primary Punishers: Inherently punishing (e.g., pain, hunger, loud noises, extreme temperatures, bad odor). Age Stage Concepts Secondary Punishers: Learned association (e.g., poor Object Permanence: grades, penalties, loss of privileges, negative facial Sensorimotor Understanding that objects expressions). Stage: Infants continue to exist even when learn about the they are not seen or heard. 0-2 yo SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY world through Causality: Recognizing Key Person: Albert Bandura their senses cause-and-effect Claims that we can also learn by merely observing. and actions. relationships between Emerged as a response to behaviorist beliefs that we events or actions. can only learn through reinforcements and Egocentrism: Difficulty punishments. seeing things from o Bandura considers Social Learning Theory (SLT) as perspectives other than neither strictly behaviorist nor cognitive, though one’s own. scholars often view it as a blend of both. Irreversibility: Inability to o Bandura does not reject behaviorist principles; he Preoperational mentally reverse a series of simply adds the element of internal processes. Stage: Children steps or thought processes. develop Animism: Attributing likelife KEY CONCEPTS language and qualities to inanimate Observational learning: Learning by watching and 2-7 yo symbolic objects. imitating others’ behaviors. thinking but Artificialism: Belief that Vicarious reinforcement: Learning through the struggle with natural phenomena are consequences of others’ actions. logic. created by humans or some Modeling: Imitating behaviors demonstrated by others. external force. o People are more likely to imitate models who are Transductive Reasoning: perceived as similar to themselves, credible, or in Drawing conclusions based positions of authority. on superficial similarities Self-efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific rather than logic. tasks. Conservation: Understanding that quantity The Bobo Doll Experiment Concrete remains the same despite Setup: Children aged 3 to 6 Operational changes in appearance. were individually exposed to Stage: Children Classification: Ability to different adult behaviors understand 7-11 yo categorize objects or ideas towards a Bobo doll. Some concrete events based on shared saw an adult acting and perform characteristics. aggressively, while others simple mental Seriation: Arranging objects witnessed non-aggressive operations. or concepts in a logical order behavior or saw no adult based on a specific property. behavior. Formal Logical Reasoning: Making Result: Those who observed Operational deductions or inferences aggression were more likely to Stage: based on facts, rules, or imitate it, displaying hitting, Adolescents principles. kicking, and verbal aggression 12+ yo gain the ability Abstract Reasoning: toward the doll. In contrast, the to think Thinking about concepts or non-aggressive and control abstractly and ideas that are not directly groups showed fewer solve observable. aggressive actions. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 4 of 16  hypothetical Moral Reasoning: H. HUMANISM problems. Understanding and applying Key Persons: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers principles of right and wrong Focuses on the agency and the maximization of well- in social situations. being and potential of individuals. Emerged as a response to the pessimistic views by SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY psychoanalysis and the disregard for personal agency Key Person: Lev Vygotsky by behaviorism. Emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural Key Theories: Hierarchy of Needs, People-centered context in cognitive development. Therapy Proposes that learning is a social process that occurs through collaboration with others and participation in HIERARCHY OF NEEDS cultural activities. Key Person: Abraham Maslow Provided a framework for understanding human KEY CONCEPTS motivation, behavior, and personal development. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Range between Claims that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs what a learner can do independently and with help. before moving on to other, more advanced needs. