Social Theories Overview (Part 1) PDF

**A branch of epidemiology:** the branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health. Functionalism  **Functionalism** is a system of thinking based on ideas of Emile Durkheim that look at society from large-sca...

**A branch of epidemiology:** the branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health. Functionalism  **Functionalism** is a system of thinking based on ideas of Emile Durkheim that look at society from large-scale perspective, and how each part helps keep society stable. o It says that society is heading towards equilibrium. Ex. local businesses must adapt to new ways to cater to customers (in response to a disrupter such as amazon for example) o Also called structural functionalism. The structural functionalism approach is a macro-sociological analysis, with a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole.\[  Durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts o **Institutions** are structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, etc. \[also: business, law, military, police force, mass-media, nongovernmental organizations, religion\] o **Social facts** are ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law. Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate (one person committing suicide has no effect of suicide on society). Facet of society itself and a necessary structure.  Society is dependent on structures that create it, like a biological cell is dependent on parts that make it up. o Intended consequences of institutions are **manifest functions**, ex. businesses provide a service. School -- educate people so they can get jobs. Laws -- maintain social order. o Unintended consequences, ex. schools expose students to social connections/new activities, and businesses connect people across society -- **latent functions**, indirect effects of institutions. (unrecognized consequences) o **Social dysfunction** is process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society.  Durkheim questioned how do societies stay together o **Small societies** are held together by similarities, but only works for small ones...evolves into large society. (population growth in a small space...and people become specialized) 262 o In **large societies** individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles. Forced mutual independence. o In functionalism, a change to production/distribution/coordination will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society. Social change threatens mutual dependence of people in that society. Institutions adapt only just enough to accommodate change to maintain mutual interdependence.  Problems of functionalism: focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individual (only acknowledged). Also largely unable to explain social change and conflict, so focussed on equilibrium (between social facts and institutions) little change and conflict is modelled and no conflict can occur. More to society than just stable state of its part, but functionalism is still useful in examining the functions of its integral parts. Conflict Theory  Focuses on inequalities of different groups in society, based on ideas of Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: **feudalism -\> capitalism -\> socialism.** o 19th century Europe was capitalist -- § rich upper class called **bourgeoisie** (minority) and poor lower class called the **proletariat** (majority).  The term "bourgeois" refers to individuals of a social class that have wealth, power, or influence.  The term "proletariat" refers to individuals from a working class, where their worth is determined by their ability to perform manual labor. § Upper class had more power (owned the factories, and sold what they produced from factories). Lower class depended on upper class (the factory owners) to get paid, but upper class also depended on lower class for their labour. § Significant economic inequality, which Marx believed led to change in society. Lower class united to create **class consciousness** as they realized they were being exploited. Exploitation would allow lower class to overthrow the status quo. A society where one group exploited another group economically would eventually lead to its own destruction. o The **thesis (existing generally accepted state)** was that bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labour. Thesis causes the formation of the reaction -- antithesis (opposed the accepted state). o **Antithesis** - Desire of working class to change was the thesis. The anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo. § **Thesis** + **antithesis** can't coexist peacefully. Thesis is happy while antithesis is looking for change always. o Struggle would lead to a compromise - a **synthesis** of the two by creating a new state. Would eventually become new thesis. 263 § Could lead to members of the working class becoming managers. Creating a new middle class that might have more power than the factory owner. This creates a new thesis/antithesis. Thesis is always is the more powerful party. § Antithesis always wants to oppose the thesis and there is a constant struggle of tension/unrest between the two opposing sides.  **Ludwig Gumplowicz** expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others.  **Max Weber** said he did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable, but argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality. o Introduced: three independent factors Class/Status/Power § **Class:** A person\'s economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber notes how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell their labor instead of owning capital. § **Status / Prestige**: A person\'s prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one\'s individual status.  For example: Poets or saints can have extensive influence on society despite few material resources. § **Power:** A person\'s ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage social change.  For example, individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but still wield considerable social power.  The **equal rights** and **women's suffrage** movements were all conflicts that resolved in a new **thesis**.  