NCERT Short Notes on History PDF

NCERT Short Notes HISTORY Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Sources of History Shorts HISTORY What is History History is the study of the pasts using the materials which have been in use during t...

NCERT Short Notes HISTORY Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Sources of History Shorts HISTORY What is History History is the study of the pasts using the materials which have been in use during that times. Methods of studying History  Geographical sources: Based on where the people lived. Eg Sulaiman and Kirthar hills in the northwest, Garo hills in the north-east and the Vindhyas in central India.  Occupational sources: Based on the occupation of the people, Hunters and Gatherers in Vindhyas and Agriculturalists in Garo Hills.  Crop Varieties: Based on the crop varieties grown in a particular geography like Wheat in Mehrgarh (Pakistan) and rice in Garo Hills and Vindhyas.  Location of Cities: Magadha lying along the south of river Ganga.  Older names mentioned in texts:  Iranians and the Greeks familiar with the Indus, called land to the east of the river Indus was as India.  The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the northwest, and who are mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago).  Written sources: Based on the surface on which information is written  Manuscripts: Written by hand and on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil.  Inscriptions: These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Persons who study History  Archaeologists: They study the remains of buildings made of stone and brick, paintings and sculpture. They also explore and excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins.  Historians: They study history from manuscripts, inscriptions and archaeology. HISTORY | Sources of History Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Source : NCERT Stone tools used by Archaeologists for study Probable Questions 1) Compare and contrast the difference between inscriptions and manuscripts. 2) Enlist the methodologies of studying history. 3) Differentiate between historians and archaeologists on the basis of their methodologies to study history. HISTORY | Sources of History Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts Literary and Burial accounts of History HISTORY Evidence of Writing First evidence of writing in China was found 3500 years ago. These writings were on animal bones and were called oracle bones. Examples of Literary sources  Vedas: Initially, the Rigveda was not in written form, but was passed on orally known as Shruti. The Vedic teachers took great care to teach students to pronounce words and memorise hymns correctly.  Sanskrit and Other Languages: Scholars have discovered many similarities between Sanskrit and European languages such as Latin, English and German. Historians came to the conclusion that Sanskrit belongs to the Indo- European group of languages. Other languages like Hindi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, belong to this group.  Written sources: Based on the surface on which information is written  Manuscripts: Written by hand and on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil.  Inscriptions: These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Vedas  There are four Vedas:Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.  The oldest one is the Rigveda (3500 years ago). It contains over a thousand hymns (Suktas). The Vedas are religious texts of Hinduism. The hymns were composed by rishis and students memorised them. The Rigveda has been written in old (Vedic) Sanskrit.  The Rigveda divides people in two groups on the basis of their work : the brahmins and the rajas. People or the community as a whole have been referred to as jana or vish. The composers of hymns called themselves Aryas, and their opponents Dasas/ Dasyus. Burial Spots Burial Spots : Some burial chambers have more than one skeleton, probably meaning that one chamber was used for many members of the same family. A hole in the wall allowed the chamber to be used over and over again. The burial sites were marked by stones. HISTORY | Literary and Burial accounts of History Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved   Skeleton Studies: Study of the bone structure helps to differentiate between male and female skeletons. The hip or the pelvic area of a woman is generally larger than a man.  Special Burial at Inamgaon: We find burials dated back to 3600 and 2700 years ago. adults were generally buried in the ground. Special mention may be made of a man who was found buried in a large, four-legged clay jar in the courtyard of a five-roomed house.  Megaliths: These literally mean big stones, which were used by early men to spot burial Sites. Source : NCERT A Megalithic Burial Spot Probable Questions 1) Explain the importance of literary sources for reconstruction of history. 2) Explain the significance of Megaliths for Burials. 3) Do burials indicate an increase in civilization in the society. HISTORY | Literary and Burial accounts of History Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts Earliest People HISTORY Evolution of the Early Man Primates are a subgroup of a larger group of mammals. Around 36-24 mya, Primates existed in Asia and Africa. Apes came under Hominoids (around 6 Million years before) and had a comparatively smaller brain compared to Homo Species. Homo is originally a Latin word which means man. Homo came into existence approximately 2.5 million years ago. Homo erectus were familiar with the art of walking. Homo sapiens were the modern men. They were intelligent and wise. They came into existence between 0.19 to 0.16 million years ago. Homo neanderthalensis were also called Neanderthal men because their fossils have been found in Neander valley in Germany. Information of Early Men The tools of early men were made of stones. The tools constituted hand axes, choppers and flake tools. The subject matter of the paintings of the early men were plants and animals, hunting and enjoyment of festivals Paintings were done on the walls and roofs of the caves. These were known as Murals. Altamira, Lascaux and Chauvet are considered to be the earliest famous cave paintings. Ethnography: Ethnography means the analytical study of contemporary ethnic society. Hooks and harpoons were used to gather small and large fishes. Early men began to live in caves around 400,000 years ago. Cave Lazaret is the earliest example of cave dwelling. It is in Southern France. a Chronology of Evolution of Early Man Earliest evidence of burials 300000 BC Extinction of Homo erectus 200000 BC HISTORY | Earliest People Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Development of voice box 200000 BC Homo Sapiens skull found in Narmada Valley 200000-130000 BC Emergence of Modern Humans 195000-160000 BC Emergence of Neanderthals 130000 BC Earliest Evidence of hearths 125000 BC Extinction of Neanderthals 35000 BC Earliest evidence of figurines made of fire clay 27000 BC Invention of sewing needles 21000 BC Probable Questions 1) Importance of stone tools in reconstructing the history of the early man. 2) Illustrate with examples the various sources of knowing early man. 3) The Indian Subcontinent presents a harbinger of evolution of human beings. Illustrate with examples. HISTORY | Earliest People Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Food Production Shorts HISTORY Causes of food production  Farming developed as a consequence of the climate change of the world.  People also started taming animals. The dog was the first animal to be tamed.  Animals like sheep, goats, cattle were also tamed and so people became herders. Important features of food production in the society  Grains were used as seeds, as food, and also as gifts. They were stored by humans.  Neolithic age: The period around 10000 BC which saw an agricultural spurt resulting in food production is known as neolithic age.  People grew cotton by this time and so weaving of clothes had begun.  Many farmers and herders lived in groups, which were known as Tribes. Certain customs and practices were followed by them.  Weaving of Clothes began in society.  Pit-houses were built by digging into the ground. Famous Places for evidences of food production  Mehrgarh was situated in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass. Here, people learnt to grow barley and wheat. It is one of the earliest villages.  Stone tools, a stone called jadeite, etc. have been found in Daojali Hading near the Brahmaputra.  Rice was first cultivated in the Vindhyas.  Wheat and Barley were cultivated in the Bolan pass (situated in present day Pakistan). HISTORY| Food Production Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Probable Questions Q. The Neolithic age marked a paradigm shift in societal living. Elucidate. Q. Trace evidence of famous neolithic sites and the notable features of each. HISTORY| Food Production Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Earliest Cities Shorts HISTORY Discovery of Harappan Cities Discovered in the 1920's in the present day Sindh region of Pakistan. Time period of the Indus Valley Civilisation The period of Indus Civilization is from 2500 BC to 1500 BC. Salient Features of the Harappan Cities  Architecture: The Harappan cities were divided into two parts: the citadel and the lower town.The citadel was located at a higher level and had special buildings and pointed in the western direction. The lower town was the residential area where houses were one or two storeys high and built around a corridor and located in the eastern region.  