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): Someone with greater understanding or expertise in a certain thing. ORIGINAL MODEL (1943) Scaffolding: Temporary support provided by an MKO to help learners bridge the gap in their ZPD. Basic requirements for Physiological Example: A child is learning to read but cannot do it alone human survival Needs (ZPD). With the help of a parent or teacher (MKO), they (water, shelter, practice reading together. The adult points out letters, air, and sleep). Basic sounds, and words (Scaffolding), which provides support Desire for Needs until the child can read more independently. Safety and stability and Deficiency Security protection from Needs MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY Needs physical and (arise due Key Person: Lawrence Kohlberg emotional harm. to o Builds upon the work of Piaget about moral reasoning. Desire for love, deprivation) Explores how individuals develop moral reasoning and Social Needs affection, and a ethical decision-making skills through 3 levels and 6 sense of stages: belonging. Psych Feelings of self- Needs Level Stage Description Esteem worth, Behavior driven by Needs confidence, and Obedience vs. avoiding accomplishment. Punishment Pre- punishment. Fulfillment and Growth Needs (don’t conventional Behavior driven by Self- Individualism vs. maximization of stem from a lack of self-interest and actualization Exchange one’s full something but rather rewards. Needs potential. from a desire to grow) Good Boy, Good Behavior driven by Girl social approval. EXPANDED MODEL (1970) Behavior driven by Conventional Physiological obeying authority Law and Order Needs and conforming to social order. Safety and Behavior driven by Security Needs balance of social Social Needs Social Contract Esteem Needs order and individual Post- Desire for knowledge and rights. Cognitive Needs conventional understanding. Behavior driven by Universal Ethical Appreciation for beauty, harmony, and internal moral Aesthetic Needs Principle sensory experiences. principles. Self-actualization Examples: Needs Obedience vs. Punishment: A child follows rules to Aspiration for spiritual connection and Transcendence avoid being punished (e.g., not touching a hot stove to unity beyond oneself. avoid scolding). Individualism vs. Exchange: A child understands Note: Always assume that the question is pertaining to others have different needs and might act in self-interest the original model UNLESS the choices contain the (e.g., sharing toys because they expect others to share additional levels of the expanded model. back). PEOPLE-CENTERED THERAPY Good Boy, Good Girl: A teenager behaves well to gain Key Person: Carl Rogers approval from others (e.g., helping a classmate to be o Believed that humans have one basic motive, the seen as kind). tendency to self-actualize, which is to fulfill one’s Law and Order: An adult follows the law because it’s potential and achieve the highest level of ‘humanness’ necessary for maintaining social order (e.g., stopping at we can. a red light because it’s the rule). o Proposes that self-concept has three components: Social Contract: A person believes laws should benefit § Self-image: How an individual perceives themselves, everyone, but may be flexible (e.g., supporting civil including personal traits and abilities. rights changes to create fairer laws). § Ideal Self: The person an individual strives to become, Universal Ethical Principle: A person acts according based on their goals and aspirations. to deeply held moral principles, even against the law § Self Esteem: The value and respect an individual feels (e.g., protecting human rights despite personal risk). for themselves. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 5 of 16  Aims to facilitate the process of self-actualization by o Bowlby founded the theory by proposing that the bond providing the necessary conditions for growth. between a child and their primary caregiver is crucial for survival and emotional development. CORE PRINCIPLES o Ainsworth expanded the theory by identifying the Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance and support different attachment styles through the Strange without judgment or conditions. Situation Experiment Empathy: Understanding and sharing the client’s feelings § A structured observational study used to assess and experiences. attachment styles in children. Congruence: Authenticity and genuineness in the § In the experiment, a child is placed in a room with therapist’s interactions. their caregiver. § Over a series of events, the caregiver leaves the IN COMPARISON WITH PSYCHOTHERAPY room and then returns, while a stranger is Focus: PCT emphasizes self-growth and healing, while introduced at certain points. psychotherapy focuses on uncovering unconscious § The child’s behavior is observed during these conflicts. separations and reunions. Therapist’s Role: In PCT, the therapist provides empathy and non-directive support, whereas in psychotherapy, the Attachment Manifestation therapist plays an interpretive, directive role. Style Client’s Role: The client leads the process in PCT, while Children feel secure when caregivers are in psychotherapy, the client relies on the therapist’s consistently responsive. They explore interpretation of unconscious thoughts. confidently knowing support is available. In Timeline: PCT focuses on the present, while Secure the "Strange Situation," children with secure psychotherapy places strong emphasis on early childhood attachment showed brief distress when and past experiences. separated but are quickly comforted upon reunion. I. SELECT CONCEPTS AND THEORIES Children with avoidant attachment adapt to The following subsections encompass select topics in emotionally unavailable caregivers by select areas of psychology. self-soothing. In the "Strange Situation," While the previous topics laid the theoretical foundations of Avoidant avoidantly attached children display psychology for the NMAT, these varied topics focus on key minimal distress upon separation and concepts that are equally important to understand. avoid seeking comfort upon reunion. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Children with ambivalent attachment react The scientific study of how humans grow, develop, and anxiously due to caregivers' inconsistent change over the lifespan (from womb to tomb) Ambivalent/ responsiveness. In the "Strange Situation," Principles of Growth and Development Resistant they show high distress when separated o Development proceeds from head downward and difficulty being comforted upon (cephalocaudal). reunion. o Development proceeds from center outward Children exhibit contradictory behaviors, (proximodistal). seeking comfort but also showing fear or o Development depends on maturation and learning Disorganized avoidance. This style often arises from (nature and nurture). abusive or neglectful caregivers, leading o Development proceeds from simple to complex. to confusion and disorientation. o Growth and development are continuous processes. o Growth and development proceed from general to BIOPSYCHOLOGY specific. Examines how the brain, neurotransmitters, and o Individual rates of growth and development vary; various biological processes influence behavior, sequence does not. thoughts, and emotions. Other Theories of Development BRAIN PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS o Parenting Styles Theory o Attachment Styles Theory Nervous System: Composed of Central Nervous System PARENTING STYLES THEORY (Brain & Spinal Cord) and Peripheral Nervous System (Cranial & Spinal Nerves). Key Person: Diana Baumrind Identifies four parenting styles based on the level of Prosencephalon (Forebrain) responsiveness (warmth) and demandingness (control) Cerebral Lobes that parents provide. o Authoritative: High responsiveness and high control; parents are warm but set clear rules and expectations; promotes children’s independence, self-regulation, and social competence. o Authoritarian: Low responsiveness and high control; parents are strict and expect obedience without question; Telencephalon often results in children who are obedient but may lack Cerebrum self-confidence and social skills. o Permissive: High responsiveness and low control; parents are nurturing but set few rules; leads to children Frontal lobe: Controls executive functions, who may struggle with authority and self-discipline. decision-making, voluntary motor (Primary o Neglectful: Low responsiveness and low control; Motor Cortex) activity, and speech production parents are uninvolved or indifferent; can lead to children (Broca’s area). feeling neglected and having difficulties with attachment, Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information self-esteem, and social functioning. (Primary Somatosensory Cortex), like touch, pressure, and spatial awareness. ATTACHMENT STYLES THEORY Temporal lobe: Manages auditory processing, Key Person: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth memory, and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area). Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 6 of 16  Occipital lobe: Specializes in visual processing Function: Regulates mood, and interpretation. sleep, appetite, and cognition. Limbic Structures Plays a role in regulating gastrointestinal functions. Serotonin (5-HT) Associated Disorders: Depression (-), anxiety disorders (-), eating disorders (-) Function: Involved in arousal, attention, and stress response. Released during fight-or-flight Amygdala: Handles emotion processing, Norepinephrine (NE) response. particularly fear and aggression. Associated Disorders: Hippocampus: Critical for memory formation Depression (-), ADHD (-), and spatial navigation. anxiety disorders (-) Thalamus: Acts as Function: Inhibitory relay station for neurotransmitter, regulates sensory and motor neuronal excitability. Diencephalon signals to the cerebral Gamma- Contributes to the regulation of cortex. aminobutyric acid muscle tone. Hypothalamus: (GABA) Associated Disorders: Maintains Anxiety disorders (-), epilepsy homeostasis by (-), insomnia (-) controlling hormones, Function: Excitatory hunger, thirst, and neurotransmitter, involved in autonomic functions. learning and memory. Most Mesencephalon (Midbrain) abundant neurotransmitter in Glutamate the brain. Associated Disorders: Multiple sclerosis (+), epilepsy (+) Function: Modulate pain perception and emotions. Act as