The good of conflict theory: Conflict theory models drastic changes that occur in a society  Problems of conflict theory: doesn't explain the stability a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo. Social Constructionism  **Social constructionism** argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement -- it's something constructed, not inherent. Things are **social** **products** made of the values of the society that created it. o A **social construct** is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money. 264  **Social constructionism** is theory that knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement -- nations, books, etc. don't exist in absence of human society. o The **self** is a social construct too -- our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people. (and reaction to expectations to society)  2 types of social constructionism: weak and strong o **Weak social constructionism** proposes that social constructs are dependent on: § **Brute facts**, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else). § **Institutional facts** are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value. o **Strong social constructionism** states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist.  Main criticism to social constructionism is it doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society, and for strong social constructionism it has difficulties explaining those phenomena because they don't depend on human speech or action. Strong SC only explains reality through thoughts of humans, not using fundamental brute facts.  Associated with: Berger and Luckman  "Presumes that ideas (such as knowledge about health and disease) are created through historical processes that are socially defined and culturally distinct. Thus, variation in mental illness classification across societies with different cultures suggests that such disorders are socially constructed." Symbolic Interactionism  Takes a small-scale view of society, focuses on small interactions between individuals like hanging out with a friend. Sees society as buildup of everyday typical interactions.  **Symbolic interactionism examines small scale (or micro level) social interactions,** **focusing attention on how shared meaning is established among individuals or small** **groups**  **"explains social phenomena in terms of the meanings that they hold when people** **interact with one another.**  Addresses the **subjective meanings** people believe to be true -- **meaning** is the central aspect of human behavior. Humans ascribe meanings to things, and act towards those things based on ascribed meaning. **Language** allows humans to generate meaning through interactions, and humans modify meanings to **thought processes**.  Particularly interested in symbols use that people use to contribute values/beliefs to others. 265  Developed by **George Herbert Mead**, believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things. People change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meaning to things to decide how to act. \[Tree means shade for example\]  **Herbert Blumer** continued Mead's work. He proposed 3 tenants to explain symbolic interactionism: o 1. We act based on meaning we've given something. Ex. tree is place to rest. o 2. Different people assign different meanings to things. We give meaning to things based on social interactions, ex. someone tells us tree is infested with ants. But we have different views of the tree and we act differently. o 3. The meaning we give something isn't permanent, ex. something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds. (Tree now is defined as shade on a hot day with a potential of getting bit)  Criticism -- doesn't ask same questions as large scale sociologists do. Sometimes considered as supplemental instead of full theory, because restricted to small interactions between individuals. But gives different perspective necessary for fully understanding society. Capable of explaining of how societies can change when created/recreated by social interactions. Feminist Theory  A contemporary approach of looking at world from macro-perspective, developed from feminism movement originating from conflict theory by focussing on stratifications/inequalities in society. It examines women's social roles/experience in education, family, and workforce.  It looks beyond more common male-based perspective to focus on gender inequalities in society.  Women face **discrimination** (unjust treatment of individual because they belong to a certain group), **objectification** (when someone is regarded as an object and treated as less important), **oppression** (where women are treated unjustly and encouraged to occupy gender based social roles)**,** and **stereotyping** (all women are viewed under the same oversimplified image).  Different types of feminist theory: o 1) **Gender differences** -- socially constructed created via process of socialization. Society creates and passes down norms, customers, and expectations for gender from generation to generation. Creates a system that rewards/punishes the expectations created. Examines how women's position in social situations differ from men -- different values with women (femininity) than men (masculinity). Women seen as soft, caretakers, emotional, submissive (vs men: tough, aggressive, warriors). Different gender roles: woman assigned to take care of family and stay at home, while men go to work/war. Woman are marginalized and confined to lower limit in society. Women have been objectified as sexual instruments. 