Strong Foundations : Walls were fortified with bricks in interlocking patterns.  Layout of Streets: Streets were laid out straight and cut each other at right angles.  Elaborate Drainage systems: Drains ran parallel to each other and were covered.  Ritual purposes: The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro was a tank used for bathing rituals.  Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars where sacrifices may have been performed.  Burnt Bricks was used which made the buildings long lasting and strong.  Irrigation: Plough was used to dig the earth and for use in irrigation.  Rearing of Animals:Animals were reared by the Harappans. They were aware about animals like Tiger, bull,elephant and Rhinoceros.They were not aware about horses.  Use of Metals: Harappans used Bronze, Silver and Gold for making ornaments. They did not have knowledge of Iron. Bronze statue of Mother Goddess was the most famous  Usage of Seals: Seals were used for Trade. They were made of terracotta. HISTORY | Earliest Cities Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Source : NCERT Source : NCERT Seals and Terracotta Drainage system in Mohenjodaro Probable Questions 1) What insights can the earliest cities provide for tackling the urbanization problem in India? 2) The Indian Society witnesses a remarkable continuation compared to its counterparts in Egypt and Greece. Examine. 3) The beginning of Indus Valley civilisation coincides with the first wave of urbanization in India. Evaluate. HISTORY | Earliest Cities Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts The Early Republics HISTORY Meaning of the Term Republic Republics are the territories where the head of government is elected directly or indirectly and it is not hereditary. Republics came into existence in India around 600 BC. Changes in Society Selection of the Rulers: In ancient India, some of the rajas were probably chosen by the Jana, the people. Some changes regarding the election of the Raja took place around 3,000 years ago. Janapadas: The powerful kings who performed big sacrifices and later ruled larger territories termed as Janapadas. Mahajanapadas: A Mahajanapada was usually ruled from its capital city. There was intense rivalry among the Mahajanapadas, resulting in frequent wars. Huge walls made of mud, stone, wood or bricks were used to fortify these capital cities. Methods to Rule the Republics Taxes: Money was required by new rajas for building forts and armies. They started collecting regular taxes from the people. The tax could be paid either in cash or in kind. Bhaga: Taxes on crops (1/6 of the produce) was called bhaga. Famous Republics Magadha became the most important mahajanapada. Transport, water supplies, fertility, forests, elephants, mines, etc. made Magadha important. The two powerful rulers of Magadha, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru used all possible means to conquer other ‘janapadas’. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. Later it was Pataliputra (now Patna). Vajji was another kingdom with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar). HISTORY | The Early Republics Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Source : NCERT Chapter 6 Important Mahajanapadas in Ancient India Significance of Republics Ease of Administration as there is governance by the people.. Empire Building became possible owing to better regulation and collection of taxes. They paved the way for propagation of religions like Buddhism and Jainism. Integration of India with the world. HISTORY | The Early Republics Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Probable Questions 1) Reasons for the emergence of Early republics. 2) Why was Magadha important as a centre of trade? 3) Enlist the significance of republics? 4) Explain the taxation system used for collection of revenue. HISTORY | The Early Republics Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies HISTORY What is the Meaning of Unorthodox Religion Unorthodox religions and philosophies refers to a set of beliefs and practices which does not have a predefined tenets or a method of performing it. Upanishads Upanishad literally means approaching and sitting near the guru and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Upanishads gave rise to the new orthodox religion like Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism Founded by Siddartha Gautama around 500 BC (The Buddha) who belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. Renounced home known as Mahabanishkramana at the age of 29. Achieved Nirvana (Extinguishing the flame of desire alternatively called Enlightenment) under the Pipal Tree. First Sermon by Buddha was at Sarnath known as Dhammachakrapravartana. Basic Teachings in Buddhism:  Life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha.  He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next thus believing in rebirth. HISTORY | Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved   The only way to avoid suffering is to follow Ashtangika Marg or eight fold path. Language used for Propagation: Pali was the lingua franca used at the time which helped in spreading Buddhism as it is the language of the common people. Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, was the founder of Jainism. He was a Kshatriya Prince of the Licchavi Clan. At the age of 30, he renounced his home. At the age of 42 he received kaivalgyan(enlightenment living under the sal tree). Men and women must leave their homes for knowing the truth. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. Language used for Propagation: Prakrit was the lingua franca used at the time which helped in spreading Buddhism as it is the language of the common people. Jainism was mainly supported by traders as it advocated strict non violence(Ahimsa). Place of Residence for the Monks Sangha, is an association of those who left their homes to attain salvation. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. There were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (Prakrit meaning of beggar) Many supporters of the monks and nuns felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as Viharas. Examples include Karle caves in present-day Maharashtra. Viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. HISTORY | Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Causes of Spread of Buddhism in India Buddha’s policy of eight fold path struck a chord with diverse sections of the society. He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit. He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions. The monks travelled to different places like Sri Lanka, Japan, China, Thailand and Cambodia preaching the teachings of Buddha. It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and Harshavardhana. Causes of Decline of Buddhism in India Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion. There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and indulged in luxuries. Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD. Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt and Adi Shankara. The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined the influence of Buddhism in the subcontinent. Buddha was considered as an avatar of Lord Vishnu and hence separate sanctity accorded to Buddha declined. Buddhism also suffered from the absence of specific doctrines or tenets. Probable Questions 1) What could be the reasons for the emergence of unorthodox religions in India. 2) What is the use of propagating teachings of Buddhism and Jainism in local languages? 3) Do you find similarity in teachings of Buddhism and Jainism and Hinduism? Why/Why not? 4) Discuss the rise of Buddhism in India. 5) Compare and contrast the religious doctrines of Buddhism and Jainism. HISTORY | Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts Mauryan Dynasty HISTORY Meaning of Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka. Geographical Spread of the Mauryan Dynasty The Mauryan dynasty extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east and from Jammu and Kashmir to the Northern part of Tamilnadu. In essence it covered almost all of India. Sources of Information about Mauryan Dynasty Foreign Accounts: Megasthenes’ Indica gives a vivid account of the Mauryan Dynasty. Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son succeeded him.He embraced the Ajivika sect. He was known as Amitrochattes. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. He was the most important ruler of the Mauryan Dynasty as he marked a paradigm shift in governance, architecture and societal organisation. The Emperors succeeding Ashoka were not able to muster the efforts to sustain the legacy of Ashoka and the Mauryan Empire disintegrated. Important Rulers of the Mauryan Dynasty Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Dynasty in the 3rd century BC after defeating the Nandas. His Greek name was Sandrokottus. He embraced Jainism. Chanakya also known as Vishnugupta was Chandragupta’s advisor. Chanakya compiled Arthashastra, a treatise on economics and politics. Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son succeeded him.He embraced the Ajivika sect. He was known as Amitrochattes. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. He was the most important ruler of the Mauryan Dynasty as he marked a paradigm shift in governance, architecture and societal organisation. The Emperors succeeding Ashoka were not able to muster the efforts to sustain the legacy of Ashoka and the Mauryan Empire disintegrated. HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Significance of the Rule of Ashoka He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Dhamma of Ashoka:Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. Administration: He appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Inscriptions:  Rock cut architecture where inscription is done on the caves. Example Barabar caves and Lomus Rishi and Sudama Caves.  