natural painkillers and Endorphins induce feelings of euphoria. Associated Disorders: Pain Regulates vision, hearing, motor control, arousal, and disorders (-), mood disorders reflexes to stimuli. (-) Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain) Pons: Regulates SLEEP AND CONSCIOUSNESS Metencephalon breathing and sleep. Stage Characteristics Transition from Cerebellum: wakefulness to sleep Responsible for Falling 1 Dominated by alpha coordination Asleep and balance waves Medulla Lasts a few minutes Decreased heart rate Myelencephalon oblongata: Controls and body temperature autonomic Light Dominated by theta 2 functions like Sleep waves NREM (Non- heart rate, Accounts for majority of Rapid Eye respiration, and sleep time Movement blood pressure. Most restorative stage Body repair and Note: The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata are growth, immune collectively known as the brainstem. system strengthening, Deep 3 memory consolidation Sleep NEUROTRANSMITTERS Dominated by delta Chemical messengers that enable communication waves between neurons to coordinate signals and activities. Occurs in first half of night Function: Involved in muscle Rapid eye contraction, learning, and movements, vivid memory. dreams Acetylcholine (Ach) Associated Disorders: Muscle paralysis except Alzheimer’s disease (-), for respiratory and eye myasthenia gravis (-) REM (Rapid Eye muscles Function: Regulates 4 Movement) Sleep Brain activity similar movement, reward, motivation, to wakefulness with and pleasure. rapid, low-voltage Dopamine (DA) Associated Disorders: waves Parkinson’s disease (-), Increased heart rate, schizophrenia (+), addiction irregular breathing (+) Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 7 of 16  Important for cognitive Key Person: Robert Sternberg function, emotional Defines intelligence as the ability regulation, memory to adapt to, shape, and select consolidation environments. Identifies three Triarchic Theory REM cycles increase in aspects: analytical intelligence of Intelligence length as night (problem-solving), creative progresses intelligence (novelty generation), Dominated by beta and practical intelligence waves (everyday problem-solving). Key Person: Charles Spearman PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS Proposes that intelligence Two-factor Types Effects Examples consists of a general factor (g) Theory Increase alertness, and specific factors (s) for Cocaine, different cognitive tasks. attention, and energy while Methamphetamine/ Key Person: Louis Thurstone Stimulant elevating blood Amphetamines (e.g., Identifies seven distinct abilities Adderall), Caffeine, that contribute to intelligence: pressure and heart Nicotine Primary Mental verbal comprehension, word rate. Decrease arousal Abilities Theory fluency, number facility, spatial and stimulation in Alcohol, visualization, associative the brain, leading Benzodiazepines memory, perceptual speed, and Depressant reasoning. to feelings of (e.g., Xanax, Valium), relaxation and Barbiturates MEMORY sedation. Memory Process Alter perception, LSD (Lysergic acid o Encoding: Input conversion for memory. thoughts, and diethylamide), o Storage: Retaining stored information. feelings, often Psilocybin (magic o Retrieval: Recalling stored data; has three modes: Hallucinogen leading to mushrooms), DMT § Recognition: Identifying previously learned information hallucinations or (Dimethyltryptamine), when it is presented again (easiest). profound changes PCP (Phencyclidine) § Relearning: Learning information that was previously in consciousness. learned. Relieve pain by § Recall: Retrieving information from memory without binding to opioid any external cues (most difficult). receptors in the Memory Types brain and spinal Heroin, Morphine, Opioid cord, often leading Codeine, Oxycodone to feelings of euphoria and sedation. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving. TYPES OF SCHEMA Mental frameworks or structures that help individuals organize and interpret information. Norms and expected behavior associated with specific societal o Short-term memory: Holds a limited amount of Role Schema roles. Influences behavior towards information for a short duration. individuals. § Sensory memory: Briefly stores sensory input. Guides understanding of inanimate o Long-term memory: Stores vast amounts of information Object Schema object function and behavior. for an extended period. Accumulated self-knowledge based § Explicit memory: Conscious recollection of facts (aka on interactions, shaping self- Declarative memory). Self-Schema perceptions. Continues evolving Þ Episodic memory: Recall of specific events. throughout life. Þ Semantic memory: Memory for general knowledge. Cognitive scripts describing § Implicit memory: Unconscious influence on behavior sequences of behavior and events. (aka Non-declarative memory). Event Schema Basis for