Criminology Chapter 3: Crime & Victimization PDF

**Chapter Three: Understanding Crime and Victimization** **I. The Cause of Crime** 1. **Complexity of Crime Causes**: - Despite extensive research, there is no singular explanation for all criminal behavior. - Crime is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by various...

**Chapter Three: Understanding Crime and Victimization** **I. The Cause of Crime** 1. **Complexity of Crime Causes**: - Despite extensive research, there is no singular explanation for all criminal behavior. - Crime is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by various factors. 2. **Criminology**: - **Definition**: The scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior. - **Goals**: - To understand why crimes occur. - To analyze patterns of criminal behavior. - To develop effective crime reduction programs. 3. **Criminologists**: - **Role**: - Social scientists who employ scientific methods to study crime. - They investigate the psychological, biological, and social causes of criminal behavior. - **Objectives**: - Assist law enforcement and policymakers in creating strategies to prevent crime. - Provide insights into crime trends and patterns. **II. Choice Theory** 1. **Fundamental Premise**: - Suggests that individuals have free will and choose to commit crimes after weighing potential benefits against possible consequences. - Crime is seen as a rational decision-making process. 2. **Perception of Alternatives**: - Offenders consider legitimate opportunities and conventional alternatives before engaging in criminal acts. - They assess the likelihood of success and the risks involved. 3. **Deterrent Effect**: - **Definition**: The presumed ability of the threat of punishment to discourage individuals from committing crimes. - The fear of legal sanctions is intended to prevent criminal behavior. **A. Rational Crimes** 1. **Evidence of Rationality**: - Even seemingly impulsive crimes often involve some level of planning and foresight. - **Examples**: - **White-Collar Crime**: Involves elaborate schemes to defraud or embezzle. - **Organized Crime**: Engages in structured conspiracies for profit. - **Street Crimes**: Offenders select targets based on accessibility and likelihood of success. 2. **Target Selection**: - Criminals may choose victims or locations that minimize the risk of detection. - Factors influencing choice include isolation, lack of security, and familiarity with the area. **B. Situational Crime Prevention** 1. **Concept**: - Crime can be prevented by altering the environment to reduce opportunities for criminal activities. - Focuses on making specific changes to deter potential offenders. 2. **Strategies**: - **Increase Effort Required**: - Implement target hardening techniques (e.g., stronger locks, security systems). - Control access to potential targets (e.g., gated communities). - **Increase Risks of Detection**: - Enhance surveillance (e.g., CCTV cameras). - Promote community policing and neighborhood watch programs. - **Reduce Rewards**: - Marking property to make it less valuable to thieves. - Using anti-theft devices in cars and electronics. - **Induce Shame or Guilt**: - Publicizing offenders\' actions (e.g., publishing names of DUI offenders). - Encouraging moral responsibility through education. - **Reduce Provocations**: - Designing environments to minimize conflict (e.g., crowd control measures). - Implementing policies to reduce triggers (e.g., limiting alcohol sales at events). - **Remove Excuses**: - Clear signage indicating rules and consequences. - Educating the public about laws and regulations. **C. General Deterrence** 1. **Definition**: - A crime control policy relying on the threat of punishment to discourage criminal actions among the general population. 2. **Effectiveness**: - **Challenges**: - Low arrest rates (only about 20% of serious crimes result in arrest) weaken deterrence. - Offenders may underestimate the risk of getting caught. - **Offender Perspective**: - Some criminals believe the potential gains outweigh the risks. - Repeat offenders may not be deterred by the threat of punishment. 3. **Evidence**: - Research shows mixed results on whether harsher penalties effectively reduce crime rates. **D. Specific Deterrence** 1. **Definition**: - Punishing individual offenders severely to discourage them from committing future crimes. 2. **Assumptions**: - Offenders are rational and will learn from the consequences of their actions. - Experiencing punishment firsthand will deter future criminal behavior. 3. **Techniques**: - **Harsh Prisons**: Imposing strict incarceration conditions. - **Long Sentences**: Extended imprisonment to incapacitate offenders. - **Stiff Fines**: Significant financial penalties. 4. **Critiques**: - High costs associated with maintaining severe punishment systems. - Evidence suggests that many offenders continue criminal activities post-release. - Not all criminals are rational actors who respond predictably to punishment. **III. Trait Theories** 1. **Overview**: - Propose that criminal behavior is the result of innate biological and psychological traits, not solely individual choice. - Traits can include intelligence levels, personality characteristics, and genetic factors. 