NCM 111 NSG Research - Module 8: Stating the Research Problem

**NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 8)** **STATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM** **The research problem may be stated as:** **a problem statement, or** **a research question.** **PROBLEM STATEMENT** **A problem statement** articulates the problem to be addressed and indicates a need for the study....

**NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 8)** **STATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM** **The research problem may be stated as:** **a problem statement, or** **a research question.** **PROBLEM STATEMENT** **A problem statement** articulates the problem to be addressed and indicates a need for the study. **RESEARCH QUESTION** A **research question** is a specific query that a researcher wants to answer in addressing the research problem. The question form has the advantage of simplicity and directness. ***Examples:*** **[Research problem]:** Coronary disorders in middle-aged men who smoke **[Problem statement]:** The effect of smoking on middle-aged men who have coronary disorders **[Research question]:** What is the effect of smoking on middle-aged men who have coronary disorders? The research problem identifies the key variables, the relationships between them, and the population being studied. **VARIABLES** A **variable** is a factor, characteristic or condition of a person, a group of persons, thing, or event that takes on values that can be measured categorically or quantitatively. In research, variables are usually categorized as either ***independent* or *dependent*.** **The independent variable (**denoted **by IV or X)** is the variable that is introduced, removed, or manipulated as to cause a change in the dependent variable that is to be observed or measured. **The dependent variable (**denoted by **DV or Y)** is the variable that is observed and measured to find out how it is affected by the IV. The DV is also called ***outcome*, *response*, *output*, *criterion*, or *attribute variable*.** **The IV is the presumed cause and the DV is the presumed effect.** **Two other variables that affect the relationship between the IV and the DV are:** **1. Moderator variable, and** **2. Mediator variable** **MODERATOR VARIABLE** **A moderator variable** is a variable that affects the strength or direction of an association between the IV and the DV. **The IV** is said to ***interact*** with the **moderator variable,** i.e., the IV's relationship with the DV variable is stronger or weaker for different values of the moderator variable. **MEDIATOR VARIABLE** **A mediator variable** is a variable that intervenes between the IV and the DV, and helps to explain why the relationship exist. However, because of the difficulty in determining whether a variable is a moderator or mediator, usually the general term **'intervening variable'** is often used in research. **NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 9)** **FORMULATING HYPOTHESES** **HYPOTHESIS** **A hypothesis** is a statement of predicted relationships between variables. It is a prediction about the outcome of a research study in terms of the variables being studied. **A hypothesis** is a conjectural statement, or a tentative answer to a question, or an educated guess about the relation between two or more phenomena or variables. **For example, a hypothesis might say:** **\ '*X is significantly different from Y.'* or** ***'There is a significant relationship between X and Y.'* or** ***'If X occurs, then Y results.'*** A hypothesis, therefore**, translates a quantitative research question into a precise prediction of an expected outcome.** **Hypotheses** are proposed solutions or answers to research questions. A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form. A hypothesis may be ***simple*, or *complex.*** **SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS** **A simple hypothesis** is one that expresses an expected relationship between *one* independent variable and *one* dependent variable. **COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS** **A complex hypothesis** (also called multivariate hypothesis) is one that expresses an expected relationship between ***two* (*or more*) independent variables and *two* (*or more*) dependent variables.**   Hypotheses are also ***complex* if moderator or mediator variables are included in the prediction.**  **A hypothesis may also be *directional* or *non-directional.*** **DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS** **A directional hypothesis** is one that specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between variables. **NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS** **A non-directional hypothesis** does not specify the direction of the relationship. A hypothesis may also be a ***null hypothesis* or an *alternative hypothesis.*** **NULL HYPOTHESIS** **A null hypothesis (or *statistical hypothesis*)** states that there is *no relationship* between variables. It is just the opposite of the research hypothesis. **ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS** **An alternative hypothesis (or *research hypothesis*)** is a statement of an expected relationship between variables. **NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 10)** **REVIEW OF LITERATURE** **A literature** is an article written by an authority on a topic. **The review of literature** or **literature review (LR)** involves the systematic identification, location, and analysis of documents containing information relevant to the research topic or problem. The LR is an account of what has been published on a topic by researchers, scholars and practitioners. It is a concise overview of what has been studied, argued, and established about the topic. Studies are said to be related to the present study when: **1. They resemble the content of the present** **investigation;** **2. They resemble the methodology and sampling** **plan of the present study; and** **3. They use the same set of factors or variables as** **the present study.