anticipating the future and o Procedural memory: Memory for skills (preserved in making plans. amnesia). THEORIES ON INTELLIGENCE Eidetic Memory: (aka Photographic memory) the ability to recall an image from memory with high Key Person Description precision after seeing it only once. Key Person: Howard Gardner Suggests that intelligence is Memory Phenomena composed of multiple o On Remembering Theory of independent abilities or § Primacy effect: Tendency to remember initial items in “intelligences,” including a sequence. Multiple Intelligences linguistic, logical-mathematical, § Recency effect: Tendency to remember recent items spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, in a sequence. musical, interpersonal, § Serial position effect: Tendency to remember both intrapersonal, and naturalistic initial and recent items in a sequence. intelligences. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 8 of 16  §Von Restorff effect: Tendency to remember distinctive o Bipolar I Disorder: Involves manic episodes that may or unique items in a sequence. be preceded or followed by depressive episodes. § Zeigarnik effect: Tendency to remember unfinished o Bipolar II Disorder: Characterized by recurring episodes tasks more than completed ones. of major depression and hypomania, a less severe form o On Forgetting of mania. § Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories Depressive Disorders after the amnestic event. o Major Depressive Disorder: Characterized by § Retrograde amnesia: Inability to remember events persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of from the past. interest or pleasure in activities. Anxiety Disorders TYPES OF ATTENTION o Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Involves excessive and Selective attention: Focusing on one thing, ignoring persistent worry or anxiety about a variety of situations or others. events. Sustained attention: Staying focused over time. o Social Anxiety Disorder: Marked by an intense fear of Divided attention: Multitasking, handling multiple stimuli. social situations and scrutiny by others. Alternating attention: Shifting focus between tasks or o Panic Disorder: Characterized by recurrent panic information. attacks, sudden feelings of intense fear or discomfort. o Specific Phobia: Involves an irrational fear or avoidance Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice something that is of a specific object, situation, or activity. completely visible because of a lack of attention. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders o OCD: Involves obsessions (intrusive, unwanted PERCEPTION INFLUENCES thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors) aimed Tendency to favor information that at reducing anxiety or preventing a feared event. Confirmation confirms preexisting beliefs while Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders Bias o Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Develops after ignoring contradictory evidence. Tendency to see past events as more exposure to a traumatic event, characterized by intrusive Hindsight Bias predictable than they were before they memories, avoidance, negative changes in mood and happened. cognition, and hyperarousal. Tendency to overestimate the Feeding and Eating Disorders Availability Bias likelihood of events based on how o Anorexia Nervosa: Involves restriction of food intake, easily they come to mind. intense fear of gaining weight, and distorted body image. Tendency to rely too heavily on the o Bulimia Nervosa: Characterized by binge eating followed by purging behaviors to prevent weight gain. Anchoring Bias first piece of information encountered when making decisions. Personality Disorders o Cluster A (Odd or Eccentric) Tendency for one’s overall Halo Effect impression of a person to influence § Paranoid Personality Disorder: Characterized by judgments about their specific traits. pervasive distrust and suspicion of others. § Schizoid Personality Disorder: Involves detachment Tendency for people to improve their from social relationships and limited emotional Hawthorne Effect performance or behavior when they expression. know they are being observed. § Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Marked by Tendency to attribute others’ eccentric behavior, unusual beliefs, and social anxiety. Fundamental behavior to internal factors o Cluster B (Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic) Attribution Error (personality) and overlook situational § Antisocial Personality Disorder: Involves a disregard factors. for and violation of the rights of others. Tendency to attribute our behavior to Actor-observer § Borderline Personality Disorder: Marked by external factors (situational Bias instability in mood, self-image, and relationships. influences) when we are the actors. § Histrionic Personality Disorder: Characterized by Tendency to attribute personal