Pillar Architecture where a monolithic pillar is constructed. Examples include the famous Lion pillar at Sarnath (adopted as the National Emblem of India). Source: Class XI NCERT Chapter 3 Source: Class XI NCERT Chapter 3 Lomus Rishi Cave, Bihar Ashoka Capital, Sarnath Mauryan Administration The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. The officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, crafts persons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Messengers and spies kept a watch on the officials. Each of the provinces were ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Royal princes were often sent as governors. Ashoka served as the Governor of Taxila. Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. The Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. Causes of Decline of Mauryan Dynasty in India Partition of the Empire: After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves – western and eastern parts. This weakened the empire. Centralization of Administration: Powerful kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka could control the administration well. But weak rulers led to a weakening of the administration and ultimately led to the empire’s disintegration. Weak successors of Ashoka: After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for 52 years. Internal revolts among the later successors of Ashoka. Foreign Invasions by Indo Greeks. Policy of Non Violence by Ashoka which disregarded war was also one of the major reasons for the dynasty's decline. Probable Questions Mains Questions 1) The Mauryan Dynasty was essentially a one man Dynasty. Critically examine. 2) The Mauryan Administration represented the shift from pastoral mode of life in the vedic ages to settled cities. Elucidate the statement. 3) Try to draw a comparison between Ashoka’s policy of non violence and Gandhi’s policy of non violence. 4) Examine the causes for the decline of the Mauryan Dynasty. 5) Do you think the Mauryan Dynasty exhibited secular tendencies? Why/Why not? HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Probable Questions Prelims Questions 1. The name by which Ashoka is referred to in his inscriptions(1995) A. Chakravarti B. Dharmakirti C. Priyadarsi D. Dharmadeva 2. Which of the following related to Ashoka’s stone pillars is incorrect (1997) A. These are highly polished. B. These are monolithic. C. The shaft is tapering towards the end. D. They are part of the architectural structures HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts Important Towns of the Ancient World HISTORY Meaning of Towns Towns are self sufficient viable units of economic activity. They are normally a group of villages. Towns came into prominence in India around the 3rd century BC. Reasons for the Emergence of Towns Discovery of Iron:Helped in clearance of forests. Irrigation: Helped in the growth of agriculture and a settled lifestyle. Taxation:Robust Taxation system which ensured continuous supply of money to the treasury Division of labour:Owing to agriculture and settled way of life society as a whole became receptive to the formation of the specialization of occupations. The period saw the emergence of new occupational classes like cobblers, goldsmith etc. Members in the Towns Vellalar: Large landowners living in Tamilnadu. Uzhavar: Ploughmen in Tamilnadu are collectively called Uzhavar. Kadaisiyar:Landless Labourers are known as Kadaisiyars. Adimai: Slaves were known as adimai. Grama Bhojaka: Village headmen were known as Grama Bhojaka, the post of which is hereditary.Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Grihapatis: Small Landowners who were independent farmers. Dasa Karmakaras: Landless Labourers who worked for the headmen. HISTORY | Important Towns of the Ancient World Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Sources of Information of the Towns Jataka Stories: Buddhist folktales composed around the 5th century BC gives a vivid description of the way of life in towns. Sculptures: The art forms like engravings on the panels of Stupas and Pillars depicts the town life. Presence of Ring wells: Ring wells for burials indicate the civilized way of city dwellers. Remains of Palaces or marketplaces: Remains of marketplaces indicate that towns were buzzing centres of economic activity. Accounts of travellers and court poets:  Foreign accounts: Megasthenes Indica indicates the grandeur of the Mauryan towns like Magadha, Rajgir.  Arthashastra written by Kautilya gives a vivid description of the trade and polity of the Mauryan towns and cities. Pottery: Pottery like the Northern Black Polished ware during Mauryan times indicates the settled lifestyle as pottery was used for storing grains. The vast expanse also indicated agricultural surplus. Coins: Punch marked coins where the coins are stamped with dies and symbols were in vogue in the sub-continent. Source: Class VI NCERT Punch marked coins Importance of Towns Trade: Towns were located at the crossroads of major locations. For example Gandhara and Mathura. Occupational purposes: Most of the people from the towns migrated to the villages in search of better employment opportunities. Centre of Arts: Towns are places where there is portrayal of arts through artefacts, sculptures. HISTORY | Important Towns of the Ancient World Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Capitals: Served as capitals of the empire. The prominent examples are Peshawar and Mathura ( capitals of the Kushanas), Pataliputra (Capital of the Mauryas) etc. Mirrors of History: The towns reveal important information about the empires and the people of the society. Foreign Influences: Towns like Arikamedu in Pondicherry reflect foreign influences in the form of glasswares, artefacts etc. from Rome. This indicates that there were strong foreign connections since early times. Probable Questions 1) What are the possible reasons for the emergence of towns around the 5th century BC? 2) Illustrate with examples the significance of towns in Ancient India. 3) The division of towns in Ancient India between south and North show a good degree of similarities. Elucidate. 4) Enlist the sources of information of the towns in Ancient India. HISTORY | Important Towns of the Ancient World Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Trade in ancient India Shorts HISTORY Reasons for trade  Presence of Sea Routes:Traders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Examples are Barauch in Gujarat and Tamralipti in West Bengal.  Presence of Monsoons: Sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly.  Presence of Ship Building Industry: Sturdy ships had to be built for transportation. The Romans produced the best ships during the time. Kingdoms which traded extensively with the outside world  Cholas: Puhar or Kaveripattinam as their capital. Traded extensively with South East Asian Countries.  Cheras: Muziri is their capital. Traded extensively with the Arab World.  Pandyas: Madurai is their capital. Traded extensively with Srilanka and Maldives. Silk route and its significance  Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago.  While the methods remained a closely guarded secret for thousands of years, some people from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route.  Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and West Asia, and from there, the knowledge of silk spread further west.  Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route.  The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. HISTORY | Trade in ancient India Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  During the Kushana rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. The Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold. Accounts of pilgrims  Fa Xian: Chinese monk who visited India in early fifth century BC. Described the Gupta Empire and the society at that time which was feudal in Nature.  Xuan Zang: Chinese monk who visited India in early seventh century BC. Described the Empire of King Harshavardhana. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them.Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda, (Bihar) the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. Significance of trade in ancient times  Propagation of religion especially Buddhism to countries in SouthEast Asia like Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia.  Growth of Pan Indian Empires like Gupta Empire.  Beginning of new religious sects like Bhaktism and Sufism due to better infusion of Ideas.  Integration of India with the world.  Large scale propagation of Arts, Literature and Architecture between different parts of the world. Probable Questions 1) The trade in ancient India was to be understood by the account of the travellers who visited India. Elucidate. 2) Illustrate the significance of trade in ancient India? Is it correct to say that trade helped in propagating Indian culture across the globe? Justify your answer with examples. HISTORY | Trade in ancient India Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Ancient Heritage Shorts HISTORY Meaning of heritage Heritage includes arts, literature and architecture which extols the culture of a particular age. Architecture  The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons. It was made of iron about 1500 years ago. The most amazing fact is the pillar has not rusted in all these years.  