266 o 2) **Gender inequality** -- central to all behavior/organization in society. Women subordination is viewed as inherent feature. Our society is a **patriarchy** -- men constitute the governing body as heads of families and communities. Married women have higher stress levels than married men/unmarried women, and have less influence in public sphere (because they focus on private sphere at home). Gender division of labor - men occupy higher paying jobs/prestigious positions. § Ex. Ben Barres began his life as women, and after sex change he noticed people thought his research was much better than his sister Barbara's. However, Barbara was the same person. (Social bias created by a work done by a woman (exists even in academia)). o 3) **Gender oppression** -- women are not only unequal as men, but they're oppressed, subordinated, and abused. Positive state of being a women not acknowledged in patriarchal society. Institution of family is especially beneficial to men. Family was split into 2 types of labour -- domestic labour was done by women (no pay), while men worked outside home in labour/industry. Without men working, family wouldn't survive. § Split role created educational and economic gap between men and women. Men had more social power. \[Power sometimes expressed as physical violence\]. o 4) **Structural oppression** -- women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Direct parallel to conflict theory. Women like working class are exploited because of capital model, but not all women express oppression in same way. Linked to race, class, sexual orientation, age, and disability. Men are associated with mind, while women are associated with body. \[Woman objectified in society in many ways -- fashion, child bearing, diet programs\]. Men have not been oppressed. Men are expected to be active participants in society, women are expected to be passive\]. § Language is gendered. Mailman, policeman, fireman (feminist use mailperson, police officer, fire officer to reverse this oppression).  Feminist theory is not an attempt to replace men -- different perspective on society to point out inequalities that exist between men and women due to institutions of society. Inequality is a central part of society. o Feminist theory focuses on different expectations, salary differences, gender inequalities that permeate everyday life Rational Choice Theory and Exchange Theory  Rational Choice Theory and Exchange Theory centre on economics.  **Rational Choice Theory** - people not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get better. o Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational -- a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action. Maximize personal gain. Pattern of choices (not an individual choice). 267 o People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and motivated by goals. o People calculate the cost and benefits of each action and choose the one with the best outcome for themselves. o How do we calculate value of these actions? Social resources being exchanged -- time, information, approval, prestige, etc. (determines value) o Theory assumes you can explain social change/social institutions. o 3 main assumptions: § 1. **Completeness** (every action can be ranked), ex. A is preferable to B which is preferable to C. (C is not then preferable to A). (A\>B\>C) § 2. **Transitivity** (since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, therefore, A is also preferable to C). (same as math A \>B \>C, Therefore A\>C). § 3.) **Independence of irrelevant alternatives** (if I have a fourth option X, won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order. (A\>B\>C, & B\>X\>C, Therefore: A\>B\>X\>C). o Rational Choice perspective assumes that individual behavior will be based on an implicit analysis of the cost and benefits of actions.  **Exchange Theory** / Exchange-Rational Choice Theory -- application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory addresses decision making via costbenefit analyses o Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. o Used to study family relationships, work relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. (interpersonal interactions). § **Sexual selection** -- natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex § **Social selection** -- idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Also that social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population. **Social selection** is an alternative theory to sexual selection proposed by the evolutionary biologist Joan Roughgarden.  the differential action of social conditions or agencies on the longevity and reproductive rates of individuals and strains in the population \ o Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action. o Basic principle behind exchange theory -- behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments. § Rewards: can be social approval, money gifts, and positive gestures (a smile). § Punishments: negative gestures, social disapproval, public humiliation o Assumptions: People seek to rationally maximize their profits, behavior results in a reward is likely to be repeated - more often reward is available the less valuable it is (think: supply and demand, more supply = less valuable/"price"), interactions operate within social norms, people access have information they 268 need to make rational choices (debateable, but is assumed), human fulfillment comes from other people (interdependence in social exchange), and standards people use to evaluate interaction changes over time (different from person to person -- reward to one person can be punishment for another). o What kind of interactions? Self-interest and interdependence guide human interactions. We form relationships to benefit ourselves, no one is self-sufficient. § Subjective interactions of rewards + punishments of each interaction.  Critiques -- are we really rational? Some people's choices are limited by gender/ethnicity/class, and make choice not in best interest. And why some people follow social norms that act in best interest of others (taxes, volunteering). And is it really possible to explain every social structure by actions of individuals? Critiques dislike that all human interactions are a rational process of pros/cons and makes relationships linear -- when they aren't. Social Theories Overview (Part 1)  **Functionalism** -- how society can exist over time. Society is always trying to come to an equilibrium. Institutions remain constant and only make minor change when stability is lost to fill need of society. Ex. Business institution had to adapt to online shopping boom. Change is bare minimum to become functional again.  **Conflict Theory** -- how societies changes and adapt over time through conflict. Two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content. Ex. Class struggle of 19th century Europe.  **Social Constructionism** -- what society is rather than how it exists/changes. Everything is created from the mind of society. Agreement that something has meaning and value that it doesn't have intrinsically, ex. Money. Everything only has value because everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around us.  **Symbolic Interactionism --** Puts a lot of focus on individual and how they behave -- based on meanings we give to things, ex. Tree = shade. People are created by their society, and act based on past experiences, and meanings they've given things. Not everyone gives same meaning to same things. We interact with the world to give it meaning. symbolic interactionist perspective, which is predicated on interaction and interpretation  Functionalism = looking at stability of society, conflict theory = how society changes, social constructionism = how things are given value, symbolic interactionism = how individuals act. Social Theories Overview (Part 2)  **Feminist Theory** - macro level perspective on society, focussing on gender inequalities inherent to patriarchal capitalist societies, where men occupy governing positions in family and community. Both men and women often forced into gender-based roles. Focuses on gender differences, gender inequalities, gender oppression, and structural 269 oppression. \[Feminist theory does not intend to replace men at the top of the social ladder\]  **Rational Choice Theory** -- people always take rational actions, weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain most benefit. 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, and independence of irrelevant alternatives. \[Do we all make rational choices, and why would we do something for someone else, is every human interaction just a rational process?)  **Exchange Theory** -- application of Rational Choice Theory to social interaction. Family, work, partner selection, parenting, interpersonal relationships. People behave with goal of maximizing own rewards while minimizing punishments, and people can make rational choices in social norm, and self-interest and interdependence guide interactions, and human relationships from cost-benefit analysis. Relating Social Theories to Medicine  **Functionalism** -- if we look at medicine from this point of view, we ask: What is the purpose of medicine. When people become ill medicine ensures they return to functional state so they can become functional to society. o Being sick is detrimental to well-being of society as a whole. Assumption is you're not supposed to participate in society when sick, affecting society on small scale. § Doctor = help you get better so you can participate in society. o Medicine Institution stabilizes social system in emergency situations like hurricanes/earthquakes, etc. where hospitals/medical professionals provide medical assistance needed to injured. § Day-to-day, it improves quality of life for aging population to allow them to contribute longer to society.  **Conflict Theory** -- Inequality between different groups. Who has access to medical care? Wealthier people can pay for best medical care, the poor can't afford the deductibles/insurance so they skip hospitals, and are sick for longer/never get better. o Unequal access to valuable resources in society (education, housing, jobs) leads to heath disparities and limited access to medical care. o Power struggle between different interest groups can affect health of individual, ex. Factories (want lax regulations) vs. people living nearby (want strict). Asthma rates are higher with more pollution.  **Social Constructionism** -- we attach different meanings to different behaviours, and have preconceptions of different people (stereotypes) o We have preconceptions about different races, genders, and subcultures. Assumptions dangerous to medical profession -- affect how you treat patient and their diagnosis. o "Poor people don't deserve healthcare because they don't work hard enough" BUT: Some people work hard @ minimum wage who can't afford healthcare but there are people who don't work who can. 270 o There are stereotyped assumptions on both sides -- patient may feel some symptoms aren't important enough to mention, or doctor makes false assumption based on how patient appears. o Can't declare characteristic of person based on circumstance, ex. people who don't work can still afford healthcare while those who work hard can't afford it. o **Medicalization** -- patients/doctors construct illness out of ordinary behavior. \[Not sitting still in class doesn't mean ADD\]  **Symbolic Interactionism** o **Doctor-patient relationship**, given meanings to lab coat/stethoscope can affect interaction. Important for doctor to realize the meaning the patient has given to tools of medicine; Ex. Lab coat is sign of authority. Stethoscope is a way to interact with patient. o **Changes in society** -- recently, medicalization of society, where everything has a medical fix. Standards of beauty have made many undergo unneeded plastic surgery, or have C-sections. Normal behaviours are being shown as illnesses. Ex. Depression. (Sad is not depressed, sad is a natural biological function).  **Feminist Theory** -- medicine is still a male-dominated field, heads of doctors and hospitals usually men, and disparity in jobs/salary between the two. Translates into a disparity in power.  **Rational Choice-Exchange Theories** -- (people behave rationally in their best interest). What's purpose of medical system as a whole (to keep people healthy or a capitalist organization)? Or is it a capitalist competition to earn the most money? o People run every aspect of medical system and those people will make decisions that benefit themselves more than random sick stranger, may affect why people go to doctor or not. Some people avoid doctors if they don't think it will benefit them. Can cause something that could have been easily treated to become a larger problem. o Self-interested behavior of people in charge will trickle down and affect wellbeing of patients  Outside these theories -- where you live can affect your health (food deserts), and nearly impossible to get nutrition a body needs from only these sources. Only things that exist are fast food/snacks for example. Some neighbourhoods have no gyms/playgrounds.