excessive attention-seeking and emotionality. Self-serving bias successes to internal factors and § Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Involves a failures to external factors. grandiose sense of self-importance and lack of ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY empathy. Studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion, and o Cluster C (Anxious or Fearful) thought, often linked to mental disorders. § Avoidant Personality Disorder: Characterized by Psychiatry: Study of mental disorders and their diagnosis, social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and management, and prevention. hypersensitivity to criticism. o Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental § Dependent Personality Disorder: Involves excessive Disorders (DSM-5-TR): Handbook used by psychiatrists need for care, leading to submissive and clinging as the authoritative guide to the diagnosis of mental behavior and fear of separation. disorders. § Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Marked by preoccupation with orderliness, MUST-KNOW DISORDERS perfectionism, and control, often at the expense of Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic flexibility. Disorders PERSONALITY o Schizophrenia: A severe mental disorder characterized Explores individual differences in behavior, emotions, by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and and thinking patterns. impaired social functioning. o Schizoaffective Disorder: A condition characterized by SELECT THEORIES ON PERSONALITY symptoms of both schizophrenia and mood disorders, such as mania or depression. Key Person: Carl Jung o Schizophreniform Disorder: Similar to schizophrenia Personality influenced by Jungian but with a shorter duration of symptoms, lasting between unconscious processes and Theory one to six months. composed of various psychological Bipolar and Related Disorders functions and attitudes. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 9 of 16  Proposes the following parts of the Humans respond to experiences Lazarus’ Cognitive psyche: ego (conscious self), cognitively first, emotionally Appraisal Theory personal unconscious (individual second, and physically last. experiences), and collective Feedback from facial muscles can Facial Feedback unconscious (universal trigger or intensify corresponding Hypothesis experiences). emotions. Archetypes: Universal, symbolic patterns or images that reside in the SELECT THEORIES ON MOTIVATION collective unconscious. Three Key Person: David McClelland o Self: Unification of consciousness Needs Focuses on three primary needs: and unconsciousness in a person. Theory achievement, affiliation, and power. o Anima: Feminine aspect in men’s unconscious. Key Person: Frederick Herzberg o Animus: Masculine aspect in Proposes that there are two sets of women’s unconscious. factors influencing motivation and job o Shadow: Hidden or undesirable satisfaction: hygiene factors (such as traits. Two-factor salary, job security, working conditions) o Persona: Social facade presented Theory and motivators (such as recognition, to the world. responsibility, achievement). Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, Key Person: Alfred Adler while motivators lead to satisfaction and Personality is motivated by the increased motivation. pursuit of superiority and success, driven by social interest and shaped Key Person: Clayton Alderfer by birth order: Suggests that individuals are motivated o Firstborn: Exaggerated feelings of by three sets of needs: existence needs Adlerian ERG power; protective. (physiological and safety needs), Theory Theory o Secondborn: Competitive; highly relatedness needs (social and motivated. interpersonal needs), and growth needs o Youngest: Pampered; realistically (personal development and fulfillment). ambitious. GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS) o Only Child: Low feelings of From Hans Selye’s Stress Theory cooperation; socially mature. A three-stage process that describes the physiological Key Persons: Robert McCrae and changes that the body goes through when under stress. Paul Costa o Alarm: Initial fight-or-flight response to stress. Focuses on identifying and o Resistance: Adaptation to ongoing stressors. measuring stable personality traits: o Exhaustion: Depletion of resources due to prolonged o Openness: Intellectual curiosity stress. and creativity. Five-factor o Conscientiousness: Organization SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Model Theory and goal-oriented. Investigates how people’s thoughts, feelings, and o Extraversion: Sociability and behaviors are influenced by social interactions and assertiveness. environments. o Agreeableness: Cooperation and empathy. ATTITUDE COMPONENTS o Neuroticism: Negative Component Description Application emotionality. Stereotype: Cognitive Key Person: William Sheldon shortcuts