NCERT Class 11 Heritage Crafts PDF

✥ Contents Learning about Crafts 1 Chapter 1 Crafts Heritage 7 Chapter 2 Clay 15 Chapter 3 Stone 25 Chapter 4 Metal 37 Chapter 5...

✥ Contents Learning about Crafts 1 Chapter 1 Crafts Heritage 7 Chapter 2 Clay 15 Chapter 3 Stone 25 Chapter 4 Metal 37 Chapter 5 Jewellery 49 Chapter 6 Natural Fibres 61 Chapter 7 Paper Crafts 73 Chapter 8 Textiles 83 Chapter 9 Painting 97 Chapter 10 Theatre Crafts 111. Suggested Reading 123  Learning about Crafts If you look around your home, you will find a number of things used everyday that represent the heritage of Indian crafts. These may include: ♦ an embroidered cushion or pillow case ♦ a bamboo basket or chair woven with cane ♦ a piece of jewellery ♦ a duree or carpet ♦ a stone bowl ♦ a clay pitcher or surahee, or a lamp or diya ♦ a mat or a broom ♦ a handwoven saree It is quite possible that one or more objects in this list have been replaced in your home by an industrial product. If that has happened, you can ask your parents about what they used before the modern object arrived. On the face of it, a broom or a mat, a shawl or a handwoven scarf may appear machine-made. On the other hand, you can find nylon mats in the market made mechanically, which look exactly like hand-woven straw mats. Unless you observe carefully you may not see much difference between the two. However, there is only superficial similarity between an object made by a craftsperson, and its copy made by a machine. When people talk about craftsmanship, they often have in mind machine-made perfection. However, the kind of perfection a work of craftsmanship represents is quite different from the mechanical perfection of a mass-produced object. The difference comes from the traces of individuality that you can find in a hand-crafted object. These traces may look like marks of ëimperfectioní in comparison to the mechanically produced object. For instance, in a handmade bamboo fan, the surface may be rough in the part where the bamboo had a knot. The natural texture of the bamboo continues to ëliveí in a handmade fan. In a comparable plastic copy of the fan, the surface will be smooth everywhere, 2 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA and every fan will look identical. Contrary to this uniformity, each craft product is different even if it looks similar to others. A hand-woven sari has no exact match, just as a handkerchief you make with your own hands is unique. All traditional crafts are practised in communities, not individually. The man or woman who practises a traditional craft inherits it from senior members of the community, usually while growing up in the family. The knowledge and skills involved in any craft are diverse, starting from basic knowledge about the material with which the craft is practised, the tools with which it is made, to the numerous skills applied in order to transform the material into a work of aesthetic beauty and of daily use. Let us, for example, look at a pitcher or a flower-pot. The material used for making it is the most basic and perhaps the oldest resource used for the practice of pottery as a craft. The right kind of clay is first collected, then cleaned and treated, and then turned into pots of desired shapes with the help of a potterís wheel. Once a pitcher is given shape, it is fired in a kiln in order to make it strong. In each of these stages, numerous skills are involved. The potter must also maintain several levels of awareness while applying his skill, in order to ensure that the end product has its basic, reliable quality and beauty. Beauty and Use Aesthetic beauty and usefulness need not be two separate qualities. In modern times we sometimes feel that something to be used in everyday life need not be beautiful, or that something beautiful cannot be put to daily use. We assume that if an object is to be used frequently, it need not be delicate and graceful. This assumption is quite mistaken in the context of traditional crafts. The best way to understand why this is so, is by making something with your own hands. Try making an object of daily use in your life as a student. If you have no experience of stitching and embroidery, you can still try to make a small book mark, by wrapping a small, rectangular cardboard with a piece of cloth which has a design like a flower or a leaf embroidered on it. In order to make such a bookmark you will need to take several decisions. Each decision will draw your attention in two directions: one, towards the choice of cloth, its colour, the embroidery and its colour; and two, LEARNING ABOUT CRAFTS 3 towards your own likes and dislikes in these matters. When you start the actual cutting and stitching, you will go through a series of thoughts and emotions. You will feel pleased with yourself when the rectangular cardboard is wrapped up and stitched tightly with the cloth you have selected. You will feel somewhat irritated with yourself if one of the corners does not look as neat and angular as the other three corners do. Ultimately, when the work is finished and the bookmark is ready, you will feel pleased with yourself in a strange sense. This is an example which can help you appreciate how craft products combine beauty with use. The imperfect piece of work will look so intimate that you will look at its blemishes, like a blunt corner, with affection. A sense of personal relation with the object in hand will give it, in your eyes, a beauty that more perfect-looking bookmarks made of metal and plastic may not have. The secret lies in the point that a craft product does not pretend to be perfect, it only aspires to be perfect. This is what makes it so human. As human beings, we too can only aspire to be perfect in whatever we do, but we can never be perfect. Even the Taj, which is a great work of craftsmanship, and is rightly regarded as one of the wonders of the world, is not perfect. If you visit the Taj and look at it carefully, you will find that it expresses a deep aspiration to be perfect, even as it reveals many examples where the individual sculptor has left his own mark which prevents the overall design from looking purely mechanical. The reason why craftwork is so satisfying may well be because it represents a deep urge in us to reach higher and higher levels of perfection. What does the word ëperfectioní mean? Before we enter the world of different craft forms discussed in this book, let us think about the meaning we can give to the word ëperfectioní in the context of crafts. There are two ways in which we can proceed in this search. One is to reflect on the experience that working on a craft brings to us. The other way is to examine the outcome of our work, and look for aspects of perfection in the product. 