Nutrition and Diet Therapy (Lecture) Macro & Micronutrients PDF

NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY (LECTURE) Nonpolar molecules are hydrophobic and NUTRITION tends to reduce their contact with water. → Study of food and how the body makes use of STRUCTURES OF THE CELL it...

NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY (LECTURE) Nonpolar molecules are hydrophobic and NUTRITION tends to reduce their contact with water. → Study of food and how the body makes use of STRUCTURES OF THE CELL it - Plasma membrane → Deals with the quantity and quality of food CELL - Selectively permeable consumed MEMBRANE - Made up of phospholipids, → Process of receiving & utilizing it for growth cholesterol, and proteins - Watery solutions of → Renewal of the body CYTOPLASM minerals, gasses, and → For maintenance of different body functions organic molecules FUNCTIONS: - Location of chemical ⎯ Basic function: to maintain life reactions ⎯ Preventing diseases or illnesses CELL ORGANELLES ⎯ Concern for adapting food patterns of - Passageway for the individuals to their nutritional needs transport of materials ⎯ Awareness of the need in specific disease ENDOPLASMIC a. Rough ER – with states to modify nutritional factors for RETICULUM ribosomes that secrete proteins therapeutic purpose b. Smooth ER – w/o NUTRIENTS ribosomes & → Chemical substances found in food synthesize lipids and → Found primarily in natural foods, adequate carbohydrates intake of these nutrients is necessary to carry - Tiny structure of proteins out physiological functions RIBOSOMES and rRNA ROLES: - Sites of protein synthesis ⎯ To provide heat and energy - Flat membranous sacs ⎯ To build and repair body tissues GOLGI that synthesize APPARATUS carbohydrates ⎯ To regulate body processes - Package materials for CLASSIFIED ACCDG TO THE FF: secretion Nutrients that form body - Site of energy production tissues are body-building MITOCHONDRIA (ATP) FUNCTION nutrients while those that - Double membrane furnish heat and energy (cristae) are fats, carbohydrates, LYSOSOMES - Single-membraned and proteins structure CHEMICAL Either organic or - Contains digestive PROPERTIES inorganic enzymes - Destroy engulfed bacteria ESSENTIALITY Based on their significant - Rod-shaped structures, contribution to the body’s lies perpendicular to one CENTRIOLES physiological functioning another CONCENTRATION Large or little amounts - Organize the spindle fibers FOOD during cell division → Nourished the body when taken and digested CILIA AND - Mobile thread-like → Vital need FLAGELLA projections → Supplies heat & energy, build and repairs body - Sweep materials across the cell surface tissues, and regulates body processes - Control center CHAPTER I: COMPOSITION OF CELLS NUCLEUS - Contains 46 CELL STRUCTURE chromosomes → → Cells are made up of water, inorganic ions, chromatin – made up of carbon-containing molecules. DNA & protein WATER - most abundant → 70% or more of total cell mass - Polar molecule → hydrogen atoms have a slight (+) charge & oxygen has a slight (-) charge - Can form hydrogen bonds with each other or other polar molecules - Can also interact with + or – ions. Ions & polar molecules are hydrophilic. Fig. 1. Parts of the cell  CHAPTER II: PROCESS OF DIGESTION - Has 5 parts: DIGESTION A. CAECUM → Process of breaking down food into substances B. ACENDING COLON like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and vitamins C. TRANSVERSE COLON that aid the body into different functions D. DESCENDING COLON DIGESTIVE SYSTEM E. SIGMOID COLON → The digestive system is made up of the STOOL – kept in the sigmoid colon until a mass gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) movement empties it into the rectum one or twice → liver, pancreas, gall bladder – solid organs a day. (36 hours) GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT - Made up of food debris & bacteria (synthesize → Chain of hollow organs connected in a long, various vitamins and processes waste twisting tube from the mouth to the anus products) PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM RECTUM – 8-inch chamber MOUTH - Connects the colon to the anus - Start of digestion - Holds the stool until defecation - Breaks down the food via chewing process *Once stool is in the rectum, it sends signal to the and saliva in a form that the body can absorb brain and then decides when rectal contents can be released or not. and use *Sphincters (muscles) relax and the rectum contracts, ESOPHAGUS expelling the contents. - Pharynx ANUS - Transfers food from the mouth to the - End of digestive tract esophagus - Consists of: - Warms, moisten and filters air before food is Upper anus – specialized to detect rectal moved into the trachea contents STOMACH Pelvic floor muscles – creates an angle - Sac-like organ with tough muscular walls between the rectum & the anus that stops - Holds, mixes, and grinds food stool from coming out when it is not - Secretes acid and powerful enzyme → carry supposed to on the process of breaking down food Anal Sphincters – provide control