** The purpose of the review is to determine what has been written about the research topic by experts in the field, as well as researchers' studies. It attempts to show what has been studied in the field, and also where the weaknesses, gaps, or areas needing further study are. The review should therefore also demonstrate to the reader why the writer's research is useful, necessary, important, and valid. **Specific reasons for conducting LR include:** **1. To see what has and has not been investigated** **2. To help the researcher understand better** **his/her topic for research** **3. To identify potential relationships between** **concepts and to identify researchable** **hypotheses** **4. To learn how others have defined and measured** **key concepts** **5. To identify data sources that other researchers** **have used** **6. To develop alternative research topics** **7. To discover how a research project is related to** **the work of others** **8. To demonstrate relationships among the prior** **research studies** **9. To inform the reader what has already been** **discovered to avoid duplication** **10. To identify gaps (or what has not been said)** **and discrepancies in the literature** **11. To anticipate common problems in the** **proposed research study** Without the LR, you will not acquire an understanding of your topic, of what has already been done on it how it has been researched, what the key issues are. **GUIDELINES IN SELECTING RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES** **The literature must be as objective and unbiased as possible.** **The literature must have been based on genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable.** **SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES** **Unpublished theses and dissertations** **Records of schools, especially reports and other activities** **LOCATING THE RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES** The most effective way to locate useful, relevant information involves breaking down a research question into keywords or phrases. A **keyword** or **phrase** is the basic unit of any search. **BASIC STEPS IN CONDUCTING LR** **Basic Steps in Conducting LR** **After finding a topic of interest, the researcher:** **RECORDING THE LITERATURE** This process is called **abstracting.** Steps to follow in abstracting: **The author/source of your note** **The name of the publisher and when/ where published** **The corresponding page on which this was found** For Internet sources: **The author (if none, get the e-mail address)** **The date of creation or last update of the website** **The date you accessed or retrieved the information** **The URL (http://www\...)** For every article, take note also of: **What was the problem investigated?** **What was the theoretical base of the study?** **What research method was used?** **What were the major findings and conclusions?** **What were the recommendations offered by the researcher?** **NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 11)** **THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK** A researcher needs a logical structure that he/she will follow by setting down the broad areas that will be covered. This structure is called the **framework of the research.\ \ **The framework may be **theoretical or conceptual.** **A theory** is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing; it comes into being when a series of ideas come to be held and accepted by a wider community of people. A theory is based on empirical evidence found through scientific research that was rigorously controlled to avoid bias. **A theory has two critical components:\ \ 1. It describes specific behavior(s), and\ 2. It must make predictions about future behavior(s).** **THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK** When there is any topic to be researched, there are certain theories associated with it. A research framework based on theory is called a **theoretical framework** and consists of an interrelated coherent set of ideas and models The theoretical framework presents a theory that explains why a problem under study exists and explains the connection between certain factors and the problem. It explains why an event is associated with another event, or what causes an event to happen. Nursing theories are reservoirs in which are stored findings related to nursing concepts such as: comfort, healing, recovering mobility, rest, caring, fatigue, and family care. Theories that are historically important, and that address phenomena of concern to nursing from different perspectives, are sometimes referred to as **grand theories.** **These theories guide the discipline of nursing today, and the 10 prominent theories in research are:** **THE NURSING METAPARADIGM** There are **four major concepts** that are frequently interrelated and fundamental to nursing theory: **person, environment, health, and nursing.** These four are collectively referred to as metaparadigm for nursing. **PERSON** **(also referred to as Client or Human Beings)** is the recipient of nursing care and may include individuals, patients, groups, families, and communities. **ENVIRONMENT** **(or situation)** is defined as the internal and external surroundings that affect the client. It includes all positive or negative conditions that affect the patient, the physical environment, such as families, friends, and significant others, and the setting for where they go for their healthcare. **HEALTH** is defined as the degree of wellness or well-being that the client experiences. It may have different meanings for each patient, the clinical setting, and the health care provider. **NURSING** are the attributes, characteristics, and actions of the nurse providing care on behalf of or in conjunction with, the client. These four concepts are used frequently and defined differently throughout different nursing theories. Each nurse theorist's definition varies in accordance with their orientation, nursing experience, and different factors that affect the theorist's view of nursing. The person is the main focus but how each theorist defines the nursing metaparadigm gives a unique take specific to a particular theory. **CLASSIFICATION OF NURSING THEORIES** Nursing theories may be classified according to level of abstraction. **GRAND THEORIES** are abstract, broad in scope, and complex, therefore requiring further research for clarification. Grand nursing theories do not provide guidance for specific nursing interventions but rather provide a general framework and ideas about nursing. **MIDDLE-RANGE NURSING THEORIES** are more limited in scope (as compared to grand theories) and present concepts and propositions at a lower level of abstraction. Most middle-range theories are based on the works of a grand theorist but they can be conceived from research, nursing practice, or the theories of other disciplines. **PRACTICE-LEVEL NURSING THEORIES** are situation specific theories that are narrow in scope and focuses on a specific patient population at a specific time. Theories developed at this level have a more direct effect on nursing practice as compared to more abstract theories. These theories are interrelated with concepts from middle-range theories or grand theories. There are also non-nursing theories that are frequently used in nursing research. **These 'borrowed' theories include:** **Health Belief Model \-\-- M. Becker** **Theory of Stress and Coping \-\-- R. Lazarus & S. Folkman** **Social Learning Theory \-\-- A. Bandura** **NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 12)** **CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK** **CONCEPT** abstract idea or phenomenon that is being studied. Examples of concepts include common demographic measures: age, gender, educational level, income, academic performance, etc. **CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK** represents a less formal, but more specific, attempt in organizing phenomena than theories. It is a visual presentation of variables and how they interrelate with one another, as perceived by the researcher before an actual empirical investigation is done to prove their relationships. A conceptual framework is constructed by graphically diagramming the research topic or problem.  