4 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA The Experience of Craft Work It is easy to say that the work involved in any craft is mainly of a manual kind, in the sense that craft work is done with the help of physical effort on our part. When we make a small diya of clay or a garland of flowersóm a l a ó our eyes and hands are actively engaged. However, if we look at this kind of work more deeply, we will notice that it is not purely manual. A great deal of mental attention is required at every stage, and at certain points we must concentrate on what we are doing, otherwise the mala we are making may not turn out well. Each flower has to be accommodated in the mala with care and concern for its individual character, size and colour. It must have space, good company, and the needle must pierce it without injury. If we have made a diya many times we may get so good at it that we donít need to think about it all the time. In other words, we get so ëskilledí at this work that our hands and eyes carry on without conscious decisions being made by the mind. You must have noticed how a tailor can continue to work on his machine while talking. A barber can do the same thing. But even a highly skilled tailor or barber does pay attention to what he is doing if he does not want to make mistakes. Perhaps what happens is that the mind and the body together enter into a rhythm of work. Certain decisions which are of a routine kind get taken without too much thought, hence the person can keep talking while his hands are working; but at certain moments when something crucial is to be done, the mind takes full control and guides the eyes and the hands to focus on the work itself. This remarkable unity of body and mind in craft work is what makes it a pleasant and deeply satisfying experience. If you have never attempted to learn any kind of traditional craft till now, you might have ignored the two suggestions given earlier in this chapter, i.e., to make a book mark and a mala. You still need a personal taste of making something with your hands in order to get the taste of mindñbody experience. So, here is yet another suggestion, for something simpler than the earlier examples. LEARNING ABOUT CRAFTS 5 Try something as simple as making a cover for your textbook. As you start, alert your mind to all the decisions you are going to take, starting with choosing a piece of paper large and strong enough to survive for a few months in your school bag. The kind of paper you choose will have implications not only for the number of months the cover will lastóits longevityóbut also for the neatness of the folds, the sharpness of the corners, and, of course, for the attraction that any design or picture might have, on the side which will wrap the front cover of the book. If you select a page from an old newspaper to cover your textbook, its size may be convenient, but the neatness of the folds will suffer because the paper used as newsprint is rather thin and tears easily if you fold it along a sharp line. Brown paper used for wrapping or making parcels may be more suitable. Following this decision about the material to be used, you will need to think about the length and width of the piece, depending on how much paper you want to allow inside the cover, when you fold it along the bookís own cover. At the corners, you can choose a simple fold or a somewhat complex fold. This kind of fold, which doubles up the paper not only gives strength to the corners but also looks more attractive when you open the book. Why do corners need greater strength? As a user of textbooks since childhood, you can easily answer this question. This example should suffice to indicate how many decisions are involved in any manual work if it aspires to achieve as much perfection as possible. You can now appreciate the role that a long and sustained tradition in any specific craft plays. If a craft has lived for a few hundred years, many of the decisions required to practise it will have been taken by several generations of people who lived before us. These decisions have now become the basic knowledge of that craft. We can acquire this knowledge by sitting and working with a practitioner of that craft. Of course, you will still need to apply your mind when doing the craftwork yourself, but at least you will know what to do. By learning the basic knowledge of a craft from someone who knows it, you will become aware of the decisions you will need to take when you start working and also of the small mistakes you will make as you move towards completion. The mistakes will not hurt you the way mistakes in an examination of mathematics or language do. Rather, the mistakes will look like your signature on the product. In this sense, they will make the product a precious memory of your first experience of trying the craft, and the processes of thought and feeling. 6 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Looking at a Craft Product As the opening lines of this chapter pointed out, craftworks are so much a part of our daily life that we take them for granted and donít observe and appreciate them. Now that you have opted to study Heritage Crafts as a subject, it is important for you to look at examples of crafts carefully and find in them the characteristics of a long and great tradition. You can, for example, learn several important aspects of weaving by observing a handmade carpet or duree in your home or school. First of all, draw your fingers lightly across the duree to feel the characteristic texture that a woven cotton duree has. It is quite different from the texture of a knotted rug. The word ëtextureí literally refers to the feel that the arrangement of fabric in a textile gives. Now, if you have noticed the texture, observe the pattern in which the duree has been woven. Notice the shapes created by the threads of different colours. The combinations and shades of colours together bring about a sense of design. Try to imagine how the shape you see in its entirety must have emerged bit by bit as the duree progressed from thread to thread. Do you think the duree maker could ëseeí the completed design in his or her mind long before it surfaced fully on the duree? That is what must have happened, and it must have required great patience to wait for the work to be completed. Indeed, the joy of waiting to complete a piece of craft is what keeps one going, slowly and carefully, taking small steps at oneís own relaxed pace in a quiet room of oneís own home. It is certainly very different to work in a textile factory, surrounded by the noise of superfast machines. Do think about all the differences between the two modes of production, and the two kinds of products before you move to the next chapter.  1 CRAFTS HERITAGE India is a combination of many worlds, living in many centuries and cultures. The world of Indiaís craftspeople spans millennia and spreads across the length and breadth of our land, which is seen in cities and towns, by-lanes and villages. A small crafted object made in an unknown village of India has the capacity of becoming an object displayed in the finest museums of the world, yet the same object is often merely an object of utility for a particular community which never thinks of it as a great art. It is often a lack of knowledge of the variety of cultures, techniques, meanings, uses and relevance of such handcrafted objects that allows us to neglect their beauty and take our cultural heritage for granted. The Definition of Crafts Indian words for handicrafts are commonly hastkala, hastshilp, dastkari, karigari, all meaning handiwork, but they also refer to objects made with craftsmanship, i.e., specialised skills of the hands which are also artistic. The aesthetic content is an intrinsic part of such objects and means the object of utility has a value that goes beyond mere usage and is also pleasing to the eye. A handcrafted An artisan drawing before object is seldom merely decorative, and whether it has no carving on wood embellishment or is highly decorative, its true purpose is served only when it is both useful and has a fine form. Crafts and Culture Crafts are therefore closely related to concept of form, pattern, design, usage, and these lead to its total aesthetic quality. When all these aspects are rooted in the culture of the people in a particular area of a country or among certain communities, crafts become a 8 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA part of its cultural heritage. Handcrafted objects are not just valuable for their aesthetic quality, but