in the Food leaves the stomach in a liquid or paste elimination process consistency SMALL INTESTINE - Long loosely coiled tube - Can be more than 20 ft. long - 3 parts: A. DUODENUM – continues the process of breaking down food B. JEJUNUM C. ILEUM – both are responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream The stomach & small intestine are supported by 3 organs in digesting food: PANCREAS – secretes enzymes that break down fat, protein, &carbohydrates LIVER – produces & secretes bile that helps in digestion and absorption of fats & fat-soluble vitamins - Cleanses & purifies the blood with nutrients GALL BLADDER – pear-shaped reservoir of bile; contracts & sends bile to the small intestine Fig. 2 The Digestive System LARGE INTESTINE - Long muscular tube; 5-6 ft - Connects the caecum to the rectum - Food travels via peristaltic movements or contractions - Liquid to solid state (water is removed)  CHAPTER III. MACRONUTRIENTS COMPLEX CARBOHYDATES CARBOHYDRATES POLYSACCHARIDES → Organic compound Digestible Polysaccharides → Produce the major source of energy - More than 10 sugar units → Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen A. STARCH – major source of carbohydrates in the human diet → Cn(H2O)n ∟ Stored in plant cells *Hydrogen and Oxygen usually occurs in ratio of 2:1 ∟ Composed of amylose and amylopectin as in H2O ∟ Longer time to digest = long time for energy → Polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones B. DEXTRINS – partially hydrolyzed starch - Classified as: - Hydrolysis can be done by heat or by enzymes SIMPLE CARBOHYDATES C. GLYCOGEN – found only in meats and animal MONOSACCHARIDES tissues (stored in liver & muscles) - Simplest form; simple sugar - Allows for breakdown to produce energy w/ the help Glucose (Glu) of glucagons - Principal form in wc carbohydrate is used by the D. PECTINS – treat diarrhea →absorb toxins & body bacteria - Dextrose, blood sugar, physiologic sugar Dietary Fiber - Grape sugar, corn sugar - Nondigestable polysaccharides - Formed by the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates - Can be fermented by colonic bacteria during digestion - 2 types of fiber: - Form of sugar found in the blood a. Soluble Fiber Predominant source of energy - Soluble in water Stored in the liver (1/3) and muscle as - Bulking glycogen - Fruits, oats, chia seeds, root crops, ripe bananas - Provide energy for the brain, other nerve cells, and b. Insoluble Fiber developing red blood cells - Promotes gastrointestinal movement GLUCONEOGENESIS — protein converted to glucose - Cereal bran, rootcrop skins, seeds, nuts, fruit skins, Fructose (Fru) vegetables, unripe bananas - Levulose or fruit sugar FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES - Sweetest of all sugars (HFCS) Energy source (4kcals/ gram) - Naturally found in fruits and honey Protein sparing Galactose Regulation of fat metabolism - Rarely occurs naturally Maintains gut integrity - Produced from lactose Constituent of body compounds that regulate GALACTOSEMIA — condition where the bodyis unable metabolism to metabolize galactose o Detoxifying agent DISACCHARIDES o Component of tissues - Double sugar HEALTH CONCERNS REGARDING CHO Sucrose Weight Management - Glu + Fru Dental caries - Table sugar, sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, Diabetes saccharose Heart disease - Commercially from sugar cane & sugar beets Cancer *Found mainly in molasses, maple syrup, and Behavioral problems maple sugar. Honey Maltose GI Health - Glu + Glu - Malt sugar or grain sugar PROTEINS - Produced from starch breakdown - Nitrogen-containing organic compounds - Not found in free food - Composed of amino acids linked by peptide bond Lactose *Amino acids are classified as: essential, semi- - Gal + Glu essential, or non-essential [-ine] - Milk sugar Phenylalanine Histidine *Found in milk & milk products - Least sweet Valine Isoleucine - Remains longer in the intestine as it encourages the Tryptophan Leucine growth of a certain useful bacteria Methionine Lycine OLIGOSACCHARIDES - Short chain sugars made of monosacchrides FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN: - 3-10 sugar units Growth and repair - Raffinose, Stachyose, and Verbascose o Proteins → ketosis→ ketone bodies *Composed of Gal, Glu, and Fru Source of energy (4 kcals/ gram) - Found in seeds (Legumes) Physiological regulations - Cannot be enzymatically broken o Enzymes and hormones  o Antibodies C. LCFA — palmitic, stearic, caproic o Transport UNSATURATED FATS o Muscle contraction - Double bonds o Acid-base balance (albumin) - Classified as mono- or poly- unsaturated fatty o DNA and RNA acids SOURCES: - Less likely to block arteries Foods of animal origin (bcos complete ang A. MUFA — oleic, palmitoleic essential amino acid) B. PUFA — linoleic, linolenic[essential](Omega 6) Legumes, nuts, cereals, processed vegetable 1. GLYCEROL – for the formation of glucose proteins 2. STEROIDS – contain sterols o Complementary proteins – limiting amino CLASSIFICATION OF FATS: acids SIMPLE LIPIDS PROTEIN QUALITY - Neutral