Stupas:The word stupa means a mound. Generally, there is a small box placed at the centre or heart of the stupa. This may contain bodily remains of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins.  The box, known as a relic casket, is covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top.The dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.  Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa. This was surrounded with railings.  Entrance to the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture. This was a place where a magnificent stupa once existed. Many of the stone carvings for decorating the stupa were made about 2000 years ago.  Temples: Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built around the 5th century AD. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines.  The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity.  A tower called shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Building shikharas required careful planning.  Most temples also had a space known as the Mandapa. It was a hall where people could assemble. HISTORY | Ancient Heritage Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Source : NCERT Sanchi Stupa Paintings  Paintings were done on the walls of caves in Ancient times.  The colours, which are vivid even after 1500 years, were made of plants and minerals.  Some of the prominent paintings include Ajanta Cave Paintings, Bagh Cave paintings, Jogimara cave paintings.  Most of the paintings have been done anonymously. Source : NCERT Ajanta cave paintings HISTORY | Ancient Heritage Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Books  Epics:Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods.  A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango Adigal, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi.  Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.  Puranas:A number of Hindu religious stories that were in circulation earlier were written down around the same time. These include the Puranas. Purana means old.  The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped.  There are accounts about the creation of the world and about kings.  The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them. T  Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. Some of you may be familiar with these stories.  The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins.  The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.  Science Books:This was also the time when Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle, which is nearly as accurate as the formula we use today.  Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya were some other mathematicians and astronomers who made several discoveries. HISTORY | Ancient Heritage Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Medicine Books: Ayurveda is a well-known system of health science that was developed in ancient India. The two famous practitioners of Ayurveda in ancient India were Charaka (1st-2nd centuries C.E.) and Sushruta (c. 4th century C.E.) Charak Samhita, written by Charak is a remarkable book on medicine. Susruta Samhita, Sushruta speaks about elaborate surgical procedures. Probable Questions 1. Draw an illustration of the literature of ancient India. 2. How does the paintings of Ajanta Caves compare with the paintings done in the Paleolithic period? 3. The Ancient Period represents a rich source of information in Science and Medical Books. Elucidate. Previous year questions 1. Which of the following books represents the love story between Shunga King his courtesan? (UPSC Prelims 2016) A. Abhijnana Shakuntalam B. Malavikagnimitram C. Raghuvamsam D. Kumarasambhavam 2. Which of the following was the first to be built? (UPSC Prelims 2015) A. Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneshwar B. Elephant Rock cut, Dhauli C. Ajanta Caves D. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram HISTORY | Ancient Heritage Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Delhi Sultanate Shorts HISTORY Importance of Delhi sultanate The Delhi Sultanate marks the beginning of the muslim rule in India in the early 13th century. Why Delhi became a centre of attraction?  It is located towards the centre of the country.  It is located on the banks of rivers like Yamuna.  Melting pot of various dynasty clans like Tomaras, Chauhans and Rajputs.  It had a plain topography making it easy to station troops. Expansion of the Delhi sultanate  The Sultans did not control the hinterland, the lands adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and services, of the cities and were therefore dependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies.  Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sind from Delhi was extremely difficult.  The state was also challenged by Mongol invasions from Afghanistan and by governors who rebelled.  The intermingling of the foreigners with the natives also provided ample ground for expansion.  The empire was divided into a number of Iqtas.  Iqtadars administered the Iqtas.  Iqtas further were divided into smaller units called Parganas, Shiqqs, and the villages.  Amil or Munsif served as an important officer of the Parganas. Local administration  The village was the smallest unit of administration.  The village administration was carried out by local hereditary officers and the Panchayats. HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc.  The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration. Judicial administration  The Sultan was the highest judicial authority.  Qazi-ul-quzar was the Chief Judicial officer.  A Quazi was appointed in every town.  Criminals were punished severely (Corporal Punishment). Military administration  The Sultan was the Commander of the army  The four divisions of the army were 1. The Royal army 2. Provincial or Governor’s army 3. Feudal army and 4. War Time army The social life of the sultanate period The people in the society were divided based on their nationality as  Foreign Muslims  Indian Muslims  Hindus Economic conditions of the people  The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry.  The textile industry was the primary industry.  Paper Industry, metalwork, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works, stone cutting, Sugar industry were the other industries of this period. HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Contributions of the Delhi sultanate Art and Architecture  Delhi Sultans had a great taste for architecture.  The Architecture were a blend of Indian and Islamic styles. The three well-developed styles were 1. Delhi or Imperial Style 2. Provincial Style 3. Hindu architectural style Prominent architecture during slave dynasty  Qutub Minar  Quwat-ul-lslam mosque  the tombs of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad  Balban Siri the new town in Delhi Prominent architecture during the Khilji dynasty  Dargah of Hazrat Nizam – ud – din Aulia  The Alai Darwaza Prominent Architecture during the Lodi dynasty  The Lodi Garden  Moti Masjid in New Delhi, and  The tomb of Sikandar Lodi Literature The Sultanate of Delhi period witnessed some great scholars and some are:  Alberuni  Amir Khusrau  Zia-ul-Barani HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic and the Urdu language originated during the Sultanate period. Scholars of the sultanate period Alberuni  An Arabic and Persian Scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.  He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.  He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.  In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind, he had mentioned the socio-economic conditions of India. Amir Khusrau  He was a great Persian poet.  He is said to have written four lakh couplets.  He was a great singer and was given the title Parrot of India (Tut-e-hind).  He is said to have seen the reign of eight kings of Delhi Sultanate. Impact of turkish conquest  It paved the way to a centralized political organization.  It re-established relations with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa.  A permanent army was established.  Trade was established due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency.  Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in the administration. Causes for the disintegration of the Delhi sultanate  The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq period.  The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of the Sayyid and Lodi rulers led to the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate. HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  The rulers of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom in the South were the first to break free from Delhi.  Other regions like Assam, Bengal, Khandesh, Gujarat, Jaipur, Kashmir, Multan, Malwa, Sind, and Orissa also became independent.  Babur ended the Lodi Dynasty by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D., which brought the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in India. Probable Questions 1) Elucidate the contributions of Delhi Sultanate in the field of art, literature and architecture. 2) The coming of the Delhi Sultanate marked an epoch in the administrative organisation in the country. Critically examine. 3) Regional integration was pivotal for the growth of Delhi Sultanate. Comment HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Mughal Dynasty Shorts HISTORY Period of Mughal dynasty Mughal dynasty is one of the two Pan Indian dynasties after the Mauryan Dynasty. It almost covered the whole of Indian Subcontinent from the early 16th century till the mid 19th century. Who were the Mughals?  