as objects produced by traditional craftsmen and women for ceremonial and religious purposes, and most importantly as a means of livelihood. Cultural and Social Needs for Crafts This creative spirit in the midst of the struggle for survival is one of the unique and significant distinguishing features between men and beasts. Why else do the forest communities, even today, lay so much store by painting the inside or outside of their homes, or adorning their bodies with decorative tattoos or ornaments? Why are people Wall and floor decoration in affected, and often spiritually guided, by colours? Why does a house, Jharkhand a woman fashion an attractive handle for the broom she uses to clean her home and why does she spend time invoking the blessings of the gods through her painted designs on her kitchen floor? Crafts through the Ages India has been greatly blessed by having a many-layered, culturally diverse, rich heritage of craft skills influenced by historical events combining with local practices and religious beliefs. These influences have come from multiple sources. Changes and enrichment have taken place from trade movements such as those on the Silk Route, which brought demands and resources from the Middle East and Central Asia to the Far East, up to China. The skill of Detail of calligraphy in stone, weaving carpets and superior forms of shawls was brought Qutub Minar, New Delhi to Kashmir by the pre-Moghul king, Zain-ul-Abedin. Persian artisans enriched carpet-weaving and shawl-making according to the needs of Indian courts. On the other hand, the static nature of the Hindu caste system has kept many craft forms alive merely because the artisan had no opportunity to move away to other professions as social boundaries were rigid and hierarchical. The courts of various maharajas encouraged excellence in many courtly crafts connected with the making of armoury or jewellery. Temples kept alive the finest metal work, stone carving, mural painting and even textile weaving right across India, and particularly in South India. Here the Kammalars who claimed descent from the five divine artisan sons of Lord Visvakarma, followed the Shilpa Shastras, the technical tomes on the practice of art in Sanskrit. The high priests among the artisans follow these rules even today when creating large vessels out of metal alloys for temple use. The element of religiosity in the practice of craft work spans CRAFTS HERITAGE 9 many regions and communities since the practice of their art is seen as a striving for the ideal through the dedication of their skill to the gods. It is seen as manís process of reaching the epitome of his own capability in the pursuit of excellence, and doing this by dedicating it to a higher being in the spirit of worship. The silken temple cloths in South India are woven to drape the stone images of the gods, and the gharchola and patola of Gujarat are mandatory purchases for a trousseau and are valued highly partly because the weavers belong to high-caste families. Even old and torn pieces are used to cover religious objects in the prayer room of a house. Tribal Crafts Tribal communities comprise about eight per cent of the population of India. Spread out in different parts of the country, they have continued with ancient cultural practices related to their specific ways of life. In Jammu and Kashmir, the Gujjars and Bakarwals are mountain tribes who spend their lives crossing over from one side of the mountains to the other in search of grass for their sheep and goats. Their jewellery, blankets, embroidered caps and tunics, saddle bags and sundry animal accessories are similar to the artifacts of the people of Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and the smaller countries of Central Asia. The robust manner of the people and the heavily ornamented women folk reflect as far down in India as Saurashtra and the desert regions of Kutch in Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Mirror work in embroidery stems from the use of mica from the desert sands in the garments of those who liked heavy A Kutchi woman and shining ornamentation. People of nomadic tribes usually embroidering wore all that they had on their person. They found that the sun reflected in the mica, making this an accessory that embellished their garment suitably without any cost. Each group developed its own style of embroidery and it is this that can still be clearly seen in the many communities that inhabit the western region of India. Both, the identity of the tribe and the marital status of a woman, are embedded in the style of the embroidery and the colour and cut of the upper bodice worn by its women. As communities move in search of greener pastures for their sheep, cattle and camels across desert sands, a mere glance is enough to identify their tribe and profession. The various tribes inhabiting the north-east of India live among the rich bamboo forests where the finest quality of skill in the weaving of bamboo, cane and other wild grasses can be seen. This group links itself culturally to the people 10 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA of Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and even Japan and China, where mat-weaving and basketry are of the highest quality. Handloom weaving too is a common skill of this region. Apart from weaving ceremonial shawls and lungis, headscarves and waist belts, small scarves for ceremonial greetings are woven in almost every household. These cloths are revered for many reasons: they establish the identity of the tribe or the status of the wearer, they serve as ëwelcomeí scarves to greet a visitor, they honour the achievements of a chieftain, and they pass on skills from generation to generation through their womenfolk. Other tribes are found in Central and South India, spread across the States of Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and to some extent, in Kerala. In each region they have different cultural practices and urbanisation has affected the extent to which they continue to make or use handcrafted objects. In most cases, however, their deep connection with the forest in which they live and their spiritual association with all forms of nature has enabled them to retain a distinct style of making bamboo items such as bows and arrows, musical instruments and baskets. Their metal work incorporates the world of trees, animals and human beings as if they were all forged from the same shapes and impulses of nature. Earthen vessels and toys are painted with bold black and white stripes. Winnows for grain take on wondrous hues with strips of bamboo dyed in brilliant yellows and magenta pinks. Palm leaf brooms are playfully embellished with decorative handles, and baskets carrying the trousseau of the bride to her new home are capped with plumed birds made of bright coloured strips of bamboo. Bamboo basket, Vietnam The making of craft items is at once a daily practice, a ritual, and a celebration of creativity in everyday life. The textiles of the tribals of central India have their own distinct identity. The tribes of central India spin and weave thick cream coloured yarn with madder red borders and end pieces reflecting images from their lives. Birds, flowers, trees, deer or even an airplane decorate these cloths. In Orissa, ceremonial cloths to be worn by the priest or priestess are required to be of a certain colour. Each colour has an auspicious meaning and unity of communities is expressed through the similarity of dress and adornment. Tribal and indigenous arts related to specific cultural traditions of various communities could be termed as peopleís art as opposed to the