fats; triglycerides Biologic value - Glycerol base + 3 FAs Net protein value COMPOUND LIPIDS Protein efficiency ratio c. Combination of fats with other components PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS – FA + phosphoric acid + nitrogenous bases a. Lecithin – widely distributed ∟ Aids in emulsification ∟ Cheese, margarine, corn oil b. Cephalins – form thromboplastin for the blood-clotting process c. Sphingomyelins – components of myelin sheath; insulator ∟ Egg & yolks 2. GLYCOLIPIDS – FA + carbohydrates + nitrogenous bases a. Cerebrosides – fat transport ∟ galactose b. Gangliosides – glucose + galactose + complex compound containing amino sugar 3. LIPOPROTEINS – lipids combined with proteins; for cell DERIVED LIPIDS - From fat digestion or other complex products (digestive breakdown) 3. FATTY ACIDS – key refined fuel forms of fat that the cell burns for energy ∟ Basic structural units of fat ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS LINOLEIC ACID - Omega 6 - Archidonic acid —> skeletal muscle tissue - Found in vegetable oils and animal fats LIPIDS LINOLENIC ACIDS - Energy reservoir - Omega 3 - Provide a more concentrated source of energy - Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic - Water insoluble organic compounds acid (DHA) —> growth development of eyes & brain o FATS – solid form of lipids - Found in fatty fish (salmon, mackarel) o OILS – liquid form of lipids FUNCTIONS OF EFA: a. Natural oils are classified as: Component of cells (cell membrane Animal fat Insulation and paddin Marine fat Energy source (9 kcals/ gram) (lipids are most Vegetable fat concentrated) b. TRANS– hydrogenated oils made to be more Protein sparing stable Satiety value - Can either be saturated or unsaturated Palatability SATURATED FATS Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins - No hydrogen can be added - Classified as short, medium, or long chain fatty CHOLESTEROL acids → Waxy - Found mostly in animal fats → Component of cell membranes (cause build up or A. SCFA — acetate, proportionate, butyrate blockage of arteries) B. MCFA — caproic, caprylic, capric, and lauric *Found in the blood and other tissues → Animal sources → Classified as: VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (VLDL) - Transported from the liver to different cells of the body - Cells remove triglycerides shrinking the lipoproteins (LDL) - Deposits cholesterol from the body back to the liver HIGH LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (VLDL) - Removes cholesterol from the body back to the liver TRANS FAT → Artificial fats → Made from partial hydrogenation → Lengthen the shelf life Sources: Crackers, doughnuts, fries, cookies, vegetable shortening, hard margarine, pastries ENERGY → Capacity to do work → Measurement of heat a. Measured in kcals or Joules b. Alcohol (7 kcals/ gram) *Alcohol dehydrogenase detoxifies alcohol in liver ENERGY EXPENDITURES BASAL METABOLISM - Essential metabolic proceses by the body at rest - Circulation, breathing PHYSICAL ACTIVITY - Energy spent on moving DIET INDUCED THERMOGENESIS - Thermic Effect Food - Increase in energy use of the body for digestion  CHAPTER IV. MICRONUTRIENTS Not absolutely needed Must be supplied every VITAMINS daily day in the diet → Latin word: Vita – life Generally stable, Most likely to be Amine – nitrogen compound especially in ordinary destroyed in ordinary Not all vitamins contain nitrogen compounds. cooking methods cooking → Group of unrelated organic compounds found in Metabolized with lipids Deficiency symptoms food which are needed only in minute quantities in develop relatively fast the diet Structure is the main → Do not give energy to the body function → Help convert food into energy FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS → The human body cannot make its own vitamins VITAMIN A (RETINOL) except vitamin D and niacin. - Beta-ionine derivatives → Do not have caloric value except vitamin Chemical and physical nature supplements, which may contain few calories in Preformed vitamin A: animal source their sugar coating Provitamin A: Carotenoid FUNCTIONS Absorption and storage Regulate metabolic processes Absorption aided by: Fight off infections a. Bile salts TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH VITAMINS b. Pancreatic lipase PRECURSORS/ PROVITAMINS – c. Dietary fat compounds that can be changes to active Carotene → vit. A [intestinal wall] vitamins Absorbed through lymphatic system & portal PREFORMED VITAMINS – naturally occurring blood to the liver vitamins that are inactive in form and ready for Storage: liver biological use Stability AVITAMINOSIS – condition resulting from lack Stable to light & heat of a vitamin Easily destroyed by oxidation & ultraviolet light HYPERVITAMINOSIS – vitamin toxicity; Cool atmosphere & refrigeration preserve vit. A May be used with vit. E to preserve the latter excessive accumulation of a vitamin in the Physiologic functions body Vision cycle – adjust light & darkness VITAMIN MALNUTRITION – too much or too - Component of rhodopsin & iodopsin little vitamin