Sociology Notes PDF

2.1.1 Society as a Product of Social Construction Culture: Culture refers to the shared beliefs, practices, and material objects that shape a society’s way of life. Durkheim emphasized how culture creates social cohesion, while Weber highlighted the role of ideas in shaping eco...

2.1.1 Society as a Product of Social Construction Culture: Culture refers to the shared beliefs, practices, and material objects that shape a society’s way of life. Durkheim emphasized how culture creates social cohesion, while Weber highlighted the role of ideas in shaping economic and social structures. Norms: Norms are the expected behaviors within a society, which can be formal (laws) or informal (customs). Parsons viewed norms as essential for maintaining social order. Values: Values are deeply held beliefs about what is right and wrong in a society. Functionalists argue that shared values create social stability, while Marxists see them as a reflection of ruling-class interests. Customs: Customs are long-established social practices, such as traditions and rituals, that reinforce social cohesion. Roles: Roles are the behaviors expected from individuals based on their social position. Goffman’s dramaturgical approach explains how people "perform" roles in different social settings. Status (Achieved/Ascribed): Status refers to a person’s social standing, which can be ascribed (given at birth, e.g., royalty) or achieved (earned through effort, e.g., a career). Weber distinguished between status and class in social stratification. Stereotypes: Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations about groups, often reinforcing social inequalities. Feminists argue that gender stereotypes maintain patriarchal structures. 2.1.2 The Social Construction of Our Identity The Nature-Nurture Debate: This debate questions whether human behavior is primarily shaped by biological factors (nature) or social influences (nurture). Sociobiologists like Wilson argue that genetics influence behavior, while social constructionists emphasize the role of socialization. Mead’s symbolic interactionism suggests that identity is developed through social interactions, reinforcing the importance of nurture. Twin studies have shown that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to human development, making this an ongoing discussion in sociology. The Relativity of Culture: Cultural norms and values vary across societies and time periods, demonstrating that they are socially constructed rather than universal. For example, Margaret Mead’s research on Samoan adolescence challenged Western assumptions about gender roles.  Socialisation: Socialisation is the process through which individuals learn cultural norms and values. Primary socialisation occurs within the family, while secondary socialisation happens in institutions like schools and workplaces. Durkheim stressed its role in social integration. Norms and Values: Norms are the specific rules governing behavior, while values are broader principles that underpin them. For example, the value of respect manifests in norms such as addressing elders politely. Symbolic interactionalism: Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level sociological perspective that focuses on how individuals create meaning through social interactions. Developed by theorists like Mead and Blumer, it argues that people act based on the meanings they ascribe to objects, events, and other people, which are shaped through communication and socialization. Mead’s concept of the "self" explains how identity is formed through interactions, particularly through the distinction between the "I" (the spontaneous, individual self) and the "me" (the socialized self that considers societal expectations). Blumer expanded on Mead’s work, outlining three key principles: (1) people act based on meanings, (2) meanings arise from social interactions, and (3) meanings are modified through interpretation. A key idea within symbolic interactionism is the looking-glass self (Cooley), which suggests that individuals develop their self-concept by imagining how others perceive them. Goffman’s dramaturgical approach further extends this by comparing social life to a theatrical performance, where individuals present different "selves" depending on the social setting. Symbolic interactionism highlights the fluid, negotiated nature of identity and challenges deterministic views of human behavior.