more stylised classical arts that evolved within the Hindu social system, or those that CRAFTS HERITAGE 11 were the result of influences from different parts of the world through trade or historical events. There was also a gradual change in craft practices because of industrialisation, and technological and cultural pressures from more dominant economic groups within and outside India. Formation of Social Groups Those who worked with their hands in artisanal skills were denied easy access to the tasks assigned to the upper castes. While socially and psychologically detrimental, the caste system locked artisanal skills in place and ensured the transmission of this knowledge from generation to generation in the absence of any alternative, thereby preserving techniques and processes that may otherwise have been lost. Even today, the prajapati or kumhar (potter), the vankar or bunkar (weaver), the ashari (carpenter) and all the other identified and categorised artisans are divided and recognised by the caste groupings whether they continue to practise their skill or not. In The Arts of India by G.C.M. Birdwood, he cites the nineteenth chapter of the second section (ëAyodhyakandaí) of the Ramayana, to list the inhabitants of the city that are represented in the procession with Bharata to seek Rama. They are the trade guilds of artisans: the jewellers, potters, ivory-workers, Traditional potter (above) perfumers, goldsmiths, weavers, carpenters, and weaver (below) at work braziers, painters, musical instrument makers, armourers, curriers, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, makers of figures, cutters of crystals, glassmakers, inlayers and others. In present-day India we can formulate broad groupings of major practitioners of craft as potters, weavers, metal-smiths, wood-carvers, cane and bamboo weavers and stone carvers. While these may be the larger skills, there are many other crafts from shola pith work, papier- m ‚c h È, innumerable styles of mural, miniature and floor painting, paper crafts, glass work, and carpet and duree weaving. In the area of textiles India undoubtedly has the largest range of skills that can be found anywhere in the world. While separating the craft of making floor coverings out of rags and yarn, we are left with textiles that consist of 12 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA ornamentation through pre-loom processes, plain weaving, patterned weaving in which the ornamentation appears during the weaving process, and post-loom ornamentation. The last of these can be further subdivided into embroidery, beadwork, block printing and tie-and dye techniques, and zari (metallic thread) work, offering a further array of skills that express themselves differently from one region to another. Empowerment of Women Artisans In Bhadohi District of Uttar Pradesh hundreds of women took up carpet weaving since young boys went to school after the anti-child-labour campaign came into effect. Sometimes four or five women weave a carpet together under uncomfortable conditions, earning a meagre Rs 1500 per carpet collectively. For women-headed households the burden of bringing up children and staying alive under such conditions can hardly be imagined. During a visit to some carpet producing villages it was found that these women, as a part of tradition and custom, weave baskets with local moonj grass to serve as containers for sweets, saris, jewellery, fruit and other items on ceremonial family occasions. The brightly dyed grass of moonj is woven into small and large baskets with intricate designs depending on the creativity and mood of the maker. With some minor suggestions regarding colour, size and costing, the women were encouraged to bring a collection of these baskets from every home and sell them at Dilli Haat in New Delhi. What began as a shy and hesitant venture ended in delight as the women sold out their stock earning Rs 17,000 in the process. They described their experience as one of independence, for they had control of the raw material (free Women weaving baskets grass from the fields), control over production (home- and with local moonj grass, leisure-based work), control over creativity (they design each Bhadohi, Uttar Pradesh CRAFTS HERITAGE 13 basket as they wish), and control over sales (they had sold Baskets, mats, coasters the items at the stall themselves). The earnings were free designed for everyday use of the male/malik control prevalent in the carpet industry and were entirely based on their own efforts. After some design workshops were held in the villages and the produce exhibited at different places, they were able to sell more than six lakh rupees worth of baskets in one year. Perhaps this is the closest example of what empowerment actually means when translated from abstract jargon into reality. But, there is still a lot of work to be done such as organising the women into self-help groups, encouraging savings and delivering micro credit to them so that they have money for raw material, transportation and other needs. There are many issues and areas of work involved in this story: child labour, womenís work, the skill of basket making, designing new baskets, finding new uses for these baskets, calculating the cost of each basket so that they fetch a fair return without making the basket too expensive, planning a marketing strategy including an exhibition, a catalogue, web marketing, learning about the benefits of a self-help group and the availability of micro credit. 14 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA E XERCISE............................. 1. Even though craftspeople produce objects of great utility for every home, this community is often marginalised in terms of what it earns and where it lives in the village. Investigate and find reasons for this. Is this situation changing? 2. In several parts of India, women are prohibited from using the wheel to make pottery. However, in Manipur, women can also be potters. In your own area, identify the tasks done by men and women at different stages of making any craft object. 3.† In India, the crafts sector is the second largest exporter. Collect data on crafts that are the most successful export items and complete the following table. † Item Quantity Price Exported to Textiles 4. In your opinion, why is basket-making, mat-weaving and making of brooms largely done by women? 5. How do market forces influence the making of a craft object? Think of a kite, a traditional paper toy, and a papier -m‚ chÈ object. Consider: raw material, process, form and shape, design and decoration, the ecologically conscious buyer, the export market etc. 6. Which types of embroidery were traditionally done by men in our country and why? Find out. 7. In your opinion what are the factors that give a distinctive character to crafts in a specific region? 8. Looking at objects drawn from at least four different regions of India, made from specific material such as textile/clay, make a study of the variety found in technique, design, colour and shape. Describe in detail.  