is not good for the health Epithelial tissue – proper synthesis and VITAMIN-LIKE COMPOUND – substances maintenance of epithelial tissue that have similar roles like vitamins but are Growth & bone development – skeletal & soft present in larger amounts and are partially tissues; cellular differentiation synthesized in the body Normal reproduction & lactation - Ex. Inositol, Choline, Lipoic acid, and Integrity of immune system ubiquinone Hematopoiesis – facilitate iron availability for ANTIVITAMINS or VITAMIN ANTAGONISTS hemoglobin synthesis – substances that interfere with the normal Deficiency functioning of a vitamin Night blindness Keratinization of ANTIOXIDANTS – inhibit free radical reactions; Eye lesion [most epithelial linings critical] Disturbances in the comprises cell integrity; reactive oxygen Retarded growth respiratory, GI, & species = stress Lower resistance to genitourinary tracts BIOFLAVANOIDS – vitamin-like substances infection Skin lesion with antioxidant properties Toxicity RETINOL EQUIVALENT – measure of vitamin Violent headache Coarse sparse hair activity in foods Nausea & vomiting Enlargement of the VITAMERS – active analogs of vitamins; Thickening of the spleen & liver substitute skin with peeling off Cessation of ACTIVE VITAMIN FORM – has biological or Swollen, painful long menstruation (young physiological functions bones girls) CASIMIR FUNK Hypercarotenimia → Founder of vitamins Food sources Preformed Precursors Two types of vitamins: Animal sources Green & yellow FAT-SOLUBLE V WATER-SOLUBLE V Fortified margarine/ vegetables Have precursors/ No precursors/ skim milk Yellow fruits provitamins provitamins Fishes (apricots, peaches & Stored in the body → Not stored in the body & Fish liver oil nectarines) Deficiencies develop excess is excreted via slow urination  VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL) Low levels of tocopherols in the blood - Biological activities of cholecalciferol Increased urinary excretion of creatine & - Active form: Calcitriol decreased excretion of creatinine Chemical and physical nature Toxicity Sterols Hypervitaminosis E Formed in the skin by irradiation of cholesterol by Food sources sunlight Synthesized only by Animal sources Absorption and storage plant Egg yolk Absorption accompanied by calcium & Leaves & green part Liver phosphorus in the small intestine – tocopherol Butter Formed by sunlight → skin → systemic Bran & germ parts - Milk circulation as hormones tocotrienol Storage: liver VITAMIN K (PHYLLOQUINONE, MENADIONE) Stability - Group of compounds for blood clotting: Stable in heat a. K1 (Phylloquinone) – Major form of vit. K in Physiologic functions plants Absorbs calcium & phosphorus b. K2 (Menaquinone) – synthesis of intestinal Promotes normal bone & teeth formation bacteria Renal & phosphate clearance c. K3 (Menadione) – water-soluble analog; no Deficiency bile absorption Tetany – abnormal muscle twitching Chemical and physical nature Rickets – defective bones & retarded growth Synthesized by normal intestinal bacteria Dentition & closing of the fontanel are delayed Absorption and storage Osteomalacia – softening of the bones Absorbed by lacteals, portal blood to liver Toxicity Storage: Liver (small amounts) Nausea Demineralization of Stability Diarrhea bones & deposits in Resistant to heat Polyuria soft tissue Destroyed by sunlight Weight loss in the Renal damages & Not destroyed by ordinary cooking method early stages uremia Unstable to all alkali Hypercalcemia Physiologic functions Food sources Maintenance of prothrombin level in blood Preformed Precursors pressure Animal sources Fish liver oil Synthesis of proconvertin Fortified milk Irradiated food Needed for phosphorylation Butter (has products Blood clotting normalization preformed vit. D) Eggs Involve in respiratory enzyme systems Yeast Oxidative phosphorylation VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROL) Used in pre- and post-operative conditions to - Tocol & tocotrionol derivatives prevent bleeding - Toco – “tokos” → childbirth Deficiency - Important antioxidant Hemorrhagic disease in newborn - Protects vit. A, C carotenes, & USFA Delayed blood clotting time in adults - Good scavengers of free radicals Toxicity Chemical and physical nature Vomiting Resistant to oxidation Hemolysis Absorption and storage Albuminuria Absorption aided by bile & fats Kennicterus – accumulation of bile pigments Storage: Adipose tissue Food sources Stability Green, leady vegetables Stable in heat & acid Egg yolk Unstable to alkalis, ultraviolet light, and oxygen Liver Destroyed when in contact with rancid fats, lead, WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS & iron VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID) Storage, deep freeze & deep frying destroy the - Sailors and explorers use it to cure scurvy tocopherol present - Hexose derivative Physiologic functions - CHO; L-glucose Acts in vitro as a lipid antioxidant - Active forms: Ascorbic acid (reduced) Vit. E enhances the activity of vit, A Dehydro AA (oxidized) Sustain tissue integrity Chemical