Mi'kmaw Exam Review 2025 PDF

**[Ms Green's 11 Mi'kmaw Final Exam Review 2025]** **[The Exam will consist of Multiple Choice Questions and True or False Questions]** **[Know the following terms:]** Stereotype: Unfair, untruthfully what people have about a group of people or individuals based on certain characteristics. Peac...

**[Ms Green's 11 Mi'kmaw Final Exam Review 2025]** **[The Exam will consist of Multiple Choice Questions and True or False Questions]** **[Know the following terms:]** Stereotype: Unfair, untruthfully what people have about a group of people or individuals based on certain characteristics. Peace and Friendship treaties: The piece and friendship agreements were signed between settlers on both sides of the conflict to secure fighting allies or at least guarantee Indian neutrality. The British formalized these guarantees by writing them down. In 1752 the Mi'kmaq grand chief by the name of Jean Baptiste Cope had signed an agreement with the governor of NS These agreements are what are known as peace and friendship treaties. In 1993 Premier John savage and Mi'kmaq Grand chief Ben Sylliboy announced that october would be Mi'kmaq history month is NS it celebrates and gives thanks for signing the treaties of peace and friendship Potlatch: They held potlatches to confirm titles on important members of the community/clan. There often happens dancing, feasting, and gift giving, chiefs were named, marriages celebrated, or children adopted. -celebrate a change of rank or status with dancing, feasting and gifts -potlatch means to give -it showed how much power,status and riches they had \- Potlatch is a ceremonial feast where wealth and gifts are distributed or destroyed to demonstrate the host's generosity, power, and status \- ceremony marks significant life events such as marriages, naming ceremonies, or mourning -Potlatches were historically used to reaffirm social status and community connections -potlatch ceremonies are used for the naming of children, marriage, transferring rights and privileges and mourning the dead -it demonstrates a leaders wealth and power -it also focuses on the reaffirmation of family, clan and international connections, and the human connection with the supernatural world -it was an effective way of sharing those riches and establishing social ties \- Potlatch is crucial for maintaining social structure, reinforcing community bonds, and redistributing wealth -\> demonstrates the importance of generosity and reciprocity in Mi'kmaq culture \- ceremony also connects participants to their spiritual beliefs and cultural identity Enfranchisement: Status Indians who joined the military could now vote. Veterans who were Status Indians came back from the Second World war and found they had lost their status and a home to return to. enfranchisement is the process by which Indigenous individuals were given citizenship rights under Canadian law. It often required abandoning Indigenous status and culture. The Government aimed to reduce the number of „Status Indians," decreasing government responsibilities toward Indigenous communities. By Integrating Indigenous peoples into settöer society, the government hoped to erase distinct Indigenous identities and cultures. They were managing „wards of the Crown" was costly. Enfranchisement was a way to decrease expenses by removing government obligations. The Forced enfranchisement required Indigenous peoples to abandon their culture, language, and community ties, aligning them with settler norms and reducing resistance. Gains with Enfranchisement: Could own land Could vote in Government elections Losses with enfranchisement: Could not live on reserves Would loose al treaty rights including: Would not qualify for government payments under the treaties Would lose identity and an "Indian" under the law Would lose hunting and fishing rights Vision Quest: a vision quest might take place. -during a child\'s illness -during a time of personal doubt -during puberty Steps:\ -helpers prepare sacred place -seeker stays at sacred place and prays for vision -vision comes to seeker in form of animal and dreams carry most powerful vision -at end of vision quest helpers return and take seeker to sweat lodge. \- Vision Quest is a spiritual journey where an individual seeks guidance from a guardian spirit, usually through dreams or visions \- Quest typically involves fasting and isolation in a sacred location -The goal is to obtain wisdom, protection, or insight from the spiritual realm, often conveyed through animals or natural elements that appear in visions. -to obtain advice /protection -to sacred knowledge and strength from the spirit world. \- the Mi'kmaq, the Vision Quest is a rite of passage, especially for young people transitioning into adulthood -provides spiritual guidance, helps individuals find their life purpose, and connects them with their ancestors and the natural world -Vision Quest fosters a deep personal relationship with the spiritual world, offering strength and protection in life's journey Smudging: -Smudging involves burning sacred herbs like sage, sweetgrass, or cedar to purify a space, person, or object \- smoke from the herbs is believed to carry prayers to the Creator and cleanse negative energy -is often performed before ceremonies or important events -a medium for communication with these spiritual world, ancestors and higher powers -believed to create a bridge between the physical and spiritual realms, guidance and protection -also associated with healing practices and promoting overall well-being -Smudging is a key spiritual practice in Mi'kmaq culture, promoting healing, protection, and spiritual clarity \- helps individuals connect with their ancestors and the spirit world, creating a sense of harmony and balance \- is a symbolic act of purification, used to cleanse the mind, body, and spirit Systemic Racism: Systemic Racism is a form of racism that is embedded in and through systems, laws, written or unwritten policies, which create a widespread unfair treatment of people. White Paper: Under Prime Minister Pierre trudeau, the Canadian government released its White Paper on Indian Policy It called for the complete assimilation of First Nations peoples into Canadian society White Paper proposed to: repeal the Indian Act, ending federal responsibilities to First Nations end Indian status and treaties eliminate reserve land transfer all responsibilities for Aboriginal peoples to the provinces The paper was presented by the Indian Affairs minister at the time, Jean Chrétien The reaction was immediate and fierce, with almost every Indian organization protecting against the plan The paper was dropped and Native political organizations became stronger and more unified Also in 1969, Indian agents were removed from the reserves The White Paper -Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau released the White paper on Indian policy -It called for complete assimilation of First nations into Canadian society -The white paper proposed to: Repeal the indian act, ending federal responsibility to first nations End Indian status and treaties eliminate reserve land Transfer all responsibilities for Aboriginal people to the provinces Indian organizations protested the plan and it was dropped. The 1969 White Paper proposal aimed to abolish the Indian Act but faced strong opposition from First nations leaders, Highlighting the risk of assimilation. In May 1969, the government held a meeting of regional Aboriginal leaders from across the nation in Ottawa. It heard their concerns about Aboriginal And treaty rights, land title, self determination, education, and healthcare. After the consultations, Chrétien presented the government\'s White Paper to the House of Commons on June 25, 1969. The paper said that this would make First Nations Peoples equal to other Canadians by making them official Canadian citizens. The White Paper also proposed all special programs available to indigenous peoples because of their Indian status should be removed. This would end special or individualized treatment by ethnicity. The Paper said that eliminating Indian status would \"enable the Indian people to be free---free to develop Indian cultures in an environment of legal, social and economic equality with other Canadians.\" Results of White Paper? -The Indian Act would end \- All treaties would be discontinued -The Reserve System would be abolished -Native People would have the same rights and responsibilities as every other Canadian -Native Leaders responded with The Red Paper, outlining their concerns and their protests against The White Paper -By 1970, Pierre Trudeau withdrew „The WHite Paper" policy Oral History: Oral histories are the way the Mi'kmaw people learned about their culture and history. These are spoken stories and legends through which they understand their past. -oral histories are the way mi'kmaq people learned about their culture and history -these are spoken stories and legends through which they understand the past. Residential Schools: Residential schools forced Mi'kmaw children to leave their traditions behind and only practice Catholic beliefs. Over time, many Mi'kmaq became Catholic. indigenous children were taken from their families and forced onto schools that aimed to erase Mi\'kmaq identity. The goals of Residential Schools were to assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian Society, to erase Indigenous cultures, languages, and traditions, and to prepare children for life within white settler society. Wigwam: The Mi'kmaq lived in homes called wigwams Wigwams could be built in a day and were put up by women They were made with: Five spruce poles, tied together at the top with split spruce root \- Poles are spread out at the bottom for width Braced just down from the top with a hoop of moosewood Shorter poles offered support to the birch bark cover Birch bark sheets were laid over the poles starting from the bottom and overlapping as they worked up the wigwam \- Birch bark was used because it was waterproof and portable Top was left open for smoke to escape A separate bark collar covered the top in bad weather Floor was lined with fir twigs, woven mats, and animal fur A large hide acted as the door Painted with figures of animals and birds The largest wigwam housed 12-15 people \- For larger families a longer style with two fireplaces was built) Elder: Four ways elders are helpful in the community. They helped educate children, offered practical suggestions about daily life (including the best places for hunting and fishing and ways to make household items), they are keepers of traditional knowledge and history,they also