2 CLAY The art of pottery is probably as old as human history. No other art traces the story of human beings on this earth as clearly as pottery does. The tides of time have washed away many civilisations but evidence of their existence remains in fragments of pottery. There are two reasons why this is true: the first is that clay is found in abundance in practically all parts of the world; the second is that clay objects are the least perishable of all materials. The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human beings, their death and burial, of human migration, trade and conquest, cultural practices and influences. As to the discovery of how clay could be manipulated to make pottery, it is easy to imagine how, as prehistoric communities walked through rain-soaked mud, they noticed their footprints and how these impressions became hardened by the wind and sun. Exactly when human beings intentionally used these discoveries for making pottery is unknown but it may have been invented independently in many parts of the world. However, the process of making a pot is a long and difficult one that has evolved over many generations of Potter shaping a trial and experiment. horse-head What is Clay? Clay is universally found as it forms part of the earthís crust that developed due to weathering over thousands of years. In India different types of clay are found along riverbeds and banks, lakes and ponds, and agricultural lands. Clay is essentially silica Pots but the varying mineral content in clay adds to its colour and determines how suited it is for different processes. Clay is cleaned by removing large stony particles, gravel and humus. 16 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, elastic. Thinner clay solutions can be created to use as paint for walls and on sculptures.†By controlling the amount of water that is mixed with clay it can be used in different ways. ♦ It can be made into a creamy compound that can be poured into moulds and allowed to set. ♦ It can be mixed to a leathery consistency and cut like a sponge. ♦ When dry the surface can be scraped off as fine powder. ♦ Straw and grass can be added to create a strong, rough texture ideal for the creation of very large images. So each artist treats clay differently to suit the type of object that is to be created. Pottery Artists, through the ages, have loved clay as it is the most sensitive material on earth for it captures the slightest touch or the gentlest imprint. As soon as the clay object is dried or fired, a chemical change occurs and the object becomes rigid and is no longer sensitive to touch. Clay of some kind or the other can be found almost anywhere in the world. India, too, has an unbroken continuous history. Artists have used clay to produce objects for the home ó cooking pots, roof tiles, clay bricks and sculptures. Oh! the pot is everywhere! Where there is buttermilk, in the cupboard, a pot Where water is stored, at the waterstand, a pot Where food is kept, on the stove, a pot Where there is jaggery, in the attic, a pot. In the heart of the home, As ëgotrají, ancestors, a pot Vastu, during house warming, At the threshold of each home, a pot Where a marriage ëpandalí is built, a pot When the ëgarbaí dance takes place, In the courtyard, a pot. During sickness, Left in the outskirts of the village, a pot At every stop in a pilgrimage, a pot In death, at the cremation ground, a pot At a ëYagnaí representing the planets are pots In the village square, the singer plays a beat on a pot. ñ from Prakriti, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts CLAY 17 Clay objects are prepared using two basic techniques: ♦ wheel-turned pottery ♦ hand modelling. A variety of processes within these two techniques have evolved. Wheel-turned Pottery The earliest method of making pots for storage may have used the coiling technique. The artist rolls out strips of clay and then places one coil upon another, joining them together with his fingers to form a hollow pot. Roll a coil with Join and add coils to form Finally, smoothen the outstretched fingers. interesting patterns. coils from the inside for good binding. A potter at his wheel The most important change came with the invention of the potterís wheel. There are many kinds of wheels used in India today. The first is a simple flat stone or wooden disc that is turned with the hand or a stick. By placing a soft lump of clay on the centre of the disc and turning the wheel the potter can change the shape of the clay. By varying the pressure of her/his fingers and palms she/he can create a pot of different sizes and shapes. By pushing with her/his thumbs down into the centre of the ball of clay and pulling gently outward and upward the shape of the hollow pot takes form. Another type of wheel is mounted on a vertical shaft. By extending the shaft and adding another disc at the bottom it is possible to turn the wheel with the feet, leaving both hands free to make the pot. Today even motorised wheels are used. 18 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Hand Modelling Modelling is a process used with materials like clay, wax or plaster.†Clay modelling enables the artist to work from the inside core to the outside. The artist begins with a well mixed lump of clay and starts working with his fingers to give it shape and form.†Clay can be rolled, coiled, pinched and attached to the main form. This technique has several advantages that the artist can use to create a sculpture. He can add legs and arms to the figure by wetting a smaller piece of clay, rolling it and attaching it to the main body. The process gives the artist freedom to change, modify and repair areas at will. If, for example, the nose of the figure falls off, the artist can just wet the clay piece and Making clay masks stick it back on to the face. He can then continue to add smaller details of hair, bangles and necklaces in clay. Decoration: Clay offers endless possibilities to create textures and designs on the wet surface of pots, which can be pressed or imprinted, cut out or added on like appliquÈ and then many parts of the clay object can be assembled together to forge a cohesive whole. Painting: After firing, the craftsperson can pour a slip, which is the thin liquid solution of clay that gives the clay object an even colour. The sculpture can be painted with mineral colours to add value to its appearance. Sometimes clay objects such as pots, diyas etc. are also painted. Clay figurines, West Bengal What Is Terracotta? Once the clay object is made, it can be dried in the sun and fired in a local kiln made of cowdung and wood. This process transforms the clay into terracotta. Clay can be fired at different temperatures from 700ñ1400 degrees C. The intensity of heat and the type of firing gives the terracotta its colour and hue that range from dark brown to lively reds. Once fired, the terracotta becomes insoluble, un-plastic and durable. On firing, the clay loses its chemically Terracotta: Firing a clay combined water, and becomes hard and almost imperishable. object in a kiln transforms That is why 5000-year -old seals from the Harappan the clay into terracotta. Civilisation still exist. CLAY 19 Making of Giant Figures Traditional potters live and work in almost every part of India. Pottery is a specialised profession and often the community lives together in a separate section of the village or town. Each potter or kumhar has the skill to create hundreds of pots for different uses ó from huge storage jars for grain and water, to tiny oil lamps for Diwali. He can design a childís toy and sculpt giant figurines for worship as well. To make giant figures, artists have evolved various techniques. One of them is to make each piece of the figure on the potterís wheel. This is to prevent the clay figurine from breaking when it is fired in the kiln. When clay is fired, it contracts considerably owing to the loss of water and moisture. A solid model made of ordinary clay would burst under the pressure of the heat of the kiln. A sculpture with uneven wall thickness would warp and crack. Therefore, using the potterís skill in creating parts of the figure in which the walls are of even thickness is a unique way of overcoming this problem. The potter