The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled over parts of China and Central Asia. From their father’s side they were the successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. However, the Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol. This was because Genghis Khan’s memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people. It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors. On the other hand, the Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all because their great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398. They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each ruler getting a picture made of Timur and himself. Military campaigns of Mughals  Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years old. He was forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of another Mongol group, the Uzbegs. After years of wandering he seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra. Mughal traditions of succession  Mughals believed in the coparcenary method of succession and not the primogeniture method of succession. Coparcenary Method is a timurid custom of inheritance or the division among the sons. It is in contrast to the primogeniture method of inheritance where the eldest son had the right to inherit the property. Primogeniture method was followed by Mauryan and the Gupta Dynasty. Relationship of Mughals with other rulers  The Mughals had cordial relations with the Rajputs of the Mewar. They entered into marital alliances with the Rajput Kings. The balancing act brought about by defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains. HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Mughal administration Reasons for having a robust administration  Expansion of Empire  Expansion of the Empire necessitated the needs for inclusion of Iranians, Indian muslims, Afghans, and the Marathas. Mansabdars: Mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities. Zat: Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called Zat. The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in court and the larger his salary. Sawar:The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of Sawar or cavalrymen. They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them by their servants while the mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country. Zabt and Zamindars:The Mughals used one term zamindars to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains. Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices and areas cultivated for a 10-year period, 1570- 1580. On the basis of this data, tax was fixed on each crop in cash. Zabt:Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system was known as zabt. It was prevalent in those areas where Mughal administrators could survey the land and keep very careful accounts. This was not possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal. Policies of Akbar  Administrative Policies: Abul Fazl in his book Ain-i-Akbari explained that the empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar who carried out both political and military functions.Each province also had a financial officer or diwan. For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by other officers such as the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal).  Religious Policies: While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570 she started discussions on religion with the Ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians. These discussions took place in the Ibadat khana. Akbar’s interaction with people of different faiths made him realise that religious scholars who emphasised ritual and dogma were often bigots. Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst his subjects.Akbar framed a vision of governance around the idea of Sulh-i kul which stands for universal peace and brotherhood. HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Literary works of the Mughal empire Akbar commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian. A Maktab Khana or translation bureau was also established at Fatehpur Sikri for this purpose. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Lilavati and Yog Vashisht were some of the notable Sanskrit works that were taken up for translation. The Razmnama,Persian translation of the Mahabharata contains lavish illustrations of the events of Mahabharata. Decline of the Mughal empire  The Mansabdars became corrupt.  Weak succession of the Mughal Emperors after Aurangazeb.  The Coparcenary method of inheritance created more internal conflicts.  The presence of autonomous governor generals in provinces like Bengal , Hyderabad and Awadh gradually began to break away from the oversight of the Mughal Emperors.  The rival kingdoms like Marathas and also the British Empire possessed threat for the Mughals. Probable Questions 1) Discuss the probable causes for the decline of the Mughal Empire. 2) The administration of the Mughal empire had borrowed features from contemporary empires in Asia. Elucidate. 3) Critically examine the religious policies of Akbar. Do you think Akbar is a hallmark for secularism in India? Previous Year Questions 1. The Ibadat Khana was a place in Fatehpur Sikri served as A. The mosque for the use of the royal family. B. Akbar’s Private Prayer Chamber. C. The hall in which Akbar had discussions with scholars of different religions. D. The room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs. HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved 2. Paintings reached a climax under the reign of A. Humayun B. Jahangir C. Akbar D. Shahjahan 3. Ramznama is the persian translation of A. Ramayana B. Mahabharata C. Upanishads D. Vedas HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts Bhakti and Sufi Movements HISTORY Evolution of Bhakti and Sufi Movement The community living through the growth of towns, trade and empires around the 8th century AD propelled new ideas began to develop. The fundamental dictum that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. The idea that all human beings are not equal even at birth gained ground during this period. Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas according to which it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth through personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a one God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). This idea was advocated in the Bhagavad Gita, grew in popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era and reached a climax by the turn of the 8th century AD. Shiva, Vishnu and Durga as supreme deities came to be worshipped through elaborate rituals. Local myths and legends became a part of the Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults. The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs. These developments have given rise to the idea of a supreme God. Bhakti Movement in South India Timeline: The seventh to ninth century AD saw the emergence of new religious movement called Bhakti movements. Proponents: Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu). They came from all castes including those considered untouchable like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. Features of their teaching They were very critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era) and then with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages they visited, and set them to music. There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds such as potters, untouchable workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are two sets of compilations of their songs namely Tevaram and Tiruvacakam. There were 12 Alvars, who came from similar divergent backgrounds as that of the Nayannars. The most famous ones were Periyalvar, Andal(The only women Alvar), Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya Prabandham. As a mark of respect, between the tenth and twelfth centuries the Cholas and Pandyas built elaborate temples around many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship. This was also the time when their poems were compiled. Hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed. These serve as a good source in reconstructing history of the medieval period. Bhakti Movement in South Shankara: Shankara was born in Kerala in the eighth century. He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes. He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman and attain salvation. Ramanuja: Ramanuja was born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century. He was deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in north India subsequently. Basavanna: Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi started a movement known as Virashaivism. This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas vouched for the equality of all human beings and were against inequalities based on caste and the ill treatment of women. They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship. HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Bhakti Movements in the North Maharashtra: Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets, whose songs in Marathi continue to inspire people. The most important among them were Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the untouchable Mahar caste. This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur.These saint poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of opulence and social differences based on birth. A new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain. Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis They advocated renunciation of the world. According to them the path to salvation laid in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness with it. They advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yoga asanas, breathing exercises and meditation. These groups became particularly popular among low castes. Their criticism of conventional religion created the ground for devotional religion to become a popular force in northern India. Sufism Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings. Islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God. It rejected idol worship and considerably simplified rituals of worship into collective prayers. However The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars. The Sufis composed poems expressing their feelings, and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them. Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi. HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc. under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice. The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders. It had a long line of teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga. The Sufi masters held their assemblies in their khanqahs or hospices. The assembly members discussed spiritual matters, sought the blessings of the saints in solving their worldly problems, or simply attended the music and dance sessions. The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all faiths thronged. New Religious Developments in North India Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work. Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions, compiled in the Sursagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion. Sankaradeva of Assam (late fifteenth century) emphasised devotion to Vishnu, and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He began the practice of setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice that continues to date. This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenth century. Mirabai became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered untouchable. She was devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans expressing her intense devotion. Her songs also openly challenged the norms of the upper castes and became popular with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Life and Times of Kabir Kabir in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one of the most influential saints. He was brought up in a family of Muslim julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Benares (Varanasi). We have little reliable information about his life. We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Some of these were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak. HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete rejection of the major religious traditions. His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system. The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi widely understood by ordinary people. Kabir drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims. Life and Times of Guru Nanak Guru Nanak was born at Talwandi (present day Nankana Sahib in Pakistan) in 1469. He was a contemporary of Sikander Lodi (Founder of Agra). A regular worship that consisted of the singing of his own hymns was established there for his followers. Irrespective of their former creed, caste or gender, his followers ate together in the common kitchen (langar). The sacred space thus created by Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is now commonly known as Gurdwara. Before his death in 1539, Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers as his successor. His name was Guru Angad. Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to which he added his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi. The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of Nanak and all of their compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604. In 1706, this compilation was authenticated by the last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. It is now known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs. The number of Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the sixteenth century under his successors. They belonged to a number of castes but traders, agriculturists, artisans and craftsmen predominated. This was a result of Guru Nanak’s insistence that his followers must be householders and should adopt productive and useful occupations. They were also expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of followers. The early seventeenth century Sikh community as was referred to by the modern historians as a state within the state The Sikh movement began to get politicized in the seventeenth century, a development which culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. The community of the Sikhs, called the Khalsa Panth, became a political entity. HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  The changing historical situation during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries influenced the development of the Sikh movement. Significance A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung. They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from generation to generation. They have become a part of our living popular culture and continue to resonate with the ears of all. Probable Questions Mains Questions 1) Enumerate the differences between Bhaktism and Sufism. 2) Elucidate the contributions of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. 3) Discuss the common causes for the rise of Bhakti Movement in India. Prelims Questions 1. Bijak’s are compositions of A. Kabir B. Surdas C. Ramdas D. Tulsidas 2. Which of the following statements are true 1. Alvars are followers of Shiva. 2. Nayanmars are followers of Vishnu. A. Both 1 and 2 are correct. B. Only 1 is correct. C. Only 2 is correct. D. Neither 1 nor 2 is correct. 3. Guru Nanak was not a contemporary of which of the following persons A. Vasco Da Gama B. Sikander Lodi C. Akbar D. Krishnadeva Raya HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Probable Questions 4. Which of the following pairs are not matched correctly A. Gyaneshwar -Maharashtra B. Tulsidas-Uttar Pradesh C. Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu- Maharashtra D. Mirabai- Rajasthan HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Regional Cultural Milieu Shorts HISTORY Correlation between languages and development of regional cultures Languages played an important role in propelling a parallel development of regional cultures of India. Diversity in Languages in the form of Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu and variants of Hindi ensured that people cultivate different ways of life. Regional development of culture in Kerala  The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala.  The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest examples of the use of a regional language in official records in the subcontinent.  The temple theatre of Kerala, which is traced to this period, borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics. The first literary works in Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are directly indebted to Sanskrit.  Lilatilakam, a fourteenth century Malayalam text dealing with grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam referring to the two languages, Sanskrit and the regional languages. Regional development of culture in Orissa  Regional Development in Orissa had a direct correlation with religion.  The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.  In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Regional development of culture in Rajasthan  From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families.  The rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were recited by specially trained minstrels.  These preserved the memories of heroes and were expected to inspire others to follow their example. Ordinary people were also attracted by these stories which often depicted dramatic situations, and a range of strong emotions loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc.  Women are also depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death – there are stories about the practice of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. Regional development in Uttar Pradesh  The Regional development in Uttar Pradesh coincided with the development of dance forms.  The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story.  The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who enthralled people with their performances.  Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.  The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.  Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.  Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Jaipur and the other in Lucknow.  Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form.  By the third quarter of the nineteenth century it was firmly entrenched as a dance form not only in these two regions, but in the adjoining areas of present-day Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.  Rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as the enactment of stories were the major features of Kathak.  