connected the community to its past by telling stories and legends. Additionally they are spiritual guides and advisors. Why did the elders lose much of their spiritual importance in aboriginal communities? They lost their spiritual importance in aboriginal communities because the federal government and christian churches tried to assimilate aboriginal people. Why is the role of elders vital once more? They participate in decision making in most Aboriginal organizations and communities. How does an elder become an "elder"? An elder becomes an elder when a man or a woman must have lived through many experiences to gain knowledge and wisdom. In addition an elder must also be recognized by their community as a wise person, they don\'t seek status. Two roles of elders today. They connect people to the events, customs and ceremonies of the past. Elders also perform as counselors but they do not impose their knowledge and wisdom. Recently they also become mediators in criminal proceedings involving aboriginal people. Elders in the community were some of the most important teachers. They would pass traditions of culture and traditional language on to ensure it wasn't lost. Smudging: What is smudging and why do Native people do this? Smudging is a ceremony where people draw smoke over their body as an offering to the spirits and the smoke cleanses the body. -Smudging involves burning sacred herbs like sage, sweetgrass, or cedar to purify a space, person, or object \- smoke from the herbs is believed to carry prayers to the Creator and cleanse negative energy -is often performed before ceremonies or important events -a medium for communication with thes spiritual world, ancestors and higher powers -believed to create a bridge between the physical and spiritual realms, guidance and protection -also associated with healing practices and promoting overall well-being -Smudging is a key spiritual practice in Mi'kmaq culture, promoting healing, protection, and spiritual clarity \- helps individuals connect with their ancestors and the spirit world, creating a sense of harmony and balance \- is a symbolic act of purification, used to cleanse the mind, body, and spirit \- He gives thanks to all seven directions during the smudging ceremony. \- The smoke from sweetgrass is used to purify the body and release toxins. \- Sweetgrass is burned as part of the ritual. \- Smudging helps eliminate negative thoughts and emotions, promoting well-being. \- The smoke represents spoken words, and shadows guide and protect the participants. -during th smudging he thanks all 7 directions -the use of smoke from the sweet grass is to purify their body and let the toxins out -burns sweet grass -a way to feel better and no negative thoughts -smoke represents spoken words -shadows protect and guide us \- thank mother earth -thankful for being able to negotiate to life on mother earth -south thanks to grandmothers give knowledge -west young people have two set of eyes young people backbone of our nation -younger people -north mother who brought us to earth feeds us with her energy -teaches us a s children and takes care of us -teaches to get along with one another What are the reasons for Mi'kmaw People to participate in Smudging? \- Smudging is a way to cleanse and purify the body, mind, and spirit. \- It allows participants to connect with the seven directions and express gratitude to Mother Earth. \- The ritual helps remove negative energy and bring a sense of peace and clarity. \- It serves as a way to reflect, express thanks, and align oneself with the teachings and guidance of ancestors. \- Smudging encourages positive thoughts and spiritual well-being. Metis: Metis are people of Mixed European and Indigenous ancestry and one of the three recognized Aboriginal peoples in Canada. The Metis Nation are people born of relations between First Nations women and European men. Glooscap: First bolt of lightning caused the formation of an image of a human body shaped out of sand. Second bolt of lighting gave a Glooscap. Third bolt of lighting caused Glooscap to become free and be able to stand on the surface of the earth. Glooscap is thankful for seven directions. Glooscap learned respect for his family and passed knowledge to his people helping them survive. -first Mi'kmaw person -first bolt caused formation of an image of a human body -\>shaped out of sand -second bolt gave life to Glooscap -third bolt caused Glooscap to be free and to be able to stand on the surface of earth -spun around 7 times Indian Act: The treaty promises have been broken. The Indian Act took away Indigenous people's land rights and cultural practices, which was against the treaties - - It contains most of the federal law concerning aboriginals It determines who controls reserves, how they are governed, and it defines what it means to be a status Indian. Indian Agent: A representative of the federal government to enforce policies on Canadian Native tribes. Many today feel that the act should be repealed. [What is the Indian Act?] A statute (act of Parliament) that covers how the Canadian government deals with first nations bands The act was first passed in 1876 and is still in effect (with amendments) The act is very wide-ranging and gave the federal government total power over First Nation and their land Purpose was to encourage assimilation The act was paternalistic and treated Aboriginal people like children that need parents to look after them The Indian Act is not a treaty and was not negotiated; it was imposed on Aboriginals by the government It says how reserves a d bands can operate Defines how bands can be created and spells out the powers of \"band councils" Disregarded the traditional line of heredity that many First Nations followed in choosing their leaders Government officials had power to remove chiefs (for reasons such as dishonesty, incompetence, or immorality) Government refused to honour treaty payments or to provide services to any band that failed to obey It defines who is, and who is not recognized as and "Indian" Rita Joe: Rita Joe thinks that residential schools were like institutions that tried to destroy the culture of Indigenous children. They made them lose their language, traditions, and sense of who they were. The poem talks about how the government tried to make all indigenous children assimilate into white culture, and how this has caused a lot of emotional and cultural damage to indigenous people over many generations. Rita Joe is sad, angry and feels a deep sense of loss. But she also sounds hopeful. She says she will be strong and teach others about her culture. Rita Joe was a famous Mi\'kmaq poet,who celebrated her language, culture and way of life. Indian Agent: Indian Agent: A representative of the federal government to enforce policies on Canadian Native tribes. The result of the new act was two forms of mi\'kmaq government: the new chief and Band Council, and the traditional Keptinaq(District Chief) and Council. Neither had full power, however, as every decision had to be approved by the Indian Agent. The Indian Agent had authority over the Band Council and could remove any of the Band Council members by claiming that he was not doing a good job. Federal government's representative on reserves Usually non-Aboriginal and male, and held great power Most lived on the reserve and were responsible for its administrative affairs (controlled band council meetings, approved bylaws, managed finances) Could remove chiefs and band councilors for refusing to follow the government's rules and regulations They inspected reserve schools and health conditions They could prosecute and hand down sentences for Act violations First Nations people not allowed to drink on or off reserves -- Indian agents could punish them for doing this First Nations were not allowed to leave the reserve without the Indian agent's permission until the mid-1950's Indian agents could even become Chiefs, despite the fact that they were not aboriginal Basically, the Indian Act gave one individual control over a vast array of social, political, economic and cultural functions that used to be managed by the community. Doctrine of Discovery: - 60s Scoop: The Sixties Scoop, which resulted in the forced adoption of Indigenous children. Was mass removal for indigenous children. The Canadian government was responsible for food, healthcare, houses, etc. But they didnt do a good job at that which made native people suffer. Social services took children away. Thousands of children were taken by social services. Move them into middle class white families far from reserves. Colonialism: Definition: Colonialism refers to the control of governing influence of a nation over a dependent country, territory, or people, often involving exploitation and cultural suppression. Relevance: In Canada, colonial practices disrupted Indigenous cultures and governance, contributing to systemic challenges like poverty, loss of land, and overrepresentation in the justice system. Colonialism is a practice or policies that help take over control of an already occupied area, replacing the culture with their own. This definition fits perfectly with the events of European colonialism in North America. When settlers arrived, European colonization began, which has led to many challenges faced by indigenous peoples. Restorative Justice: Restorative justice Programs: Focus on rehabilitation and repairing harm Restorative justice refers to an approach to justice that seeks to repair harm by providing an opportunity for those harmed and those harmed and those who take responsibility for the harm, to communicate about and address their needs in the aftermath of a crime. The Columbian Exchange: Exchange of plants, animals, and diseases: The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds. One-way flow: The exchange primarily flowed from Europe to the Americas due to Europe's crowded populations and agricultural dominance, which allowed for the rapid spread of European plants and animals. Centralization: Centralization is a policy which sought to remove all Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia to two reserves, at Eskasoni and Sipekne'katik. The remaining reserves were sold. Those Mi'kmaq who were opposed to Centralization were to lose their status and become enfranchised. Policy makers envisioned reduced costs related to only to decreasing the number of Indian agents, but also related to closing on reserve day schools and reducing medical staff as well as purchasing materials and supplies. **[Know the following information:]** 1. There are a number of different theories as to how humans came to be in the Americas. **Land Bridge** This theory was first put forth by Jose de Acosta in the late 1500s. It suggests that a land bridge between Asia and North America has formed and disappeared a number of times over the last 100,000 years. At the peaks of various ice ages, ocean levels would drop as much as 200 feet exposing land between the two continents - possibly as much as 1,000 miles wide. Beringia is the common term for the land bridge between Asia and North America. The archaeological record indicates the migration routes flowed west to east across the land bridge. People then moved south into North America by following unglaciated routes along the pacific coastline or an Alberta corridor. *Why did they come?