throws clay to create the hollow shapes of legs, body and neck of the figure he wants to create. These individual pieces are then assembled by the potter to create the required form. The four pot-shaped legs are attached to the hollow torso. To this the artist adds bits of pinched, pressed and coiled clay for decoration. This unusual process involves the imaginative use of the material and a great deal of inventiveness goes into making the form both technically sound and aesthetically satisfying. Some of these votive figures are two metres high and their towering presence only adds to the genius of the village potter. Potters make these figures for their patrons in lieu of money or food. A craftsman finishing an Aiyanar horse 20 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Clay through the Ages 3000 ñ 1500 BCE Harappan Civilisation Small figures of animals, domesticated animals like the bull and the ram, tiny images of house animals like a bird in a cage, cats, lively Indian squirrels munching on a juicy nut Toys for children similar to the clay toys made for children today by the village potter and sold at the haats or village bazaar like the bull with a movable nodding head 300 ñ 100 BCE Maurya and Sunga Periods Clay figurines from excavations at Pataliputra, the ancient Mauryan capital, Kosambi, Gaya and other important sites of the Mauryan and Gupta Periods 100 BCE ñ 300 CE Kushan Period In the northwestern region of India the Greco-Buddhist stupas were often decorated with stucco designs and motifs. There are several Gandharan heads with evidence of paint. Strong red mineral colours were used for the lips and black charcoal hues for matted locks and curly hair. CLAY 21 300 ñ 1000 Gupta and Post-Gupta Periods Life-size terracotta sculptures were used to decorate temples and secular buildings. 1600 ñ 1800 Local rulers of Bishnupur in West Bengal built temples in a unique style that were profusely decorated with terracotta plaques and stucco patterns.† 1900 ñ 2000 Despite colonial exploitation the potter has continued to innovate and work. Every village, town and city in India has a vibrant living tradition of pottery that is unique to its tradition. 22 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Giant Clay Figures of India Votive terracotta figures are made in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. In Bastar, on amavasya (the no moon night) of Bhadrapad (August to September), tribals offer terracotta bulls, tigers, elephants and horses, sometimes with one or two riders, to the goddess whom they worship for wealth, health and protection from evil spirits. These clay animal gifts or votive offerings have replaced the practice of animal sacrifices of earlier times. In Tamil Nadu the dramatic larger-than-life size image of Aiyanar, the local deity, is surrounded by a sea of attendants, horses and bulls. They serve as gram devatas who stand at the entrance of the village and protect it. CLAY 23 During Durga Puja in West Bengal enormous figures of the goddess are created. The artists use different techniques and mixtures of natural materials to make these excellent stately statues. They follow the traditional practice to create the inner core with local grasses bound together to form the legs, arms and head. The grasses are often swathed with thin cotton cloth. Then layer upon layer of clay is carefully applied to the body of the goddess to gradually build it up. Over a period of several days, each layer is allowed to dry completely so that no cracks appear and there is no warping. Once dry, the entire figure of the goddess is painted with natural mineral colours. After this the figure is dressed in a sari and adorned with jewellery made of paper or artificial jewels, and garlands of flowers, before it is ready for worship. Ornately decorated clay horses, huge armies of terracotta figures and assemblies of village deities with their attendants can be seen under the trees in village grounds in Bankura District, West Bengal. Mati kahe kumhar se tu kya raundhe mohe, Ek din aisa ayega main raundhoongi tohe. ñ KABIR 24 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA E XERCISE............................. 1. No technique emerges in a day. In any craft a technique is sharpened over centuries. What do you think were the various stages that pottery-making went through that led to the use of the wheel in pottery? Describe in detail. 2. In many parts of India water is stored in clay pots. What aspects of the design and material of a surahee or matka make it suitable for storing drinking water in summer? 3. With reference to the photographs given below, identify the different techniques used by the artist to create each. Plaque Pot Votive object 4. The history of pottery tells of the daily life of human beings, death and burial, of human migration, trade and conquest, cultural practice and influence. Survey ten houses in your neighbourhood and create a table of various pottery objects found there giving information regarding when they are used, their shape, how they are used and from where they were obtained. Especially refer to the daily life, rituals, trade and transport in the surveyed households. 5. The invention of the wheel had a profound effect on every apect of human life. Explain the many uses of the wheel and how each has changed human life and culture through the ages. 6. Why, do you think, pottery is a specialised profession from the point of view of skill, tools, techniques and entrepreneurship? 7. On the Internet, search for new uses of clayóin industry, in homes, in science, in space travel etc. 8. Artists, poets and writers, through the ages, have used the image/metaphor of pottery. Find examples to illustrate the concept in Indian art and literature. Create your own poem using clay as a symbol.  3 STONE Even today the stone carvers of Tamil Nadu begin with a prayer that first begs forgiveness from Mother Earth for cutting the stone. The prayer ends with offerings of sweets and milk to the earth and a solemn promise never to misuse or waste stone. The stone cutter starts by locating a good stone quarry. Then begins the process of cutting what he needs from the mother rock. Metal pegs are hammered in a straight line into the rock at intervals. Water is poured on to the rock to wet it. The change in night and day temperatures causes contraction and expansion and the rock gradually slits along the straight peg lines into perfect slabs. The most interesting part of the creative process is when the artist chooses the stone piece to work on. How does he decide which is the perfect piece of rock to use? What Relief sculpture, Halebid, qualities of the rock does the artist look for ó colour or Karnataka grain or texture, or the softness or hardness of the stone? Can he ëseeí the image within the rock piece? Can he imagine what its form will be or can he tell by touch how it will feel when it is completely carved? Types of Stone There are myriad varieties of stone to be found in India. Soft soap stone contrasts with the hard granite, an igneous rock of the Deccan. Sedimentary rocks of the northern plains of India produce a variety of coloured sandstones; and metamorphic rocks, hardened over centuries under the soil form marble and limestone. Rocks acquire their properties from minerals that give them colour, lustre, and strength. Depending on how the rock was formed, igneous or sedimentary, its molecular structure enhances it with a grain, layers and patterns. Each type of rock, be it granite or sandstone, has intrinsic qualities that the sculptor explores when he creates a work of art. 26 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Descent