The legacy of Kathak is such that it is recognized as one of the six classical dance forms in India, the others being Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Mohiniyattam ,Kathakali and Satrriya. HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Relationship between painting and development of regional culture  Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.  Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts.  The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry. The Mughal paintings reached a climax during the reign of Jahangir.  These were generally painted in brilliant colours and portrayed court scenes, scenes of battle or hunting, and other aspects of social life.  With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states. As a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. At the same time, they retained and developed their distinctive characteristics. Portraits of rulers and court scenes came to be painted.  Different schools of paintings such as Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh. Another region that attracted miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh.  Bashol was a bold and intensive miniature painting. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari. Source : NCERT Source : NCERT Jahangir’s dream Dara Shikoh HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Reasons for the development of various regional schools of painting  Nadir Shah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to the hills to escape the uncertainties of the plains.  Another major source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite traditions because of the influence of Bhakti and Sufi movements.  The availability of soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a natural treatment of themes enabled the regional paintings to grow by leaps and bounds.  The paintings were done by various members of the section of the society thus exhibiting egalitarianism. Probable Questions 1) There is a very good correlation between growth of regional languages and the development of regional cultures. Elucidate with help of examples. 2) The Indian society reflects a continuum of cultural lineage since ages. Comment. 3) Paintings are the least noticed yet one of the most important conduit for transmission of culture. Explain. Previous year questions 1. Bani Thani , one of the most famous paintings belongs to which school? A. Bundi B. Kishangarh C. Pahari D. Mewar 2. Which of the following are classical dances of India A. Kathakali B. Garba C. Yakshagana HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  a. Only A is correct b. Both A and C are correct c. Both A and B are correct d. Both B and C are correct HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Shorts The Eighteenth Century Polity HISTORY Crisis of the Mughal Empire The eighteenth century was a spectre of disintegrated polity in the Indian subcontinent a large part of which was contributed to by the disintegration of Mughal Empire. The causes of disintegration of the Mughal Empire were 1. Military Depletion: Aurangazeb’s Deccan expedition caused a loss of exchequer for the Mughal Empire. 2. Increasing autonomy of the Nobles: The Nobles who were appointed as Subadars or governors in provinces began to assert their independence. 3. Rebellions: Peasants and Zamindars rebelled against the policies of Mughal especially in the eastern states of India.  Treaty with British: The treaties of the British like the Treaty of Allahabad reduced the mughal emperor to a puppet dented the symbolic might of the Mughals. Emergence of New States Hyderabad Emperor: Nizam Ul Mulk (Asaf Jha). He was introduced by the Mughal Emperor Farruk Siyar giving him first the governorship of Awadh and later that of Deccan. Constantly involved with power struggle with the kingdoms in the Deccan region especially with the Marathas. Awadh Burhan Ul Mulk or Saadat Khan was appointed the subadar of Awadh.. Importance of Awadh: Rich prosperous bed of resources and located at important trade route in Uttar Pradesh. Right of taxation of the state was given to the highest bidders. This enabled them to exert a growing influence on the revenue system in the state. A growing network of middlemen in the form of Zamindars, moneylenders have mushroomed because of the revenue system. Bengal HISTORY | The Eighteenth Century Polity Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as the deputy governor of the province in Bengal. He diluted the Mughal presence in the state by transferring Mughal Jagirdars to Orissa. The Bengal Province grew to become the richest province in India owing to its geographical proximity and being the centre of Industrial activity. Rajputs Autonomous existence of jagirs belonging to Amber and Jodhpur. Extension of territories by jagirs wielding considerable influence outside the state of Rajasthan. Some of the important Watan Jagirs are Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur who held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raj Jai Singh of Amber. Sikhs The Sikhs under the tutelage Guru Gobind Singh and Banda Bahadur converted Sikh outfit to a political one by waging wars against the Mughal and Rajput rulers. The unity fostered within the Sikh clan enabled them to resist mughal governors and more importantly the attack of Ahmed Shah Abdali. The Political Militia called Khalsa declared sovereignty by striking their own coin in 1765. Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the most important ruler of Punjab Marathas The Marathas were centered around the present day state of Maharashtra. Shivaji was the most important ruler of the marathas who along with the help of powerful warrior families called as Deshmukhs wielded territorial power and army. The Maratha army was built from the stables of peasant-pastoralists known as Kunbis. There were a group of ministers in the council of Shivaji’s government known as Ashtapradhan. Two types of Land revenue was collected- Chauth(1/4th of the land revenue collected by the zamindars) and Sardeshmukhi(9-10 percent revenue to be paid to the head collector). The forceful method of accepting sovereignty to the Marathas dented a severe blow in the sense that other dynasties did not lend a helping hand when they were faced with defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. HISTORY | The Eighteenth Century Polity Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  There were different segments of the Marathas like Peshwas of Poona, Bhosale of Nagpur, Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore and Gaikwad of Vadodara. Jats The Jats were centered around the present state of Haryana. The most important leader of the Jats was Churaman. The main target for the Jats were the cities of Delhi and Agra. Jats were mainly agriculturalists and played a pivotal role in the rise of agriculture in places like Panipat and Agra. Two types of Land revenue was collected- Chauth(1/4th of the land revenue collected by the zamindars) and Sardeshmukhi(9-10 percent revenue to be paid to the head collector). The forceful method of accepting sovereignty to the Marathas dented a severe blow in the sense that other dynasties did not lend a helping hand when they were faced with defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. There were different segments of the Marathas like Peshwas of Poona, Bhosale of Nagpur, Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore and Gaikwad of Vadodara. Significance of 18th Century As we have seen the fragmented polity in 18th century India gave rise to a power vacuum which was utilized by the British in seeking ground and power. Thus it paved the way for British consolidation and expansion till the middle of the 20th century. Probable Questions 1) Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity. 2) Briefly throw light on the administration of the Marathas. What do you think were the causes for its downfall? HISTORY | The Eighteenth Century Polity Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Indian Industry in the 18th NCERT Shorts Century HISTORY Indian textiles Indian Textiles occupied a pre eminent position in the world in the mid 18th century when the Industrial Revolution was progressing at a rapid pace in England. Among the textiles being produced in India, cotton and jute textiles were of the finest and the best in the world. They were exported to places in South Asia like Java, Sumatra, Penang, Thailand, Cambodia and Malaysia. The European countries also were faced with the flooding of Indian textiles due to British exporters. Different names given to Indian textiles  Different names were given to the Textiles by different set of traders.  Portuguese called it calico derived from the word ‘Calicut’. Two other names were in vogue during that period. Chintz derived from the Hindi word Chhint refers to a cloth having exquisite floral designs. This propelled a huge demand for these textiles in European countries. Bandana derived from the Hindi word Bandhna refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf of the neck.  The raw materials combined with invention of spinning jenny by John Kaye and invention of steam engine by Richard Arkwright revolutionized the production of end products of cotton and jute. In return of the raw materials procured from India, the British gave silver. Communities of weavers  Weavers belonged to communities that specialised in weaving and skills were passed on from one generation to the next.  Famous communities involved in weaving were the tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of North India, Kaikollar and Devangs of South India. Stages in weaving process  Spinning is the first stage of production where charkha and the takli were used. The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the takli.  