* One possible reason is Food. The people would have either\... - - Another possible reason is Conflict. It is possible that many were forced east as others moved into their traditional land. Yes, no, maybe? DNA evidence that suggests some First Nation and Asia groups at one time shared the same DNA. One problem, however, is that no one has proven what direction the footprints were going. DNA evidence could simply prove that First Nations people went to and settled in Asia. Two more potential flaws: - - **Watercraft Theories** **Pacific Coast Models** This theory proposes that people reached North America by following coastline - either by land or boat. In support of this is the fact that coastlines are extremely productive environments with a wide range of plant and animal life. This theory helps to explain how humans could reach all parts of the Americas by the time they did. Like the Land Bridge Theory, this is supported by DNA evidence. According to some scientists, the problem with this theory is that too much of the Alaska and B.C. coasts were under ice to make this practical. Further, there is little physical evidence to support this, as any landing sites that may have existed are now under water. **Austrailian/Oceania Model** In this theory, South America is populated from south Asia through the "infinite island chains" of the Pacific while North America is populated from Siberia. These people would then be nearly exterminated and/or absorbed by the northern Siberian immigrants. There is evidence of people being in Australia 40,000 years ago. Since Australia was NOT attached to anything at that time, it's assumed they came by watercraft. If this is possible, then it is possible people reached the Americas the same way. Further, there are cultural similarities between the original peoples of Australia and some in the Americas. The problem is that there is little scientific support for this theory and no DNA evidence supporting it. **Atlantic Coastal Model/Solutrean** This theory traces the origins of the first peoples, the Clovis, to the Solutrean culture of Western Europe. The theory is that the Solutrean people, living like the Inuit, may have worked their way along the southern margins of the Atlantic sea ice to North America. DNA evidence is not conclusive in this case. There has been NO match found to date that shows a connection between Europeans and First Nations. One problem plagues ALL of the watercraft theories: Global sea levels have risen 100 meters since the last glacial period. This has submerged the ancient coastline and makes finding signs of coastal migration difficult. **First Nations Oral Traditions** Many First Nations believe that their people have been here since time immemorial. This means time so long passed as to be indefinite in history/ tradition. First Nation creation stories have been passed down orally from generation to generation and have been studied cross-culturally by anthropologists and historians alike. **Other Theories** Less common theories on the origins of First Nations in North America include a wide range from the possible to the unlikely. Possible, is the travel from Africa by boat. Two paths are plausible: 1\) Morocco to North America 2\) Egypt to Central America It has been argued that the existence of pyramids in both Egypt and Central America is no coincidence. Another theory is that the First Nations are in fact one of the lost tribes of israel. This theory is not accepted by scientists, but is held by several religious groups. Finally there are the "New Age" theories that explorers or survivors of Atlantis populated North America. This theory has NOT been accepted by scientists and is only mentioned due to its popularity in some books. Experts disagree whether one migration took place or many migrations occurred. None of these routes can be proven OR completely discredited. It is probably most likely that most migration theories are true and that over thousands of years people arrived in the Americas in many different ways. While HOW First Nations came to be in the Americas is debated, there is no dispute that they were here first and had established thriving civilizations prior to European arrival. 2. \- Talking Circle is a traditional form of communication where participants sit in a circle and take turns speaking, using a sacred object (e.g., a talking stick) to signify whose turn it is to talk -is a method of decision-making and conflict resolution that encourages respect, active listening, and equality \- Talking Circle emphasizes the importance of inclusion, respect, and consensus in Mi'kmaq culture \- is a spiritual practice that promotes peaceful communication and conflict resolution -circle structure reflects the Mi'kmaq belief in the interconnectedness of all individual -\>ensuring that everyone has a voice and is heard equally -it influences how they saw the world -it was a way of learning and sharing 3. The goals of Residential Schools were to assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian Society, to erase Indigenous cultures, languages, and traditions, and to prepare children for life within white settler society. 4. Coastlines are extremely productive environments with a wide range of plant and animal life. According to Pacific Route theorists, fossils of marine and terrestrial mammals and other wildlife have been found along the Northwest coast dating back to 16,800 years BP. This suggests that there were enough natural resources for coastal people to survive at that time. And there may have been similar Japanese DNA, and the water level was lower, so smaller islands would be visible in the Pacific. 5. The OKA in 1990 began when the town of OKA, Quebec, decided to expand a private golf course onto land that was sacred to the Mohawk people. The land included a burial ground and forested area known as The Pines, which the Mohawks of Kanesatake had long claimed as their own. Despite their protests and unresolved land claims, the town planned to develop this land, sparking outrage and resistance. The expansion directly disrespected Indigenous sovereignty, the sacredness of burial grounds, and the inherited rights of Indigenous peoples to protect their ancestral land. It also highlighted the ongoing neglect of Indigenous land claims by the Canadian government, which contradicted treaties and commitments to respect Indigenous rights, 6. An elder becomes an elder when a man or a woman must have lived through many experiences to gain knowledge and wisdom. In addition an elder must also be recognized by their community. They connect people to the events, customs and ceremonies of the past. Elders also perform as counselors but they do not impose their knowledge and wisdom. Recently they also become mediators in criminal proceedings involving aboriginal people. Elders were respected as spiritual leaders and sources of wisdom. 7. The cultural importance of the drum is that it represents the heartbeat of Mother earth. The drum is played , shared, and used to bring people together. 8. The Mi'kmaq see the Milky Way (called Skitekmujewawti) as a path that leads to the spirit world. 9. Europeans and their goods were infested with illnesses and viruses to which indigenous peoples had no immunity. The result was death for much of North America's indigenous population. The most deadly and impactful disease was smallpox. Spread mainly through European blankets and clothing. Smallpox begins with a backache and fever. It is followed by a rash that affects the face and limbs in particular. During this time, an infected person is likely to infect 3 to 5 close contacts. The rash eventually leaves pitted scars or pocks. The disease itself eventually leads to death. 10. 11. The concordat was recorded on a great wampum belt. 12. The Mi'kmaw people began converting to Christianity around 1610, when missionaries encouraged them to do so, and their leader, Grand Chief Membertou, was baptized. 13. Dudley George was killed in the stand off of Ipperwash where members of the Stoney Point Ojibwe community were protesting against the government\'s failure to return their land. 14. Rita Joe wrote the poem I Lost My Talk 15. **[Traditional Mi'kmaq Government Structure]** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | Local Council | District | Grand Council | | | Chief | Council Chief | Chief | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Powers | -They presided | -They are the | -They defend | | | over the | presided over | territory | | | council of | Council of | | | | elders | Local Chiefs | -they take care | | | | | of any orphaned | | | -The council of | -They are | children | | | elders was | responsible for | | | | usually made up | several | -They help with | | | of the heads of | villages and | providing | | | families or | communities | supplies | | | representatives | within the | | | | | district | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Duties | -They make | -They attend | -the Grand | | | decisions | local Council | Council handles | | | within local | meetings | spiritual | | | areas | | matters in | | | | -They take care | modern times | | | -They provide | of problems | | | | for villages, | among | -meets 2-3 | | | taking care of | districts, | times a year | | | supplies, dogs, | villages, | | | | canoes, | nations | -The Grand | | | hunting, | | chief has to | | | emergencies | -The District | make decisions | | | | Chief was the | about peace and | | | -They are also | eldest male of | war. | | | seen as | large powerful | | | | teachers and | family | | | | role models for | | | | | the young, | -They are | | | | training | always good | | | | hunters | hunters | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Leadership | -The local | -Has to be the | -The Grand | | Characteristics | chief was | eldest male of | chief had to | | | always male and | a prominent | have an | | | came from a | family | exceptional | | | prominent | | character | | | family | -He has to be a | | | | | good hunter | -He was an | | | -They were of | | excellent | | | good character | -He is | hunter | | | and they were | responsible for | | | | very good | resolving | | | | hunters | disputes among | | | | | districts and | | | | | villages | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **[Current Canadian Government Structure]** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | Municipal | Provincial | Federal | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Powers | -Handles local | -Manages areas | -Jurisdiction | | | issues such as | such as | over nationwide | | | zoning, public | education, | matters such as | | | utilities, and | health care, | defense, | | | local roads | transportation, | immigration, | | | | and natural | foreign policy | | | | resources | and trade | | | | within the | | | | | province | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Duties | -Provides local | -Administers | -Enforces | | | services (like | provincial laws | national laws | | | garbage | | | | | collection, | -manages | -manages | | | water, public | resources | foreign | | | transit, and | | relations | | | enforces local | -oversees | | | | bylaws) | schools | -oversees the | | | | | military | | | | -hospitals | | | | | | -regulates | | | | -infrastructure | national | | | | | commerce | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Geographic | -Governs | -Governs | -Entire country | | constituency | cities, towns, | provinces and | | | | counties, and | territories | | | | municipalities | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Leadership | -Elected | -Led by a | -Prime Minister | | characteristics | officials | Premier and | and Parliament | | | (mayor, | elected | members | | | councilors) | provincial | | | | | legislative | -\> focus on | | | -\> focus on | members | national | | | solving local | | governance, | | | community | -\> focused on | policy-making, | | | issues | regional | and | | | | development, | international | | | -practical | legislation, | relations | | | governance | and governance. | | | | | | | | | -public | | | | | services | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - 16. Inherent right is a right that automatically belongs to people rather than a gift that people receive. Aboriginal peoples reject that viewpoint, asserting that they had an inherent natural right to govern themselves. Aboriginal people argued that their rights to self government existed because either societies historically had been organized and self ruling. Before Europeans settled in Canada centuries ago, Aboriginal people governed themselves in organized societies. Each nation of Aboriginal people had its own territories and councils of chiefs. They were governed by oral constitutions. The ability to recount laws, traditions and histories was important to keep the peace. As with any human institutions, those of Aboriginal societies had evolved and changed over time, and would have continued to do so given the opportunity. 17. The Doctrine of Discovery established that any land „discovered" by Christian Europeans was theirs to claim, ignoring existing Indigenous laws and governance.The Doctrine of Discovery regarded Indigenous peoples as less than human, deeming them inferior and their rights unworthy of legal recognition. 18. The residential school experience continues to plague first Nations education. Many people now attend residential schools, now parents and grandparents, have biases against education for their children because of what they've experienced. Furthermore, while the closure of residential schools meant that more and more aboriginal children began to attend regular provincial schools, provincial education curriculums did not change to reflect the educational needs of aboriginal children.Today , the cross Canada average of the percentage of aboriginal children continue to have difficulties fitting into the existing schools, which are still designed around a culture alien to their own. 19. Europeans didn't understand Mi'kmaw spirituality and thought of it as superstition. They wanted the Mi'kmaq to follow European religious practices instead. In order to trade they had to be christian. 20. 21. Yes, the Mi'kmaq primarily interacted with and lived side by side with the french , who established settlements on their territory. In 1688, with Mi'kmaq warriors aligning with the French, compelling the British to abandon many of their frontier outposts. 22. The Indian Act was reworked in 1951 after WWII when Canadians became more aware of the poverty and discrimination faced by aboriginal peoples. Public concern and a federal report led to the removal of outdated and discriminatory provisions. 23. The truth and reconciliation Commission was created through a legal settlement between residential school survivors, the assembly of First Nations,Inuit representatives and the parties responsible for creation and operation of the schools, the federal government and the church bodies. It was meant to inform all Canadians about what happened in residential schools. The documented truth of survivors, their families, communities and anyone personally affected by the residential school experience. The TRC concluded its mandate in 2015 and transferred its records to the safekeeping of the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR). 24. On September 6, 1995, during a confrontation, Dudley George, an unarmed protester, was shot and killed by an OPP officer, Kenneth Deane, who later claimed he believed George was armed. Deane was convicted of criminal negligence causing death. 25. The inquiry found out that indigenous women and girls are 12 times more likely to be murdered or to go missing than members of any other demographic group in Canada, and 16 times more likely to be slain or to disappear than white women. Too often, Indigenous murder investigations are marked by indifference and negative stereotypes, causing indigenous deaths and disappearances to be investigated and treated with less care and determination. When there is a reasonable chance of a conviction, Crown attorneys are too often willing to accept plea bargains or reduced charges in exchange for guilty pleas. 26. The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement recognized the damage inflicted on Indigenous peoples by residential schools. The Agreement established a multi billion dollar fund to help former students in their recovery.The IRSSA, which came into effect in September 2007. 27. Parents found that they had changed. Children were no longer interested in helping the Family with tasks such as carrying water and other chores. They had to be told everything, and they often refused to "listen". Instead they "talked back" and in general; tended to spend time with children their own age who also attended residential school. Parents noted that frequent, violent arguments arose and that children seemed as unconcerned about hurting others as they were unwilling to obey elders. Survivors had little to no connection to their culture, many could not speak the language anymore No support system in place to help with the transition back to their communities. Weren't supported for psychological damages they suffered either The resulting social problems within communities were overwhelming. 28. Western Culture Native Culture +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Individual responsibility: | Rehabilitation and healing: | | | | | Crime is viewed as a violation of | Instead of punishment the goal is | | the law, focusing on the | to reboot the offender and | | individual\'s guilt and | prevent future harm through | | punishment. This approach often | understanding and reconciliation. | | isolates offenders from their | | | community. | | +===================================+===================================+ | Standardized Sentencing: | Flexible and Contextual | | | Sentencing: | | Sentences are based on strict | | | guidelines, often ignoring the | Sentences consider the cultural | | personal and cultural context of | and personal background of the | | the offender. | offender, emphasizing solutions | | | tailored to their circumstances. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Objective and Evidence Based: | Connection to Community: | | | | | Justice decisions rely heavily on | Offenders are reintegrated into | | documented evidence, disregarding | their communities, promoting | | emotional, spiritual, or communal | accountability, belonging and | | aspects. | support networks. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Detachment from Community: | Restorative involvement: | | | | | Offenders are often moved from | Crime is seen as a disruption of | | their homes and communities, | harmony within the community. | | which can lead to feelings of | Justice seeks to repair | | alienation and disconnection. | relationships and restore balance | | | among all parties involved. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 29. She was the Queen of spain and the most powerful woman in Europe at the time. Queen Isabella is looking for new trade routes due to the decline of the Silk Route due to Turkish control, a growing thirst for power in EUrope and the need for new resources, and overpopulation and resource exploitation in Europe required new land and opportunities. **Refer to the Longer questions on the back for the questions with higher point values on the exam! You will be asked to answer 10 of these questions on the exam. Be sure to prepare your responses in advance!