2. **Historical Context**: - **Cesare Lombroso**: Considered the father of scientific criminology, suggested criminals are biologically different. - **Twentieth Century Shift**: Earlier biological explanations fell out of favor due to ethical concerns and lack of empirical support. 3. **Contemporary Views**: - Acknowledgment of the interaction between biological predispositions and environmental influences (biosocial theories). - Recognition that social factors can mitigate or exacerbate biological tendencies. 4. **Biosocial Theory**: - Divided into four main areas: - **Biochemical Factors** - **Neurological Factors** - **Genetic Factors** - **Evolutionary Factors** (not detailed in the original content) **A. Biochemical Factors** 1. **Influence on Behavior**: - Chemical imbalances or exposure to toxins can affect brain function and behavior. - Certain substances may predispose individuals to aggression or impulsivity. 2. **Key Areas**: - **Environmental Contaminants**: - Exposure to heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury) linked to cognitive deficits. - Such deficits can correlate with antisocial behaviors. - **Diet and Nutrition**: - Deficiencies in vitamins and minerals may impact mood and behavior. - High consumption of processed foods associated with conditions like ADHD. - **Hypoglycemia**: - Low blood sugar levels can impair brain function. - May lead to mood swings and aggressive outbursts. - **Hormonal Imbalances**: - Elevated testosterone levels linked to increased aggression. - Hormonal fluctuations can affect mood and behavior. **B. Neurological Factors** 1. **Brain Activity and Structure**: - Abnormalities in brain function or structure can predispose individuals to criminal behavior. - **Executive Functioning Disorders**: - Impairments in decision-making, impulse control, and planning. - Linked to chronic offending. 2. **Neurotransmitters**: - Chemical messengers in the brain that influence emotions and behavior. - Imbalances (e.g., low serotonin levels) associated with aggression and impulsivity. 3. **Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)**: - **Symptoms**: - Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsiveness. - Difficulty following rules and social norms. - **Link to Crime**: - Higher likelihood of engaging in delinquent behavior. - Combination of ADHD and dysfunctional family environments increases risk. **C. Genetic Factors** 1. **Heredity and Crime**: - Exploration of whether criminal tendencies can be inherited. - Studies suggest a genetic component to antisocial behavior. 2. **Direct Relationships**: - Antisocial behavior may be directly passed from parents to children. - Genetic abnormalities could predispose individuals to criminality. 3. **Indirect Relationships**: - Genetic traits may influence personality characteristics (e.g., aggression) linked to crime. - Attachment and bonding may have genetic underpinnings affecting behavior. 4. **Research Methods**: - **Twin Studies**: - Comparing criminal behavior in identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins. - Higher concordance rates in identical twins suggest a genetic influence. **IV. Psychological Theories** Suggest that psychological abnormalities and mental processes contribute to criminal behavior. **A. Psychodynamic Theory** 1. **Foundations**: - Developed by Sigmund Freud. - Emphasizes unconscious mental processes and early childhood experiences. 2. **Personality Components**: - **Id**: Primitive desires and instincts. - **Ego**: Rational part that mediates between id and reality. - **Superego**: Moral conscience. 3. **Criminal Behavior**: - Arises from imbalances or conflicts among these components. - Unresolved childhood traumas or fixations may lead to deviant behavior. **B. Crime and Mental Illness** 1. **Link Between Mental Disorders and Crime**: - Certain psychiatric conditions may increase the likelihood of criminal activity. - **Characteristics**: - Impulsivity, lack of empathy, poor judgment. 2. **Specific Disorders**: - **Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)**: - Persistent defiance and hostility toward authority figures. - May lead to confrontations with law enforcement. - **Conduct Disorder (CD)**: - Repetitive pattern of violating social norms and rights of others. - Early onset of aggressive and destructive behaviors. - **Clinical Depression**: - Feelings of hopelessness may result in self-destructive or aggressive acts. - **Alexithymia**: - Difficulty understanding and expressing emotions. - May lead to inappropriate responses to situations. 3. **Chronic Offenders**: - Higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders among repeat offenders. - Mental health interventions may reduce recidivism. **C. Behavioral Theory** 1. **Learning Processes**: - Behavior is learned through interactions with the environment. - Reinforcements and punishments shape future actions. 