of Ganga in granite, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu The nature of the stone will determine how the sculpture is made and also its possibilities. Soft soap stone allows for delicate, intricate carving whereas sandstone, a fragile sedimentary rock with layers of fine compressed sands and grains, has to be handled with extreme care as it breaks easily. Within each category of stone there is enormous variety. Sandstone ranges from the golden yellow of Jaisalmer to the soft pitted and speckled stone of Mathura and Fatehpur Sikri. The sculptors of India have been using these stones for the past five thousand years. The difference in treatment of one stone from another in the hands of an artist can be seen in the granite sculptures of Mahabalipuram and the sandstone figures of Khajuraho. Hard granite stone was used in South India to make temples and household items like grinding stones. The quality of stone available in each region of India distinguishes the style and form that can be created. Carving Once the stone is selected the measurements for rough- Carving is a process in hewing and cutting of the sculpture are taken. Carving is a which forms are cut away difficult process, requiring skill, concentration and extreme or subtracted from the caution. It is a process in which forms are cut away or original solid material. subtracted from the original solid material. STONE 27 A block of stone is carved by chiselling away tiny chips in order to create the desired shape. Once the stone has been carved the chips cannot be put back or replaced. This means the artist has to have a precise and accurate idea of how far to carve and what to remove. One cannot afford to make mistakes in this process for once the stone is cut away or carved it cannot be put back. Imagine the acumen needed to plan in advance the shape of the face, the size of the smile and the right angle of the jewel that will adorn a carved image. Once the rough work is over, details are carved with finer tools and then the stone is polished. Some stones can be polished to shine like a mirror. Types of Stone Works Stone objects include household objects like bowls, plates, grinding stones, and pillars, beams and brackets for construction of houses. Figures made in solid materials like stone are further classified into categories that explain their technical dimensions: ♦ Relief-sculptured panels ♦ Three-dimensional figures in the round. Relief-sculptured Panels: A relief has carvings only on one side. The carving can be shallow or deep while the other side is flat and is usually embedded into the masonry work of the building. A low relief can be 1ñ3 cm deep and high. Relief can almost look like a three-dimentional sculpture. Three-dimensional Figures: Such figures can be viewed Low relief: Mahakapi Jataka, from all sides. They can also be used to create free-standing Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh pillars like those erected by Ashoka throughout his empire in the third century BCE. Three-dimensional figure: torso of Vishnu in red sandstone, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh 28 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Stone Sculpture through the Ages At Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, there are a number of rock shelters of the Stone Age period. Early inhabitants lived in natural caves and created fine tools and flints of agate and other natural stones in the area. These tiny flints and well-carved stone implements are the first examples in the long story of Indian sculpture. At Ellora, in Maharashtra, there are Hindu, Buddhist and Jain rock-cut shrines. The Kailash temple at Ellora of the ninth century is an entire temple that was carved out of the natural hillside. The temple is really a massive sculpture cut out of a single piece of the hill. The artists started work from the top and carved downwards, beginning with the towering roof, the windows, the doors through which one enters into halls with enormous sculptured panels. View of Kailashnath Temple, Ellora STONE 29 Sandstone panels with geometric and floral design were made to decorate palaces and tombs during the medieval period. The Mughals in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries built some of the most beautiful buildings in the world like the Taj Mahal in Agra. The sculptural decorations are of many varieties ó marble jalis are made out of a single slab of stone that is cut to create a lattice window that allows for light and ventilation. To make inlay marble or sandstone panels the artist Marble carving, Taj Mahal has to carve out the design in the form of compartments on the flat stone slab. Then precious and semi-precious stones are cut into exact pieces of the pattern and laid into the compartments. The inlay work in the Taj Mahal is so extraordinary that over twenty pieces of different coloured stones were used to create a single flower. Jali work, sixteenth century, Sidi Sayyid Mosque, Ahmedabad 30 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Stoneware Rajasthan is famous for delicate jali work, for domestic architecture in yellow and pink limestone and white marble. Jaipur also produces stone figurines. The sculptors of Karnataka carve images, panels of gods and goddesses, ornaments, bowls, vases, and book-ends from a variety of stones available in this State. In Madhya Pradesh the soft marble rocks of Bhedaghat on the banks of the Narmada provide craftsmen with excellent raw material to make carved panels, figurines and boxes. STONE 31 Uttar Pradesh is one of the leading producers and exporters of stoneware in India. Soft marble and soft streaked Gorahari stone of many shades are inlaid with semi- precious stones. Inlaid table tops, plates and decorative items are produced in Agra. Tamil Nadu: Famous stone sculpture centres have been established in many places such as Mahabalipuram, where a training school has trained a number of young artists in In Orissa the stone cutters of Puri work traditional stone-carving techniques mainly in soapstone. Harder stone is and in making statues. used for temple building. Traditional stone carvers in Mangalpur make stone utensils from semi-hard grey stone and add to it a beautiful polish. Grey stone from Khichling are made into items for the urban market, like boxes and containers, bowls and vases. 32 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Patrons of Crafts Ananda K. Coomaraswamy in his book entitled The Indian Craftsman describes the craftsmen of India and Sri Lanka that he had studied in the early twentieth century. He divided crafts communities into the following categories. ♦ Those who lived and worked in the village ♦ Those who travelled from village to village and towns ♦ Those who lived and worked in towns ♦ Craftsmen who were employed by the ruler in royal Detail of an ornate pillar in a landlordís house, workshops. Chettinad, Tamil Nadu The Village: The potter, carpenter, stone sculptor, mason and goldsmith lived and worked often in their own homes in designated parts of the village. Everyone in the village knew their local craftsmen and therefore he had no need to autograph his works. The jajmani system ensured that hereditary artisans were bound to the dominant agricultural groups through traditional ties. This was a hierarchical and symbiotic relationship, in which the artists worked under the protection and hospitality of the landowning class. When there was a festival, the landowner or the jajman would request the potter to make ceremonial pots and diyas and in return pay him in kind with food for the rest of the year. When his