** **Prepare these in advance, from your notes. Google or AI will not give proper course context. You will have to choose to complete 10 of these longer questions on the exam:** 1. Traditionally, the Mi'kmaw people pray and give thanks on a daily basis for all creation, including fish, food, children, Elders and for everything the creator has given them. View the land as a spiritual place Respecting the forest and all it has to offer with it being the habitat for many animals such as deer and moose that mi\'kmaq people depended on for food They needed Trees to make wigwams baskets and birchbark canoes Location and Name - - what we now call the maritime and the Gaspe Peninsula - - Daily Life: The Wigwam The Mi'kmaq lived in homes called wigwams - They were made with: - - - - - - - - - - Daily Life: Clothing - - - - - - Daily Life: Tools - - - Daily Life: Transportation - - - - - Daily Life: Food The Mi'kmaq spent about all but six weeks along the sea coats - While sea animals made up the bulk of their diet, they also ate: - Meat and fish were preserved by drying and smoking Aside from animals, the Mi'kmaq also gathered: - Daily Life: Pastimes Storytelling: - Smoking: - Games: - Contests: - An Important Note All cultures and societies change over time. However, few people have faced the deliberate and systematic attacks on their culture that the Mi'kmaq people have endured. The very survival of the Mi'kmaq language and culture is a testimony to the strength of the Mi'kmaq and their oral traditions, values and customs.. Vision quest: Steps:\ -helpers prepare sacred place -seeker stays at sacred place and prays for vision -vision comes to seeker in form of animal and dreams carry most powerful vision -at end of vision quest helpers return and take seeker to sweat lodge. \- Vision Quest is a spiritual journey where an individual seeks guidance from a guardian spirit, usually through dreams or visions \- Quest typically involves fasting and isolation in a sacred location -The goal is to obtain wisdom, protection, or insight from the spiritual realm, often conveyed through animals or natural elements that appear in visions. -to obtain advice /protection -to sacred knowledge and strength from the spirit world. \- the Mi'kmaq, the Vision Quest is a rite of passage, especially for young people transitioning into adulthood -provides spiritual guidance, helps individuals find their life purpose, and connects them with their ancestors and the natural world -Vision Quest fosters a deep personal relationship with the spiritual world, offering strength and protection in life's journey \- smoke from the herbs is believed to carry prayers to the Creator and cleanse negative energy -is often performed before ceremonies or important events -a medium for communication with these spiritual world, ancestors and higher powers -believed to create a bridge between the physical and spiritual realms, guidance and protection -also associated with healing practices and promoting overall well-being -Smudging is a key spiritual practice in Mi'kmaq culture, promoting healing, protection, and spiritual clarity \- helps individuals connect with their ancestors and the spirit world, creating a sense of harmony and balance \- is a symbolic act of purification, used to cleanse the mind, body, and spirit 2. Based on geological evidence, researchers suspected that early peoples migrated across this land bridge. Similar fossils have been found on both continents (Asia and North America), proving that large animals such as bison, caribou, horses, mammoths and musk oxen migrated across this land bridge. According to land route theorists, ice sheets covered much of the continent, so the only overland route south may have been along the narrow corridor that geologists believe ran along the eastern Rocky Mountains. They also followed animals for hunting. According to Pacific Route theorists, fossils of marine and terrestrial mammals and other wildlife have been found along the Northwest coast dating back to 16,800 years BP. This suggests that there were enough natural resources for coastal people to survive at that time. And there may have been similar Japanese DNA, and the water level was lower, so smaller islands would be visible in the Pacific. The biological evidence they found was that some indigenous people of South America share genetic characteristics with Polynesian and Australian indigenous people, but not with people of northern Asia. Researchers suggest that the Clovis site and the Asian sites are unrelated because there is little evidence to support it. They claim that the Clovis projectiles are more similar to Solutrean points dating from 16,500 to 22,000 years BC found along what is now the northern coast of Spain, and point to a genetic marker discovered through DNA analysis that occurs in some Native Americans and Europeans, but not northeast Asians, as further evidence of an Atlantic connection. People have been living in Mi\'kma\'ki for over 11,000 years. Mi'kma'ki incorporates all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and large areas of New Brunswick, the Gaspé Peninsula, and Newfoundland. Kennewick Man: -it\'s one of the complete skeleton found -they believe he is an early coastal migrant -the skeleton was discovered 1996 beside columbian river -local tribes wanted him reburied -\>repatriation -the kennewick man was never reburied -the fossil is too important and intriguing -2004 they were allowed to be crutenied -the scientist had 2 weeks with the body to do examination -the results took 9 years to be published -the kennewick man was 5 feet tall -he had robust bones -he had a much larger right arm then left -the right hip has embedded spear point -sliced into right collar bone -5 broken ribs -he may have been kicked -he survived and lived 20 more years after he was stabbed etc. -isotope : marine signature alot salmon, carbon levels high -he diet of marine mammals -dependent on seals -he is not from the columbian river -burial suggest he not a lone traveler -skull is not same so bc that not ancestor of native americans \- Initially thought that the bones were too degraded to obtain DNA data. \- Researchers managed to extract usable DNA. \- DNA analysis showed that Kennewick man is more closely related to Native American peoples. \- Findings confirmed his ancestral connection to Native populations. significant about the Shape of Eva and Kennewick man's skulls? -Our brain shrink over time. -As humans settled down, the skull got smaller. -The skull size became smaller overall. -Their skull shape resembles those in Northern Japan. Eva: -they believed that the caves were portals/openings to the spirit world. -first american -Eva was a star find because she was the first and oldest skeleton found -she lived 13,500 years ago -she was found in a cave in mexico in the forest Jakatan. -she was 4 foot and 20 years old as she died -ice age-\> the ice melted so the water levels are higher now -\> cave is now under water -"funeral" spiritual ceremony Land Bridge Theory: This theory was first put forth by Jose de Acosta in the late 1500s. It suggests that a land bridge between Asia and North America has formed and disappeared a number of times over the last 100,000 years. At the peaks of various ice ages, ocean levels would drop as much as 200 feet exposing land between the two continents - possibly as much as 1,000 miles wide. Beringia is the common term for the land bridge between Asia and North America. The archaeological record indicates the migration routes flowed west to east across the land bridge. People then moved south into North America by following unglaciated routes along the pacific coastline or an Alberta corridor. Why did they come? One possible reason is Food. The people would have either\... followed herds of animals moving east or discovered and backtracked new animals arriving in Asia. Another possible reason is Conflict. DNA evidence that suggests some First Nation and Asia groups at one time shared the same DNA. One problem, however, is that no one has proven what direction the footprints were going. DNA evidence could simply prove that First Nations people went to and settled in Asia. Two more potential flaws: There is evidence of human existence in North and South America that does not fit this timeline. There is very little physical evidence of Beringia. It was either destroyed by glaciers or is still buried in them. Pacific Coast Models This theory proposes that people reached North America by following coastline - either by land or boat. In support of this is the fact that coastlines are extremely productive environments with a wide range of plant and animal life. This theory helps to explain how humans could reach all parts of the Americas by the time they did. Like the Land Bridge Theory, this is supported by DNA evidence. According to some scientists, the problem with this theory is that too much of the Alaska and B.C. coasts were under ice to make this practical. Further, there is little physical evidence to support this, as any landing sites that may have existed are now under water. Austrailian/Oceania Model In this theory, South America is populated from south Asia through the "infinite island chains" of the Pacific while North America is populated from Siberia. These people would then be nearly exterminated and/or absorbed by the northern Siberian immigrants. There is evidence of people being in Australia 40,000 years ago. Since Australia was NOT attached to anything at that time, it's assumed they came by watercraft. If this is possible, then it is possible people reached the Americas the same way. Further, there are cultural similarities between the original peoples of Australia and some in the Americas. The problem is that there is little scientific support for this theory and no DNA evidence supporting it. Atlantic Coastal Model/Solutrean This theory traces the origins of the first peoples, the Clovis, to the Solutrean culture of Western Europe. The theory is that the Solutrean people, living like the Inuit, may have worked their way along the southern margins of the Atlantic sea ice to North America. DNA evidence is not conclusive in this case. There has been NO match found to date that shows a connection between Europeans and First Nations. One problem plagues ALL of the watercraft theories: Global sea levels have risen 100 meters since the last glacial period. This has submerged the ancient coastline and makes finding signs of coastal migration difficult. First Nations Oral Traditions Many First Nations believe that their people have been here since time immemorial. This means time so long passed as to be indefinite in history/ tradition. First Nation creation stories have been passed down orally from generation to generation and have been studied cross-culturally by anthropologists and historians alike. Shortly, in this course, we will read and analyze the Mi'kmaq creation story more deeply. Other Theories Less common theories on the origins of First Nations in North America include a wide range from the possible to the unlikely. Possible, is possible to travel from Africa by boat. Two paths are plausible: 1\) Morocco to North America 2\) Egypt to Central America It has been argued that the existence of pyramids in both Egypt and Central America is no coincidence. 