2. **Modeling and Imitation**: - Individuals may mimic behaviors observed in others, especially authority figures or peers. - Exposure to violence increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior. 3. **Media Influence**: - Violent content in entertainment may desensitize individuals to aggression. - Ongoing debate about the extent of media effects on behavior. **D. Cognitive Theory** 1. **Mental Processes**: - Focuses on how people perceive, interpret, and mentally represent the world. - Cognitive distortions can lead to faulty reasoning and antisocial behavior. 2. **Moral Development Theory**: - **Stages**: - Progression from obedience to authority to principled reasoning. - **Criminals**: - May have arrested moral development, unable to distinguish right from wrong fully. - Fail to consider the consequences of their actions on others. **E. Personality and Crime** 1. **Personality Traits**: - Stable patterns of behavior and thought that distinguish individuals. - Certain traits may predispose individuals to criminal behavior. 2. **Antisocial Personality Disorder**: - **Characteristics**: - Lack of empathy, deceitfulness, impulsivity. - Disregard for societal norms and rights of others. - **Psychopaths/Sociopaths**: - Exhibit manipulative and sometimes charming behavior. - Capable of planning and executing crimes without remorse. 3. **Implications**: - Antisocial personalities are challenging to rehabilitate. - Early intervention may prevent the development of severe antisocial traits. **F. IQ and Crime** 1. **Intelligence and Criminal Behavior**: - Studies have explored the relationship between low intelligence and propensity for crime. - Lower IQ scores observed among some offender populations. 2. **Debate**: - Controversy exists over the interpretation of these findings. - Critics argue that socioeconomic factors and educational opportunities impact both IQ scores and criminal involvement. 3. **Considerations**: - Intelligence may influence the types of crimes committed. - Higher IQ individuals might engage in more sophisticated offenses. **V. Sociological Theories** Recognize that crime is influenced by social structures and cultural factors. **A. Social Structure Theory** 1. **Socioeconomic Inequality**: - Unequal distribution of wealth and resources contributes to crime. - Poverty can lead to frustration and feelings of injustice. 2. **Community Conditions**: - High crime rates often found in disadvantaged neighborhoods. - Lack of access to quality education, employment, and social services. **B. Racial Disparity** 1. **Overrepresentation of Minorities**: - Ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected by poverty and crime. - Systemic inequalities may lead to higher involvement in criminal activities. 2. **Justice System Bias**: - Minority youths more likely to be arrested and processed through the juvenile system. - Concerns about racial profiling and discrimination. 3. **Culture of Poverty**: - Concept that long-term poverty creates a unique subculture. - Values and norms may conflict with mainstream society. **C. The Disorganized Neighborhood** 1. **Characteristics**: - Physical decay, high population turnover, and conflicting values. - Weak social institutions (family, schools) fail to provide guidance. 2. **Lack of Social Control**: - **Collective Efficacy**: - Mutual trust and willingness to intervene for the common good. - Low levels contribute to higher crime rates. 3. **Deviant Subcultures**: - Alternative value systems that endorse criminal behavior. - Lower-class focal concerns may prioritize toughness, excitement, and autonomy. 4. **Strain Theory**: - Developed by Robert Merton. - Discrepancy between societal goals and legitimate means to achieve them leads to strain. - Individuals may resort to crime to attain success. **D. Social Process Theories** 1. **Crime Across Social Classes**: - Criminal behavior is not limited to the poor; it exists in all strata of society. - Focus on the interactions and experiences that influence individuals. 2. **Influential Factors**: - **Family Dynamics**: - Family breakup, ineffective parenting, and abuse increase risk. - **Parental Efficacy**: - Supportive and consistent discipline reduces likelihood of delinquency. - **Educational Experiences**: - School failure and lack of motivation correlate with criminal activity. - Positive school environments can act as protective factors. - **Peer Relationships**: - Association with delinquent peers encourages criminal behavior. - Pro-social friendships promote conformity to societal norms. **E. Social Learning Theory** 1. **Learning Criminal Behavior**: - Individuals adopt criminal techniques and values through close relationships. - **Differential Association Theory**: - Proposed by Edwin Sutherland. - Crime is learned within intimate personal groups. 