After spinning the thread was woven into cloth by the weaver.  For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez. HISTORY | Indian Industry in the 18th Century Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars. Evolution of cotton mills  In 1854, the first cotton mill was set up in Bombay during the period of governor general Lord Dalhousie.  Growth of cotton mills demanded labour. Poor peasants, artisans and agricultural labourers worked in the mills.  The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory production in India, was during the American Civil War in 1865 when cotton prices slashed and the focus was on India when textile imports from Britain declined and Indian factories were called upon to produce cloth for European markets which earlier imported from America. The decline of Indian textiles There are various reasons for the decline of Indian Textiles Competition:Indian textiles had to compete with British textiles in foreign markets.  High Duties: Exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.  Losing Traditional Base: Indian traditional goods market was ousted by English made cotton textiles in African and Asian countries.  Specialisation: By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets which affected specialist weavers and spinners. In India, handloom weaving continued as some types of cloth could not be supplied by machines. Evolution of iron and steel factories in India  The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) began producing steel in 1912.  In 1914 the First World War broke out and steel produced in Britain had to meet the demands of war in Europe. The war continued for several years, so TISCO had to produce shells and carriage wheels for the war. TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.  In the case of iron and steel, industrial expansion occurred when British imports into India declined and the market for Indian industrial goods increased. HISTORY | Indian Industry in the 18th Century Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved Decline of industries in the 18th century There was a systemic decline in the industrial base in the country owing to deindustrialization, a process whereby the traditional base of the industry like weaving and handicrafts got eroded. Thus when once India had a numero uno position in the Textile industry in the world with a global trade share of 24 percent prior to the 18th century , it slid to 4 percent at present. Thus Deindustrialization of Indian industries marked the decline of stature of India in manufacturing in the global stage the effects of which are visible even today. Probable Questions 1) Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural economy. 2) Evaluate the impacts of American Civil War on India. HISTORY | Indian Industry in the 18th Century Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Educational Policies of the British in Shorts India HISTORY Reasons for Educational Policies The reasons for the introduction of educational policy by the British was not for improving the literacy of the inhabitants of India. The primary reasons were 1. To create a group of Indians who could serve the purpose of being clerks in the English East India company.  To lessen the cost of importing trained officials from England for the company in India. Evolution of Educational Policies Orientalists: They refer to a group of Englishmen who were interested in learning Indian customs, tradition and languages to propel the administrative expansion in India. Some of the famous orientalists and their contributions are William Jones, Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed established the asiatic society of Bengal which translated Sankrit and Persian works into English. Warren Hastings set up a Madrasa in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law. Jonathan Duncan established the Hindu College in Banaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the country Fort William College was set up by Wellesley in 1800 for training of civil servants of the Company in languages and customs of Indians. The Charter Act of 1813 incorporated the principle of encouraging learned Indians and promoting knowledge of modern sciences in the country. The Act directed the Company to sanction one lakh rupees annually for this purpose. Lord Macaulay‘s Minute (1835):The limited government resources were to be devoted to teaching of Western sciences and literature through the medium of English language alone. The British planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes, thus creating a class of Indians in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect who would act as interpreters between the government and masses and would enrich the vernaculars by which knowledge of Western sciences and literature would reach the masses. This was called the downward filtration theory. HISTORY | Educational Policies of the British in India Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Wood‘s Despatch (1854):In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a despatch on an educational system for India. Considered the Magna Carta of English Education in India, this document was the first comprehensive plan for the spread of education in India. Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) : In 1882, the Government appointed a commission under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter to review the progress of education in the country since the Despatch of 1854. The Hunter Commission mostly confined its recommendations to primary and secondary education. Raleigh Commission (1902) :The commission was set up to go into conditions and prospects of universities in India and to suggest measures for improvement in their constitution and working. The commission resisted from reporting on primary or secondary education.Based on its recommendations, the Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904. Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913: The government refused to take up the responsibility of compulsory education, but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provincial governments to take early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward sections. Saddler University Commission (1917-19) :The commission was set up to study and report on problems of Calcutta University but its recommendations were applicable more or less to other universities also. It reviewed the entire field from school education to university education. Effect of Educational Policies The Educational policies of the British did little to uplift the masses in terms of literacy. This can be vindicated by the fact that when India gained independence, the literacy was just 18 percent. However, British education did help create a band of western educated intellectuals among Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra Sen who were instrumental in heralding a new way of thinking among the Indian population and sowed the seeds of Indian Nationalism. Probable Questions 1. Which of the following led to the introduction of English education in India? 1. Charter act of 1813. 2. General Committee of Public instructions, 1823. 3. Orientalist and Anglicist controversy Which of the following is/are correct? HISTORY | Educational Policies of the British in India Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  A. Only 1 and 2 B. Only 1 C. Only 2 and 3 D. All of the above 2. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? 1. Sanskrit College - William Jones 2. Calcutta Madrasa- Warren Hastings 3. Fort William College- Arthur Wellesley Which of the following is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 3 only 3. Regarding woods dispatch which of the following are true 1. Grant in aid system was introduced. 2. Establishment of Universities was recommended. 3. English as a medium of instructions at all levels Which of the following is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 3 D. 1, 2 and 3 HISTORY | Educational Policies of the British in India Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved NCERT Women & Caste Issues in India in the Shorts 18th Century HISTORY Problems Confronting Women The problems faced by women in the 18th century were very different from the kinds of problems women are facing now. Some of the problems were 1. Polygamy : Refers to the practice of a single person marrying many wives. This rendered the conditions of women poor and led to their commodification. 2. Sati: Refers to the practice of self immolation on death of husband. This was a derogatory custom being followed because it was of the view that it will give sanctity of virtuousness to women.  Child Marriages: Women were married off relatively early (around the age of 10 years). Problems Concerning the Caste System Brahmans and Kshatriyas considered themselves as upper castes. Traders and moneylenders (often referred to as Vaishyas) were placed after them. Then came peasants, and artisans such as weavers and potters (referred to as Shudras). At the lowest rung were those who laboured to keep cities and villages clean or worked at jobs that upper castes considered polluting, that is, it could lead to the loss of caste status. The upper castes also treated many of these groups at the bottom as untouchables. They were not allowed to enter temples, draw water from the wells used by the upper castes, or bathe in ponds where upper castes bathed. Reforms in the 18th Century The causes for the reforms to take place in the 18th century include 1. Prin