3. To make money: Europeans sought wealth through trade and resource extraction. Religious freedom: Some came seeking freedom from religious persecution. Involuntary migration: Many, particularly slaves, were forcibly brought to the New World. Europeans hoped that the new world would work with Colonial exploitation. Europeans aimed to extract resources, establish plantations, and profit from agriculture and trade. First recorded contact, however, was in 1497 with John Cabot (on behalf of England) The Mi'kmaq and other Atlantic Coast tribes were located in regions of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and coastal New Brunswick, which were the parts of the New World closest to Europe. Thus they were among the first to be reached by Europeans. At the time of first contact with European explorers in the 16th and 17th century, the Mi'kmaq lived in what we now call the maritime and the Gaspe Peninsula +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | [Dependence] | [Independence] | | | | | - - - - - - | - - - | +===================================+===================================+ | [Interdependence] | [Interdependence] | | | | | - - - - - | - - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | [Independence] | [Dependence] | | | | | - - - | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 4. It is a type of treaty which regulates church affairs, signed between the pope and a government. In the agreement the Mi'kmaw people agreed to protect the priest and French catholic settlers in the church, and granted certain religious authority to the Mi'kmaq nation. The concordat was recorded on a great wampum belt. The concordat was necessary to further the fur trade because European countries could only do business with other Catholic states, they didn\'t want to deal with unbelievers. The concordat recognized the Mi'kmaq as a Catholic state, even though it had a legal trade relationship with European nations. The Concordat allowed the Mi'kmaq to use their language in Mass. Priests had to learn Mi'kmaq, as per Membertou's instructions, ensuring that Catholic teachings were accessible in Mi'kmaq. The Concordat allowed the Mi'kmaq to use their language in Mass. Priests had to learn Mi'kmaq, as per Membertou's instructions, ensuring that Catholic teachings were accessible in Mi'kmaq. A peace and alliance agreement between the Mi'kmaw and French in 1610 The Concordat established mutual respect and cooperation, with the Mi\'kmaq agreeing to adopt aspects of Catholicism. Two reasons the Mi'kmaw would benefit from the Concordat? Trade Access: Ensured steady access to European goods. Military Protection: Secured alliances with the French against rival European powers. Two reasons the French would benefit from the Concordat? Allied Forces: Gained Mi'kmaw military support in conflicts. ( The Mi'kmaw promised to keep the priest and the missionary safe) Religious Expansion: Spread catholicism and reinforced French influence in North AMerica Entering into the Concordat was very important for the Mi'kmaq people. European countries could do business only with other Catholic states; they didn't want to deal with unbelievers. So it was a good opportunity for Europe, and it was good for us, because it was entered into by due process of law. The Concordat was the legal way to get the furs. It recognized us as a Catholic state, as a nation under God. The Concordat also affirmed our right to use the Mi'kmaq language in the Mass. The priest had to learn to speak Mi'kmaq and read and write it. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Which groups did | **What was the result | | | this treaty/ law or | for both sides?** | | | Act involve?** | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **1610 Concordat** | European Catholics | | | | (Vatican) and | | | | Mi\'kmaq | | | | | | | | Signed between Chief | | | | Membertou and the | | | | Pope | | | | | | | | Turn/recognize the | | | | Mi\'kmaq as a | | | | catholic Nation. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ 5. The truth and reconciliation Commission was created through a legal settlement between residential school survivors, the assembly of First Nations,Inuit representatives and the parties responsible for creation and operation of the schools, the federal government and the church bodies. It was meant to inform all Canadians about what happened in residential schools. The documented truth of survivors, their families, communities and anyone personally affected by the residential school experience. The TRC concluded its mandate in 2015 and transferred its records to the safekeeping of the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR). The TRC was established to document the history and impacts of residential schools in Canada. Its goal is to promote healing and reconciliation between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Canadians. The Commission, established in 2008, was directed to raise public awareness through national events, and its support of regional and local activities. The goals of Residential Schools were to assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian Society, to erase Indigenous cultures, languages, and traditions, and to prepare children for life within white settler society. It was clear that the residential schools were failures. Evidence of disease, malnutrition, substandard housing, and abuse mounted. Academically, the schools were not educating their students - most didn't progress past grade 6. By 1940's federal government started re-examining their policy of segregated school Canada\'s residential schools aimed to assimilate Indigenous children, leading to widespread abuse and the deaths of thousands, with recent discoveries highlighting this dark history. Residential schools were established to assimilate Indigenous children to European culture. The first residential school opened in 1831 and the last closed in 1996 The establishment of residential schools was a direct result of colonialism, reflecting a systematic effort to erase Indigenous cultures. This historical backdrop is crucial for understanding the ongoing impacts on Indigenous communities. The environments within residential schools were harsh, characterized by physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, which were part of a broarder strategy to enforce conformity and suppress Indigenous Identity Truth and Reconciliation Findings: Found that residential schools caused thousands of deaths, unimaginable trauma, and cultural genocide. Survivors had little to no connection to their culture, many could not speak the language anymore. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- No support system in place to help with the transition back to their communities. Weren't supported for psychological damages they suffered either. The resulting social problems within communities were overwhelming. Bond between parents and children is destroyed. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Connection to family unit and community is broken. Years of abuse over many generations damage and distort parenting skills. Knowledge, traditions and costumes weren\'t transferred to the next generations. Loss of affection and the ability to show affection. Long Term Effect: How would this show itself in actions? Lateral violence (when an oppressed group turns on itself and begins to violate each other) Feeling ashamed of culture --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ Suicide Poor educational outcomes DepressionPoverty Physical and sexual abuse Alcoholism (and other substance abuse) Low self esteem Lack of parenting skills Dysfunctional families Loss of cultural identity (especially language) Teen pregnancy Chronic widespread depression, rage, and anger Eating and sleeping disorders. 6. Reserves were created to control their mobility 1. 2. 3. Land was usually unsuitable for agriculture with rocky areas, poor topsoil and steep slopes. The government had to give the Indigenous people the land. 4. 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is Centralization? Centralization is a policy which sought to remove all Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia to two reserves, at Eskasoni and Sipekne'katik. The remaining reserves were sold. +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Reasons for | Promises made | What really | Economic | | Centralization | to Natives for | happened on the | Consequences of | | | Centralization | centralized | Centralization | | | | reserves | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | 1. | The department | Federal money | Many Mi'kmaq | | | promised a | for housing was | lived in tents | | The Policy | better quality | only enough to | during winter. | | makers | of life on the | build the | | | envisioned | reserves: | shells of | 30% of Mi\'kmaq | | reduced costs. | | houses without | people left for | | | New houses | insulation and | New england. | | The sold those | | inner walls. | | | empty reserves/ | | | | | lands | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 2. | The department | They had to | There were no | | | promised jobs | wait in long | jobs, no farm | | Decreasing the | in lumber | lines for | lands | | number of | mills, housing | everything. | restricted | | Indian Agents | construction, | | hunting and | | | and other | When the | fishing rights | | | employment | housing | and no mill | | | | construction | they couldn\'t | | | | ended, so did | make | | | | the jobs. | money.Thirty | | | | | percent of male | | | | Fifteen hundred | mi\'kmaq nova | | | | people were | scotians left | | | | left without | for new england | | | | incomes or | to seek | | | | jobs. | employment. | | | | | | | | | | The Lack of | | | | | income or | | | | | farmland, | | | | | restricted | | | | | hunting and | | | | | fishing rights | | | | | left them | | | | | unable to | | | | | sustain | | | | | themselves and | | | | | make an income | | | | | from lumber. It | | | | | also removed | | | | | traditional | | | | | means of | | | | | survival and | | | | | economic | | | | | activity. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 3. | The department | Residential | They were seen | | | promised | schools were | as less | | Closing on | schools | still there but | valuable | | reserve day | | no education | evenmore as the | | schools to | | was provided. | europeans as | | reduce costs. | | | they were | | | | Education was | contributing to | | | | neglected. | a working class | | | | | society. | | | | | | | | | | Access to | | | | | traditional | | | | | land was only | | | | | available on | | | | | the outskirt of | | | | | reserves, | | | | | hindering | | | | | farming and | | | | | sustenance. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 4. | The department | There was tons | Poor health | | | promised | of | outcomes | | Reducing | medical | overcrowding. | prevented | | medical staff, | services | | individuals | | to save money. | | | from working or | | | | | contributing | | | | | economically. | | | | | | | | | | Costs shifted | | | | | to families who | | | | | had to find | | | | | alternative | | | | | means for | | | | | healthcare. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 5. | The department | While farming | Farming was | | | promised to | was encouraged, | ineffective, | | Reducing | grants to | most of the | reserves were | | purchasing | purchase seeds | land available | unsuitable for | | materials and | and farm | was not | sustainable | | supplies | equipment | particularly | agriculture. | | | | suitable for | | | | | agriculture. | Farming failed | | | | Fields and | as an economic | | | | pastures were | option, leaving | | | | never cleared. | families with | | | | | nothing to | | | | In the end they | produce food | | | | were left with | and more | | | | little farmland | income. | | | | and no mill. | | | | | | The lack of | | | | Land was | cleared land | | | | terrible for | prevented any | | | | farming and | long term | | | | fields and | agricultural | | | | pastures were | development. | | | | never cleared. | | | | | | Dependence on | | | | Access to | government | | | | traditional | rations | | | | land was only | increased due | | | | available | to loss of self | | | | through | sufficiency. | | | | satellite | | | | | communities | | | | | (outskirts) | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ The Indian agent is a representative of the federal government to enforce policies on Canadian Native tribes. The Indian agent had authority over the Band council and could remove any of the Band Council members by claiming that he was not doing a good job. Bylaw had to be approved by the Indian agent. Renamed First Nations couldn't leave reserves without permission from the Indian Agent. In the 1820's and 1830's, the Mi'kmaq were moved to small reserves, often on poor quality land, to make space for settlers. The government expected the Mi'kmaq to farm these lands like settlers, but the land was not suitable for farming, hunting, or fishing. The new government created a department of indian affairs. Officials who worked for the Department wanted to turn them into English-speaking Canadians. and train them for a variety of industrial jobs. The department of indian affairs hired settlers as officials to run the reserves. Reserve life: The new Canadian government wanted to push more Mi'kmaq to live on reserves; each one was assigned an Indian to supervise life on the reserves. He was a settler who enforced rules and encouraged assimilation. Many Mi'kmaw families were struggling to survive. The government promised the Mi'kmaq a better life on reserves. Officials said there would be medical care , education , and financial support for families. The reality was different. Many Mi'kmaq adopted the Catholic faith after the arrival of French priests in the 1600's and 1700's. Moving to reserves meant the Mi'kmaq had to leave the land that had helped them survive for generations. The government tried to force the Mi'kmaq to become farmers. But the reserve land was not good for farming. Families could not make a living as farmers. Mi\'kmaq men found jobs off the reserve. Some worked in the forest where lumber camps offered regular seasonal work in harsh and dangerous conditions. Some used their knowledge of traditional ways to work as guides for vacationing hunters. A few women worked as teachers in reserve daz schools. Racism and government policies stopped the Mi'kmaq from getting many kinds of work, including well-paid careers in law and medicine. This law gave the government more powers to control and shape Mi'kmaw life. The new law forced the Mi'kmaq to change from their traditional form of government to a European style of government on their reserves. It says how reserves a d bands can operate - - - **Indian Agents:** - - - - - - - - - - 7. **[Treaties are important to aboriginal people because:]** Treaties are important because they guarantee rights to land, culture, and practices like hunting and fishing. They show that a nation exists and that its people have rights. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **[Treaties are important to non-aboriginal people because:]** Treaties are important to non-Aboriginal people because they show what Canada must do to help Indigenous peoples and make sure everyone gets along. They also regulate how settlers use the land and resources. **[The earliest treaties identified: ]** The first treaties said that they identified which lands settlers could use, settle conflicts, make peace and alliances were confirmed without indigenous nations giving up land ownership. **[What has happened to treaty promises throughout Canada's history?]** The treaty promises have been broken. The Indian Act took away Indigenous people's land rights and cultural practices, which was against the treaties. **[The numbered treaties were: ]** The Numbered Treaties are 11 agreements between the Crown and First Nations (1871-1921), allowing settlers to use land from western Ontario to the Yukon. These treaties promised reserved lands, money, and hunting/fishing rights. **[The numbered treaties made promises to the Native people from the Canadian Gov't which included: (5 things)]** In the Numbered treaties was promised the right to hunt and fish on treaty land, land for indigenous use, payments, education, and continued cultural practices. **[How were treaties agreed to under duress? (3 examples)]** The treaties were made under pressure because indigenous communities faced hunger and disease. The Canadian Government withheld emergency resources until treaties were signed. Negotiations often happened during crises, which was bad for indigenous groups. **[The Numbered treaties sought to :]** The Numbered treaties aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples by introducing European style education and settlement patterns, which disrupted traditional ways of life. **[The Numbered treaties also imposed sedentary settlement patterns. These were a problem because: ]** Settled communities were a problem because they stopped indigenous peoples from moving around seasonally, which meant they could not get resources and their way of life changed. **[Three specific examples of the tricks that were used in order to ensure that treaties were signed by the native people : ]** The Treaty terms were misrepresented, for example, oral agreements did not match written ones. Clauses were added after the signatures without the indigenous leaders knowing. And with Language barriers, leaders couldn\'t verify written terms. **[Modern treaties now cover: ]** Modern Treaties cover Indigenous land ownership, financial transfers, resource management and law making powers. They cover 40% of Canada. **[Unceded land means: ]** "Unceded land" is land that was taken by settlers without compensation. **[In signing historic treaties, indigenous people understood that the land : ]** Indigenous people knew the land would be shared, not sold or given up. **[Were indigenous lands ever ceded? ]** Even in treaty agreements, Indigenous lands were never ceded. **[The earliest treaties with the French and English were negotiated in good faith. This means: ]** Early treaties were based on respect and aimed for peaceful coexistence and alliances. **[Later, how did law makers interpret the treaties? ]** Lawmakers löater used treaties to justify the enslavement of Indigenous peoples, enforcing policies such as land surrender and cultural suppression. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Treaty | Peace and Friendship | The Numbered | | | Treaties | Treaties: | | Treaties are | | | | important to | The piece and | Are 11 agreements | | aboriginal people | friendship agreements | between the Crown and | | why: | were signed between | First Nations | | | settlers on both | (1871-1921), allowing | | Bc they guarantee | sides of the conflict | settlers to use land | | rights to land, | to secure fighting | from western Ontario | | culture and practices | allies or at least | to the Yukon. These | | like hunting and | guarantee Indian | treaties promised | | fishing. | neutrality. | reserve loans, money, | | | | and hunting\\ fishing | | They show that a | The British | rights. | | nation exists and | formalized these | | | that its people have | guarantees by writing | They promised: | | rights | them down. | | | | | The right to hunt and | | Treaties are | In 1752 the Mi'kmaq | fish on treaty land | | important to | grand chief by the | | | non-aboriginal people | name of Jean Baptiste | Land for indigenous | | why: | Cope had signed an | use | | | agreement with the | | | Bc they show what | governor of NS These | Payments | | Canada must do to | agreements are what | | | help Indigenous | are known as peace | Education | | people and make sure | and friendship | | | everyone gets along. | treaties. | Continued cultural | | They also regulate | | practices | | how settlers use the | In 1993 Premier John | | | land and resources. | savage and Mi'kmaq | They aimed to | | | Grand chief Ben | assimilate Indigenous | | | Sylliboy announced | peoples by | | | that october would be | introducing European | | | Mi'kmaq history month | style education and | | | is NS it celebrates | settlement patterns, | | | and gives thanks for | which disrupted | | | signing the treaties | traditional way of | | | of peace and | life. | | | friendship | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Three of the tricks that were played on the Natives in order to get them to agree to the treaties The treaty terms were misrepresented, for example, oral agreements did not match written ones, Clauses were added after the signatures without the indigenous leaders knowing. And with language barriers, leaders couldn\'t verify written terms. Legal tricks classified Indigenous lands as „empty" or unoccupied by „civilized" people, making it easier for Europeans to claim these vast territories. The Mi'kmaq Nation had reached a number of agreements, that are known as the treaties with the maritimes and with the british. The mi\'kmaq were quickly outnumbered by settlers; they were weakened by diseases and starvation; they kept their treaty agreement to keep the peace. The treaties concluded agreements that the mi\'kmaq were able to hunt and fish across mi\'kma\'ki but as more settlers arrived they took over the lands that were important. What treaties say: Treaties were long term agreements. Land and Resources: They took lands that were used for hunting and fishing and they also brought over many diseases such as smallpox. Thuis affected many mi\'kmaq communities, wiping out a large