2. **Key Concepts**: - Frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of associations influence learning. - Exposure to definitions favorable to law violation increases criminal behavior. **F. Social Control Theory** 1. **Inner and Outer Controls**: - Proposes that strong bonds to society prevent individuals from violating laws. - **Elements of the Bond** (as per Travis Hirschi): - **Attachment**: Caring about others\' opinions. - **Commitment**: Investment in conventional activities. - **Involvement**: Participation in societal institutions. - **Belief**: Acceptance of social norms and laws. 2. **Weakening of Bonds**: - When connections to society are broken, individuals are more likely to engage in crime. **G. Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory** 1. **Impact of Labels**: - Being labeled as a criminal can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. - Society\'s reaction contributes to an individual\'s identity. 2. **Stigma and Deviant Identity**: - Negative labels lead to exclusion from conventional groups. - Labeled individuals may join deviant subcultures for acceptance. **VI. Critical Criminology** 1. **Power Dynamics**: - Crime results from the imposition of laws by the powerful to control the less powerful. - Emphasizes the role of social, economic, and political disparities. 2. **Broader View of Crime**: - Focuses on systemic issues like racism, sexism, and inequality. - Critiques the capitalist system for creating conditions that foster crime. 3. **State-Organized Crime**: - Illegal or unethical actions by government officials. - Includes abuses of power, corruption, and human rights violations. 4. **Support for Critical Theory**: - Evidence of social inequality correlating with higher crime rates. - Research on discrimination within the criminal justice system. **VII. Developmental Theories** Explore how individual development influences the onset and continuation of criminal behavior. **A. Criminal Careers** 1. **Trajectory of Offending**: - Criminal behavior often follows a developmental pathway. - Early onset is a significant predictor of long-term offending. 2. **Risk Factors**: - Poor parenting practices. - Lack of emotional support. - Negative peer influences. - Psychological issues. 3. **Life Course Impact**: - Early criminal involvement can lead to cumulative disadvantages. - Affects education, employment, and relationships. **B. Latent Trait Theory** 1. **Master Trait**: - Suggests a stable characteristic influences behavior over the lifespan. - Traits may include low self-control, impulsivity, or defective intelligence. 2. **Implications**: - Individuals with certain traits are more prone to criminality regardless of environmental changes. **C. General Theory of Crime** 1. **Self-Control**: - Proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi. - Low self-control is the primary cause of criminal behavior. 2. **Characteristics of Low Self-Control**: - Impulsiveness, preference for simple tasks, risk-seeking, self-centeredness. 3. **Development of Self-Control**: - Formed through effective parenting. - Monitoring, recognizing deviance, and consistent discipline are crucial. **D. Life Course Theory** 1. **Dynamic Process**: - Criminal behavior is influenced by individual traits and social experiences over time. 2. **Cumulative Disadvantage**: - Multiple risk factors accumulate, increasing the likelihood of offending. 3. **Turning Points**: - Positive life events (e.g., marriage, employment) can alter criminal trajectories. - Building social capital strengthens ties to conventional society. **E. Trajectory Theory** 1. **Multiple Pathways**: - Recognizes that there is more than one path to criminal behavior. - Different types of offenders with unique patterns. 2. **Adolescent-Limited Offenders**: - Engage in minor delinquency during youth. - Desist from crime as they mature. 3. **Life-Course Persistent Offenders**: - Begin offending early and continue into adulthood. - Often associated with neurological and psychological deficits. **VIII. Theories of Victimization** Examines how victims may contribute to their victimization and factors that increase risk. **A. Victim Precipitation** 1. **Active Precipitation**: - Victim provokes or initiates the confrontation leading to the crime. - Actions may include threats or aggressive behavior. 2. **Passive Precipitation**: - Victim possesses characteristics that unknowingly encourage the attack. - May be targeted due to race, religion, or sexual orientation (e.g., hate crimes). **B. Lifestyle Theory** 1. **Risky Lifestyles**: - Engaging in high-risk behaviors increases exposure to offenders. - Examples include frequenting dangerous areas, associating with criminals. 2. **Associations**: - Involvement in gangs or illegal activities heightens victimization risk. 3. **Prevention**: - Awareness and modification of lifestyle choices can reduce vulnerability. **C. Routine Activities Theory** 1. **Elements of Crime**: - **Motivated Offenders**: Individuals ready to commit a crime. - **Suitable Targets**: Objects or persons that are attractive and accessible. - **Absence of Capable Guardians**: Lack of effective deterrents (e.g., police, security systems). 2. **Crime Occurrence**: - When these elements converge in time and space, the likelihood of crime increases. 3. **Applications**: - Enhancing guardianship (e.g., surveillance) can prevent crime. - Reducing target suitability (e.g., securing property) deters offenders.