and physical nature Deficiency Water soluble acid, easily oxidized, unstable Hemolysis of RBC Humans lack an enzyme  Absorption and storage Stability Easily absorbed by the small intestine Cooking is highly variable Distributed in adrenal tissues Freezing has little or no effect Excess is excreted Deficiency Stability Loss of appetite Gastric atony Lost in cooking/ cooking water Weakness Poor reflexes & Exposed to air cause much loss of ascorbic acid Easy fatigability irritability Less destroyed when cooked quickly Indigestion Retarded growth Physiologic functions Severe constipation Numbness of Formation & maintenance of intracellular Beriberi extremities cementing substance Toxicity Converts folic acid → active form No toxicity Aids in healing of wounds & bone fracture Requirement/Allowances Prevents megaloblastic anemia & pinpoint 0.2 mg per 1000 caloric intake hemorrhages Food sources Build body resistances against infections Lean pork, pork liver Whole grains Produce steroid hormones (adrenocortical and other glandular Legumes hormones) organs of pork Nuts Aids in insulin synthesis Shellfish Fortification of Improves iron absorption Egg yolk cereals (wheat flour, Vital role in brain metabolism Unpolished rice rice) Antioxidant action TYPES OF BERIBERI Deficiency a. INFANTILE BERIBERI – occurs in infants Irritability Lowered resistance (2-6months) General weakness to infections b. WET BERIBERI – edema Lack of appetite Pallor c. DRY BERIBERI – peripheral nerves; pins Scurvy and needles Toxicity RIBOFLAVIN (B2) No toxicity Functions Food sources Essential components of coenzymes: Citruses Tomato o Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN) Guava Peppers o Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) Ripe papaya Raw cabbage Essential for protein, fat, and carbohydrate Pineapple Organ meats, but metabolism Guyabano lost when cooked Conversion of tryptophan → niacin VITAMIN B COMPLEX Maintain healthy skin, tongue, mouth, and normal - Consists of vitamins B1, B6, B12, niacin, vision pantothenic acid, folic acid, and biotin. Proper growth and development - Necessary for muscle contraction Stability - Involved in the production & repair of tissue Stable to heat, oxidation, and acid - Normal growth & maintenance of body Sensitive to alkali processes Deficiency - Boiling 15% to 40-% loss Ariboflavinosis – Glossitis (tongue) Frying 40% to 60% loss tissue changes in the Cheilosis – swollen Roasting 30% to 60% loss skin, eyes, nose, & lips and corners of A. Group I: Classic Disease Factors tongue the eyes and mouth THIAMINE (B1) Seborrheic are cracked - Molecule of pyrimidine dermatitis – burning - Readily soluble in water sensation & corneal vascularization - Aneurine Toxicity Thiamine triphosphate (TTP) – present in the Ns of mammals along w TMP No toxicity on oral doses Thiamine monophosphate (TMP) Possible if massive doses given by injection Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP) – required by Ill-defined effects are not as serious as what is enzymes which produces coenzyme A & succinyl experienced in hypervitaminoses A and D. Functions Food sources Needed for coenzyme factor Animal sources Plant sources Needed for carbohydrate metabolism Cheese Whole grains Required by transketolase Milk Legumes Maintenance of appetite Eggs Leafy green Good muscle tone Liver and other vegetables & Normal functioning of nerves glandular organs seaweed  NIACIN (NICOTINIC ACID) PANTOTHENIC ACID Functions Functions Acts as a hydrogen & electron acceptor Essential for carbohydrate, protein, and fat Energy metabolism metabolism Fatty acid synthesis/oxidation Maintain normal growth, healthy skin, and Protein synthesis/catabolism integrity of CNS Photosynthesis for plants; Fixation of CO2 in Many metabolic roles in the cell animal cells Stability Stability Stable in moist heat More stable than thiamine & riboflavin Deficiency Remarkably resistant to heat, light, air, acids, & Insomnia Tingling sensation of alkali Muscle cramps extremities Small amounts may be lost in discarded cooking Vomiting water Toxicity Deficiency No toxic effects Anorexia Pellagra – blackish Requirement/Allowances Indigestion or dark scaly patches 5mg of pantothenic acid a day is sufficient Skin Changes Food sources Toxicity Liver and other Milk Hypermotility glandular organs Cheese Acidity of the stomach Meats Legumes Paralysis in the respiratory center Eggs Food sources LIPOIC ACID Animal sources Plant sources ⎯ Sulfur-containing fatty acid Liver and other Legumes ⎯ Not a true vitamin because it can be glandular organs Nuts synthesized in adequate amounts Lean meats Whole grains Functions Fish & poultry Enriched cereals Coenzyme in energy metabolism converting Milk & cheese Green vegetables pyruvic acid → acetyl CoA. Eggs Requirement/Allowances B. Group II: More Recently Discovered Not yet see although its biological role is known Coenzyme Factors Food sources PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6) Concentrated sources of lipoic acid: yeast & liver Functions BIOTIN Plays many of the biochemical processes