population and made many starve due to food supply shortages. Many mi\'kmaq communities treaties state that all mi\'kmaq people are allowed to hunt and fish across Mi\'kma'ki land. The Mi\'kmaq were forced to adapt to significant challenges as settler expansion began in Nova Scotia. While Treaties allowed them to hunt and fish as they always had, fish and wildlife became scarce due to overuse by settlers They were made for the simple reason that the Crown, the sovereign, recognized that they did not, did not have title to the land. That the title remained with the Indian nations of the\...of Canada. That\'s who had the title. Now, in order for the Crown or the sovereign to settle the land, they had to have access to this title, they had to gain title to the land. And they only way they could do that was through treaties. Confederation: a nation is born, a young nation among many older nation and a new nation with a voracious appetite for real estate. The Americans were stretching West as well and quite possibly would look North in their search for fertile farm land. The Canadian Prairies were a great temptation. And so the race began. Under the authority of the new federal government of Canada, treaties were signed clearing the rights between the lands of Ontario and British Columbia. All the treaties after confederation were numbered. The signing of the numbered treaties had been a great administrative victory for the young Canada. The treaties were signed because the crown recognized that they did not own the land and needed Native permission to settle. The settlers wanted access tro land for farming and resources. And Natives people needed support due to starvation and 40% of the land of Canada is legally our land. They were made so that the crown, the sovereign, recognized that they did not, did not have title to the land. starvation and disease quickly took the people of the plains from proud, self-sufficiency to a grim dependency on the will and whim of the white man and signing a treaty was the quickest way to get help. Former Grand Chief of the FSIN Perry Bellegarde: The treaties were basically signed because they were forced to, they had to sign. A lot of the times, they didn\'t want to sign the treaty, they didn\'t want to agree to the treaty. But because of starvation, because of disease, the people were dying, our Indian people were suffering and they felt by signing the treaties, by getting these annuities in place, they could buy food, they could buy blankets from the Hudson\'s Bay Company. They could get the things they needed to look after the people, to look after their band. Native people believed that land could not be owned and they thought that they shared the land with the Europeans which meant that they wanted to maintain access to it. They were starving and dying through diseases forced them to seek resources and protection through treaties. The treaties offered essential support like food and medicine. They saw the treaties as a way to protect their rights and ensure survival. In the treaties there was promised no taxes, no forced military service, no interference wit5h their lands, and continued control over indigenous land. These promises were not written in the treaty. The promise was kept, the policies like the federal taxes and military drafts contradicted these promises. The natives were concerned that they had to pay tax. They said that they weren\'t Canadian and shouldnt pay taxes to their government. They were concerned that once they signed a treaty, they would be expected to act like white men. They didn\'t want to pay white man taxes nor fight against the white man\'s enemies, The treaty commissioner David Laird, assured them this would never be the case, We assured them that the treaty would not lead to any forced interference with their mode of life. That it did not open the way to any imposition of tax. And that there was no fear of military service. They have treaty rights and they are here as long as the sun shines, the river flows and the grass grows. They will not be terminated, there is no end to that, they are there forever. Because the Amerias were stretching West as well and quite possibly would look North in their search for fertile farmland. The Canadian Prairies were a great temptation. Were afraid that Americans would take over the Natives Land. Treaties were signed clearing rights between the lands of Ontario and British Columbia. So for Canada to claim the land they had to make treaties. They didn\'t want the Americans to take over the land. The Peace and friendship Agreements were signed between settlers on both sides of the conflict to secure fighting allies or at least guarantee Indian neutrality. The British formalized these guarantees by writing them down. There were a total of 31 Indian treaties signed before Confederation in an attempt to secure rights to what was then called Upper Canada. The colonials recorded their understanding of treaty provisions in writing. The Indians recorded their understanding in stories; memories of promises made in a sacred time. Some tribes, particularly those in the East, embedded their vision of the treaty in wampum, precious beads, which themselves took on the sacred character There were a total of 31 Indian treaties signed before Confederation in an attempt to secure rights to what was then called Upper Canada. The colonials recorded their understanding of treaty provisions in writing. The Indians recorded their understanding in stories; memories of promises made in a sacred time. Some tribes, particularly those in the East, embedded their vision of the treaty in wampum, precious beads, which themselves took on the sacred character. Confederation There were a total of 31 indian treaties signed before Confederation in an attempt to secure rights to what they called upper Canada. The confederation is that a nation was born, a young nation among many older nations and a new nationwide voracious appetite for real estate. 1867 Canada became a country. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949. 8. The Indian act exists within a broader framework of policies that have historically oppressed Indigenous peoples, including: -The illegal Pass System, which restricted movement -The Sixties Scoop, which resulted in the forced adoption of Indigenous children. -The establishment of residential schools contributing to cultural genocide These policies have been recognized as a part of an ongoing genocide against Indigenous peoples in Canada, as acknowledged by the National Inquiry into missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and girls. Historical Context: The Indian act consolidates earlier colonial policies aimed at controlling and assimilating and assimilating First Nations. -1755: Establishment of the first Indian Department -1763: The royal proclamation asserted Indian lands could only be ceded to the crown. -1850: Introduction of early legal definitions of who qualified as an Indian through the act for the better protection of the lands and property of the Indians in Lower canada. -1876: The Indian Act came into power, continuing the goals of enfranchisement, management of reserves and governance structures Why is the Indian Act still in existence today? Explain at least three reasons why. 1.Identity and Legal benefits: The act provides a legal framework for indigenous identity through status registration, which many rely on to affirm their rights and access specific benefits. 2.Land management and Governance: It continues to govern reserves and band structures, making it difficult to repeal without alternative systems. 3.Resistance to structural Change: Dismantling the Cat would require a shift in how Canada shares land, resources, and decision making with indigenous peoples, a change many canadian and governments won\'t agree with. When and why was the Indian Act created? The indian act was first passed in 1876 and has undergone numerous changes since then The act gave the federal government total power over First nations and their land. The purpose was to encourage assimilation. The act was paternalistic and treated aboriginal people like children that need parents to look after them The indian act is not a treaty and was not negotiated, it was imposed on Aboriginals by the government Parliament created the Indian Act in 1876 to consolidate the numerous laws governing Aboriginal peoples and to maintain order in relations between whites and aboriginal groups. The act aimed to assimilate Indians into Canadian culture. What did the Indian Act set out to do? Was it effective? Why or why not? The Indian Act was created in 1876 to control the lives, lands and identities of Indigenous peoples in Canada. It aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into settler society by erasing their cultures, governance and legal identities while centralizing government control over Indigenous lands and rights. It was not effective because many indigenous communities resisted the acts of assimilation policies and fought to keep their identities and traditions. Instead of integrating indigenous peoples, the at caused cultural destruction, economic hardship and trauma The act made systemic inequality, creating long term challenges rather than resolving the so called Indian problem What are three long term impacts of The Indian Act? 1.Cultural suppression: The act banned traditional ceremonies languages and governance systems, causing significant cultural los across generations 2.Economic Disadvantage: Prohibitions on land ownership and resource use left many reserves economically stagnant, creating poverty and dependency 3.Social inequalities: Policies like denying status to women who married non-status men hurt their communities and deepened gender based inequalities. 5 of the clauses outlined in the Indian Act prior to 1951: A person loses Indian Status if both their mother and grandmother gained status through marriage. This rule had an impact. It discriminates against descendants, splitting up indigenous communities. The parlament reworked the act in 1951 after WWII when Canadians became more aware of the poverty and discrimination faced by aboriginal peoples. Public concern and a federal report led to the removal of outdated and discriminatory provisions. The Indian act has: Imposed paternalistic control over Indigenous loves and governance Limited opportunities for economic growth on reserves by restricting land ownership and borrowing options Contributed to cultural loss by forbidding traditions, ceremonies, and languages Created systemic inequalities which continue to affect the education, health, and status of Ind