The resulting diagram is referred to in research as a schematic model or **schema.** *\[Example\]* **OTHER TERMS USED IN RESEARCH** **CONSTRUCT** an abstraction that is deliberately and systematically invented (or constructed) by a researcher for a specific purpose. ***\[Example\]*** If the construct 'job satisfaction' is to be measured in a research, it may be composed of the concepts like nature of the job, salaries and benefits, work environment, and support by management. **OPERATIONAL DEFINITION** defines specific processes, tests, and measurements used to determine its presence or quantity. ***\[Example\]*** The variable 'intelligence' may be defined in a certain research as follows: **Theoretical definition:** *Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.* **Operational definition:** *Intelligence in this study is measured based on the results of the Wechsler IQ test classification.* **NCM 111 (NSG RESEARCH)** **(MODULE 13)** **DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE** After deciding on the research topic, the next step is to specify the process on **how to get the data needed,** and **how to conduct the research investigation.** The research methodology will usually include the following: **the research design (or statistical methods) to be used);** **the research locale;** **THE RESEARCH DESIGN** The **research design** briefly describes the type of research method that will be used in the study, and the justification for the choice of the method. **Two main categories of research designs:** **quantitative and** **qualitative.** **TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS** **Descriptive** **Inferential** **DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH** used to obtain data to determine specific characteristics of a group. Data are tabulated and reported usually in the form of frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations. **INFERENTIAL RESEARCH** **EXPERIMENTAL** **Experimental research** the most conclusive of scientific methods. In this method, the researcher manipulates different treatments (IVs) and studies their effects (DVs). A true experimental design has the following characteristics: **Manipulation** **Control** **Randomization** **MANIPULATION** involves doing something to at least some study participants. That 'something' which is introduced is the independent variable (also called treatment or intervention). The researcher thus consciously varies the IV and observes the effect on the DV. **CONTROL** is achieved in an experimental study by manipulating, by randomizing, by carefully preparing the experiment protocols, and by using a control group. **RANDOMIZATION** **(also called random assignment)** involves placing subjects in groups at random. If subjects are placed in groups randomly, there is no systematic bias in the groups with respect to attributes that could affect the dependent variable. **NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH** data come from observations of events or phenomena over which few controls (if any) are imposed. The distinction between experimental and non-experimental research is that an experiment imposes controls on the methods, treatments, or conditions under which it is performed. **COMPARATIVE RESEARCH** is used to determine differences between groups of people. **CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH** is used to determine the relationships among two or more variables. It seeks to describe relationships that may exist among normally-occurring phenomena, without trying to alter them. **THE RESEARCH LOCALE** The **research locale** describes the place where the study will be conducted and the justification for its choice. **POPULATION AND SUBJECTS** The section on population and subjects describes the population of interest, its size, and its major characteristics. A detailed sampling procedure will also be described. **THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT** Data collection decisions include the study population and sample, gaining access to the population, getting all of the approvals needed to do the study, deciding on what data will be collected to answer the research questions, and who, where, and how long it will be collected. Selection of study instruments to measure the outcomes of the study is also a critical step in data collection. Data collection methods or instruments must be developed to observe or measure the research variables as accurately as possible. **Quantitative data** collection methods or instruments may include: **Interview schedule,** where the questions are asked orally in either face-to-face or telephone interviews **Self-administered questionnaire (SAQ), or** simply **questionnaire,** where the respondents fill up the questionnaires themselves **Observation,** where data are collected by observing and recording certain aspects of people's behaviors **Biophysiologic measurements,** where laboratory devices may be used The researcher should describe the method and procedure that will be used to collect the data, including how the critical research variables will be **operationalized** (i.e., how they will be used and measured in the study). If a schedule or a questionnaire is used, it is important to **pre-test** it to identify questions that respondents tend to misinterpret, omit, or answer inappropriately**.** **DATA ANALYSIS** **Data analysis** describes the analytical procedure (whether quantitative or qualitative) to be used on the data gathered for the study. In quantitative analysis, you may be dealing with both descriptive and inferential statistics. The following statistical tests are usually employed in research: **t-test \-\--** to compare two means (from independent groups, or paired groups) **Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) \-\--** to test the difference of the means among three or more groups (one IV and two or more DVs) **chi-square test\-\--** to relate two nominal variables (using contingency tables) **correlation coefficient \-\--** to test the relationship between two variables (paired data) Some new statistical tests (e.g., eta correlation, point biserial correlation, etc.) are not yet widely acceptable for use in nursing research.