that categorize Proposes that body types Cognitive Thoughts people based on group correspond to different personality membership traits: Prejudice: Emotional o Endomorph: Rounded and soft Affective Feelings biases based on physique, tends to be sociable and Body Type stereotypes affectionate. Theory Discrimination: Outward o Mesomorph: Muscular and athletic build, often described as assertive expression of prejudice Behavioral Behavior and adventurous. through actions or o Ectomorph: Thin and linear decisions. physique, typically introverted and SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR reserved. Improved performance when an audience EMOTION, MOTIVATION, AND STRESS Social is watching versus when the individual Examines how emotions, motivations, and stress affect Facilitation performs the behavior alone. mental and physical health. Exertion of less effort by a person SELECT THEORIES ON EMOTION working in a group because individual Social Loafing performance cannot be evaluated James-Lange Emotions arise from physiological separately from the group, thus causing Theory arousal. performance decline on easy tasks. Emotions and physiological Changing your behavior to go along with Cannon-Bard Conformity the group even if you do not agree with responses occur simultaneously, Theory rather than one causing the other. the group. Suggests that emotions involve both Compliance Going along with a request or demand. Schachter-Singer physiological arousal and Happens when a group values agreement Theory cognitive interpretation of that and unity more than critically Groupthink arousal. examining ideas, often leading to poor decisions due to pressure to conform. Tenten’s Academy | NMAT Social Sciences Page 10 of 16  Occurs when being part of a group HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY Group makes individuals adopt more extreme Sociology emerged during the 18th to 19th centuries in polarization positions or attitudes than they originally response to major societal changes: held. o Industrial Revolution (1760-1840): Urbanization, class conflict, and economic inequality disrupted traditional COMPLIANCE TECHNIQUES structures. Sociology explored how societies maintain Foot-in-the- Starting with a small request to increase stability amidst these changes. door the likelihood of agreement to a larger o French Revolution (1789-1799): Democratic ideals like Technique request later. freedom and equality challenged traditional power Door-in-the- Making a large request that is likely to be structures, leading sociologists to study societal collapse face refused, then follow up with a smaller, and rebuilding. Technique more reasonable request. o Age of Enlightenment (1700s-1800s): Emphasized Securing agreement with an initial, reason and science, encouraging the empirical study of Low-ball social systems and institutions. attractive offer, then reveal hidden costs Technique or changes afterward. FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY People feel obligated to return favors or Reciprocity Major Sociological Perspectives: Functionalism, concessions, leading to compliance with a Principle Conflict, Symbolic Interactionism request. Major Aspects of Society: Social Structure, Social TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE Processes, Culture Key Person: Robert Sternberg Major Societal Institutions: Religion, Family, Economy, Suggests that love consists of three essential Politics, Education components–intimacy, passion, and commitment–which combine in different ways to form various types of love. o Intimacy: Emotional closeness, connection, and bonding in a relationship. o Passion: Physical attraction and sexual desire, driving romantic and physical closeness. o Commitment: The decision to stay together and maintain the relationship over time. Types of Love: o Liking: Intimacy alone. o Infatuation: Passion alone. o Empty Love: Commitment alone. o Romantic Love: Intimacy + Passion. o Companionate Love: Intimacy + Commitment. o Fatuous Love: Passion + Commitment. o Consummate love: Intimacy + Passion + Commitment. B. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Provide distinct ways on analyzing social phenomena. FUNCTIONALISM Key Person: Émile Durkheim Proposes that each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s functioning as a whole. KEY CONCEPTS Social consensus/cohesion: Manner in which members of society agree upon, work together to achieve what is best for society as a whole. Could take either of these forms: o Mechanical solidarity: Unity within traditional societies based on shared beliefs, values, and common social bonds. o Organic solidarity: Interdependence and cohesion in SOCIOLOGY modern societies stemming from diverse roles and A. DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW mutual reliance. Key Person: Auguste Comte o Introduced positivism, the idea that knowled