by Functions which food are metabolized in the body Coenzyme factor in CO2 fixation Found in the cells in active form Helps in the synthesis of purines, pyrimidines, Pyridoxal Phosphate (PLP) – coenzyme that fatty acids, and carboxylation reactions functions in protein, fat, and carbohydrate Stability metabolism Stable to heat Formation of tryptophan Soluble in water & alcohol Conversion of tryptophan → nicotinic acid Susceptible to oxidation, alkali, and strong acid Stability Deficiency More stable than thiamine & riboflavin True biotin deficiency does not occur, even in Remarkably resistant to heat, light, air, acids, & poor diet alkali Toxicity Small amounts may be lost in discarded cooking water No toxic effects Deficiency Requirement/Allowances No deficiency state has been observed in adult 150 – 300 mcg a day by dietary depletion Food sources By injecting an antagonist: Liver and other Milk o Nausea, vomiting, Seborrheic or oily glandular organs Molasses dermatitis, glossitis, conjunctivitis & Meats Whole grains depressive moods Egg yolk Legumes & nuts Milk formula lacking in pyridoxine: poor growth, irritability, anemia & convulsions Toxicity Observed only in rats Food sources Vegetable oil (Corn, Wheat & rice germ cottonseed linseed, Lard & olive) Legumes & peanut C. Group III: Cell Growth and Blood-forming D. Group IV: Other Related Factors (PSEUDO- Factors VITAMINS) FOLIC ACID INOSITOL Functions Functions Vital role in the transfer of 1 carbon units to Lipotropic agent → helps in the transport and appropriate metabolites in the synthesis of DNA, metabolism of fats RNA, methionine, and serine Muscle sugar Pteroproteins – Enzyme which utilized felacin Stability coenzyme 70% is retained during cooking Require for 1-setp conversion of histidine → Requirements glutamic acid Not known Essential for the formation of RBC and WBC in Food sources the bone marrow & for their maturation Meat & meat Fruits Stability extractives Vegetables Unstable to heat in acid media Muscle & glandular Grains Stable to sunlight when in solution organs Loss of folic acid in vegetables during storage at Brain room temp Legumes & nuts Loss occurs in processing food at high temp CHOLINE Deficiency Functions Poor growth Impaired absorption Lipotropic agent → mobilizes fat & prevents Megaloblastic Excessive demands by build-up of fatty acids Anemia & other tissues of the body Needed for fat transport (constituent of blood disorders Metabolic phospholipids) Glossitis derangements Helps in the transmission of nerve impulses GIT disturbances Deficiency arising from Fatty livers inadequate dietary Food sources intake Egg yolk Legumes & nuts Food sources Liver, brain, kidney, Yeast Liver Lean beef heart meats Wheat germ Kidney & lima Potatoes beans Whole-wheat bread MINERALS Fresh, dark green Dried beans → Elements in their simple inorganic form leafy vegetables → Present or required in small amounts → trace COBALAMIN (B12) elements/ minerals Functions → Found in refined food mostly in comvination Essential for normal metabolism & growth of all with one another cells (GI tract, bone marrow, nervous tissue) → Compres about 4-6% of total BW Aids in the transfer of methyl groups in the Mineral Composition of the Body synthesis of nucleic acids, purines, and → 21 mineral elements known to be essential, pyrimidine intermediates but there are more than 25 minerals. Myelin formation → Exists in the body and in food in organic and Essential for carbohydrate, proteins, and fat metabolism inorganic combinations Associated with folic acid absorption and Minerals of the body metabolism 1. Calcium 12. Manganese Stability 2. Phosphorus 13. Copper 70% is retained during cooking 3. Potassium 14. Iodine Deficiency 4. Sulfur 15. Molybdenum Demyelination of the large nerve fibers of the 5. Sodium 16. Cobalt spinal cord 6. Chlorine 17. Chromium Pernicious anemia 7. Magnesium 18. Fluorine Toxicity 8. Iron 19. Vanadium No toxic effects 9. Zinc 20. Nickel Food sources 10. Selenium 21. Tin Animal sources have significant amount Plants sources have nothing 11. Manganese A. Group I: Major Minerals CALCIUM Distribution Total body weight, 1.5% to 2.2% is calcium Present mostly in the bones & teeth, 1% on soft tissues and body fluids  Functions Milk Green plants Combines with phosphorus to form calcium Dried beans Peas phosphate → hard material of the bones & teeth Participates in the muscular contractions & relaxation Effects of deficiency or excess Promotes blood coagulation Effects of deficiency Effects of Excess Membrane stabilizer Hypomagnesemic Hypermagnesemia Nerve transmission & regulation of heart beat Tetany Utilization SODIUM Absorption is better during periods of increased → Monovalent cation body needs (growth, pregnancy, & lactation) → Restrict the amount of Na in the diet, and there is a decreased absorption in old age. depending on the condition Vitamin D enhances the optimum absorption of Distribution calcium 50% found in extracellular fluid Low gastric pH (acidic) factors the absorption of 10% found within cells calcium whereas hypochlorhydria (alkaline 40% found in the skeleton medium) causes the precipitation of the mineral Total sodium: 1.8mg/kg High intakes of meat increase the excretion of Functions calcium in the urine Maintaining fluid balance Ratio of calcium to phosphorus (important in the Maintain materials absorption of calcium): Maintains normal muscle irritability or excitability o 1.5:1 → Infants Food Sources o 1:1 → Adults Soy sauce Processed food: Oxalic and phytic acid interfere with absorption Vetsin Tocino, tapa, bacon, Fats in excess may form insoluble soaps with Fish sauce ham, hotdog calcium Luncheon meat & Laxatives may reduce the rate of passage of sardines canned food causing the decrease in absorption of Recommended dietary allowance calcium Amounts should be equal that of the body’s Lack of exercise need for growth Mental stress or emotional stability Effects of deficiency or excess Alcohol intake Effects of deficiency Effects of Excess Caffeine increases urinary calcium excretion Hyponatremia Edema Food Sources POTASSIUM Carabao’s milk Sardines Cheese Evaporated milk → Principal cation Distribution Bagoong Effects of deficiency or excess Present within the cells or in the intracellular fluids Effects of deficiency Effects of Excess Retarded growth Hypercalcemia Small amounts in the extracellular fluids Rickets Total Potassium: 2.6 gm/kg Functions Osteomalacia Tetany Maintains fluid & electrolyte balance Acid base balance MAGNESIUM Play significant role in the activity of skeletal & Distribution cardiac muscles 50% present in the bones Muscle relaxant Remaining is almost entirely inside the body Carbohydrate & protein metabolism cells, 1% extracellular fluid Food Sources Highest concentration in the muscles & red blood cells Nuts Cocoa Total Magnesium: 0.5gm/kg Soybeans Seafoods Functions Meat Whole grains Milk Green plants Transfer of energy Photosynthetic reactions in plants Dried beans Peas Recommended dietary allowance Cellular metabolism 2 to 6 gm potassium Regulates the blood phosphorus level Effects of deficiency or excess Promote the conduction of nerve impulses & allow normal muscle contraction Effects of deficiency Effects of Excess Increase the stability of calcium in tooth enamel Hypokalemia Hyperkalemia Food Sources Apathy Nuts Cocoa Muscular weakness Soybeans Seafoods Mental confusion Meat Whole grains Abdominal distention  Carrier of oxygen Hemoglobin formation PHOSPHORUS Active component of tissue enzyme Distribution o Beta carotene → Vitamin A Human body contains about 1% phosphorus o Synthesis of purine 85% is the inorganic phase of bones & teeth in o Antibody production combination with calcium o Collagen synthesis Remainder is in the cells with carbohydrates, Utilization protein, and fats Iron in ferrous form is better absorbed than in Total Phosphorus: 12 gm/kg ferric form. Functions Types of Iron: Component of bones & teeth 1. Heme iron – found in meat; more efficiently Component of every cell absorbed by the body pH regulation → principal anion 2. Non-heme iron – eating meat with non- heme iron and vit C helps with the Facilitates the passage of substances through absorption of non-heme iron by the body. cell membranes Growth, pregnancy, lactation, and person in the Food Sources state of iron deficiency, iron absorption is high. Cheese Poultry Increased fiber in the diet interferes with the Milk Fish absorption of iron. Dairy products Eggs Coffee intake decreases the absorption of iron. Meat Dried beans 10-50mg of ascorbic acid (vit C) increases iron Effects of excess absorption. Natural phosphates cause no harm Food Sources Elemental phosphorus is highly poisonous Pork liver Dried beans SULFUR Enriched rice Mustard leaves Distribution Rice bran Egg Comprises about 0.25% of body weight Recommended dietary allowance Concentrated in the cytoplasm Breast milk & iron-fortified milk, provides Highest concentration: hair, skin, & nails adequate amount of iron for infants through 6 Functions months. Maintain protein structure 10mg/day Activates enzymes Non-pregnant menstruating women 27mg/day Detoxification reactions Effects of deficiency or excess Food Sources Effects of deficiency Effects of excess Diet adequate in protein will contain enough Anemia Hemosiderosis – sulfur excessive amount of Effects of deficiency or excess Fe in the body Cystinuria – excessive excretion of amino acid Hemochromatosis cystine in the urine – absorb unusually Formation of cystine kidney stones large amounts of CHLORINE iron & store them in → Major anion in the extracellular fluid tissues Distribution COPPER Highest concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid Distribution Ionized chlorine is found in the GI secretion as Found in all tissues HCl. Large amounts are in the liver, brain, heart, and Functions kidney. Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance Functions Maintain Acid-base balance Formation of hemoglobin Contributes to the necessary in the stomach Promotes absorption of iron from the GIT and Food Sources transportation of iron from tissue to the plasma Table Salt (NaCl) Valuable catalyst in oxidation reduction mechanisms Effects of deficiency Constituent of several of the oxidative enzymes Alkalosis – excessive loss of chloride ions for amino acids B. Group II: Trace Minerals Maintain the integrity of the myelin sheath IRON Formation of melanin pigment if hair & skin Distribution Food Sources The body contains about 75 mg/kg or 3-5gm Organ meats Muscle meat 60-75% part of hemoglobin Whole grains Fresh fruits 5% part of myoglobin (muscle hemoglobin) Cherries Refined cereals 26% in the liver, spleen, & bone marrow Leafy vegetables Fish Functions Eggs Poultry  Beans Nuts Cocoa Shellfish (oyster) Effects of deficiency or excess Requirements Effects of deficiency Effects of excess Requirement is restricted to the body’s need for Depigmentation of Wilson’s disease vitamin B12 skin & hair Effects of deficiency or excess CNS abnormalities Effects of deficiency: Effects of excessive: Hypotonia Pernicious Polycythemia – Hypothermia anemia increase in the no. of Chronic microcytic RBC anemia Hyperplasia of bone Skeletal marrow mineralization in ZINC infants and children Distribution IODINE Body contains about 2 to 5gm of zinc Distribution 80% present in the RBC The body contains 20 to 30 mg of iodine 4% in WBC and platelets 70-80% is concentrated in the thyroid gland Remainder is in the serum largely in combination The rest is widely diffused throughout the tissue with protein. – ovaries, muscles, and blood Functions Functions Integral part of metalloenzymes Production of thyroid hormone Involved in wide range of cellular functions Required for synthesis of thyroxine Regulator of activities of certain enzymes Food Sources Present in the RNA Seafoods Iodized salt Enhances wound healing Seaweeds Helps maintain a normal sense of taste Effects of deficiency or excess Food Sources Effects of deficiency Milk Nuts Goiter – enlargement of thyroid gland Meat Legumes Cretinism – insufficient iodine intake of a Liver Whole-grain cereals mother; child suffers from hypothyroidism Oyster Wheat Myxdema – adults who have had problems with Eggs Bran low iodine intake throughout their childhood & Effects of deficiency or excess adolescence Effects of deficiency: Effects of excessive: MANGANESE Slow growth Nausea Distribution Alopecia Vomiting 10-20mg is present in the body Disturbances in the Abdominal cramps Concentrated in the liver & kidneys keratinization Diarrhea Small amounts in other tissues – retina, bones, & process in skin and Fever salivary glands esophagus Functions Hypospermia Activator of a number of metabolic reactions Delayed sexual Catalyst maturation Increases storage of thiamine White cell defects Food Sources Night blindness Nuts Green leafy MOLYBDENUM Whole-grain cereals vegetables Distribution Dried legumes Dried & fresh fruits Body contains about 9mg Tea Non-leafy vegetables Concentrated in the liver, kidneys, adrenal Effects of deficiency or excess glands & blood cells No manganese deficiency or toxicity Functions COBALT Integral part of various enzyme molecules: o Xanthine oxidase Distribution o Aldehyde oxidase Found in trace amounts o Flavoprotein Functions Food Sources Constituent of vit B12 Dried peas Lean meats Necessary for RBC formation Bean Poultry Normal functioning of all cells Requirement Food Sources Daily intake of 50-500mg for adults Liver Veal Effects of deficiency Oysters Saltwater fish Effects of deficiency: Lethargy Clams Milk Headache Coma Lean beef  Irritability Abnormal Night blindness metabolism of sulfur containing amino VANADIUM acids Distribution Abnormal Constituent of human tissues degradation of Functions nucleic acids Involved in the appetite crystal formation of C. Group III: Other Trace Minerals tooth enamel FLUORINE Resistance to tooth decay Distribution Requirement Found primarily in the bones & teeth 0.1 to 0.3mg/day Traces amounts are found in the thyroid gland & skin Functions Forma a more stable compound in the dentine & enamel of the teeth → reducing dental caries & minimizing bone loss Effective in the treatment of osteoporosis Food Sources Water – major Chief source: water & source of Fluorine topical agents Small amounts: Fluoridated salt & milk Fruits, Vegetables, & Cereals Effects of deficiency Effects of deficiency: Effects of excess: Dental carries Dental Fluorosis Osteosclerosis Growth depression Fatal poisoning SELENIUM Distribution Content depends on the soil where the food source is grown Functions Reduces or prevents the effects of vitamin E deficiency Component of glutathione peroxidase (GP) → inactivating the oxidation & rancidity of fats Food Sources Organ meats Cereals Muscle meats Dairy products Effects of deficiency Muscle pain & tenderness Pancreatic degeneration Hemolytic anemia CHROMIUM Distribution Body content of chromium: 6 to 10 mg Functions Raises abnormally low fasting blood sugar levels Improves the faulty uptake of sugar by body tissues Stimulates the synthesis of fatty acids & cholesterol in the liver Food Sources Corn oil Vegetables Clams Meats Whole-grain cereals Requirement Normal adults: 50 to 200 mcg/day