household needed a grinding stone, the stone cutter would make one to the specified requirement and size. Itinerant Craftsmen: Some artisans like the blacksmith even today are itinerant craftsmen who move from village to village servicing the community and spending as much time as is required in each place. These crafts communities were often paid in kind with gifts of grain and food, clothing and money so that they did not have to cultivate land for food but could pursue their craft to perfection. Much of Indiaís architectural In the Town: While the artists in the village worked as a heritage, like the Ajanta family, individual artists in the towns formed guilds to protect caves, was created by artisansí guilds. their interests and to ensure the quality of their work. The guild protected the group and its occupational interests, punishing the wrong doer, negotiating prices and enforcing standards of work. The artist in the town was also paid in kind and with land grants or produce from land. In the Court: Through the ages rulers tried to attract well- known performing artists and craftsmen like sculptors to work in their court. It is the creations of such artists that provide an idea of cultures and eras gone by. Rulers understood that having brilliant architects and sculptors STONE 33 would enhance their empire in many ways. They knew that the creation of magnificent buildings, shrines and sculptures would carry the message of their grandeur to distant places and countries. This is why there are many royal records of grants and gifts to artists who excelled in their work. The artist who attached himself to the court found employment in the royal workshops and was often a privileged person, given payment for an assignment not only in kind but also in land. The Jetavanarama Sanskrit inscription (first half of the ninth century) of a Buddhist monastery records that: There shall be clever stone-cutters and skilled carpenters in the village devoted to the work of temple renewal. They allÖ shall be experts in their respective work. To each of them shall be given one-and-a-half kiri (in sowing extent) for their maintenanceÖ an enclosed piece of land. And one hena (or a plot of dry land) shall be granted to each of them for purposes of sowing fine grain. Chaitya Prayer Hall, Ajanta, Maharashtra ñ Ananda K.Coomaraswamy, The Indian Craftsman Emperor Akbarís royal diary records that payment was given to artists for their work and special awards for excellence were given on pleasing the emperor with the creation of a rare object. The practice of gathering skilled artisans in the palace workshops and homes of rich landlords continued right into the nineteenth century. In the east the princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their houses and palaces all who gain reputation for special skill in their manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations, and are so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute private orders also. ñ George C.M. Birdwood, Industrial Arts of India Tomb of Salim Chisti in Who are the patrons of stone artists today? Is there a marble commissioned by difference in how they are paid in rural areas Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra and urban centres? Is there any recognition of their work? What are the problems that craft communities face today? These are some of the questions that have to be asked to understand the health of the crafts sector in India. Growing Up as an Artist Living and growing up in a family of artists enables a young child to acquire skills and sensibilities from his/her parents and grandparents. The child growing up in a potterís home knows how to mix clay from childhood and 34 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA is sensitive and familiar with the qualities of clay, knowing, for example, by its scent whether it is dry or wet or ready for firing. The sensitivities developed through such familiarity would seem almost natural and effortless. Critics of Indian art and craft have remarked that Indian artists rarely invented or experimented with tool-making to improve their work, or to develop labour-saving devices. Tools were kept to the minimum, while the process of achieving perfection was as important as the job itself. Skills practised for over 5000 years are still in use in India. In every region of India a Today artists, whether they are stone or wood carvers, distinctive style of potters or weavers, continue to work with the technology architecture developed. Lakshmi Narayan Temple, and methods used by their forefathers. Chamba, Himachal Pradesh It appears that once a simple way of making something was developed it lasted for centuries and became the most uncomplicated way of achieving the real goal of crafts. Perhaps finding time-saving devices, effort-saving technologies was not the goal of crafts communities as is illustrated by the experience of a well-known wood carver from Kerala (see box below). He had studied with his father and has narrated how long and difficult the training was. His family made wooden masks for Krishnattam, an ancient danceñdrama of Kerala. He said that as a child he worked with his fatherñteacher who instructed him on how to carve the mask for the character of Krishna. He used simple tools, the chisel and the hammer, and different types of scrappers. His teacher kept telling him to do it again and again. This went on for seven years! Finally, one day, his teacher looked at his work and saw that his son had captured the ëidea of Krishnaí, the bhava or inner expression of the deity in his wooden mask. Through this lengthy process the son acquired not only mastery over woodcarving but was able to express deep philosophic ideas through his craft. At the turn of the nineteenth century when machines and technical training were overrunning the old system, many scholars like Coomaraswamy wrote about the loss of this parental education and the discontinuity of culture and living craft traditions. Ö for in the East there is traditionally a peculiar relation of devotion between master and pupil, and it is thought that the masterís secret, his real inward method, is best learnt by the pupil in devoted personal service, so we get a beautiful and affectionate relation between the apprentice and the master, which is impossible in the case of the busy professor who attends a class at a Technical school of a few hours a weekÖ ñ ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY, The Indian Craftsman STONE 35 Coomaraswamy believed that by living and working with the family the child acquired valuable trade secrets, an understanding of the culture and customs to which they belonged, the rituals and festivals for which their craft was required and the philosophic traditions that transformed their work into art. By attending festivals and rituals, listening to grandmothersí legends and stories, the child learnt the content of sculptures that he would make later in life. Such an education is not available in technical or art schools of today. It was this guruñshishya and parentñteacher system that led to the continuity and excellence of Indian art. Contemporary Demands In Mahabalipuram the sculptors make certain figures which they feel have a demand. They also execute orders received from various organisations, like temples. There is a preponderance of the so-called traditional iconographic forms: gods, goddesses, the elephant god Ganapathy and the whole gamut of religious figurines. The background to this is the College of Traditional Art and Architecture where traditional iconography and architecture is taught. They take on various kinds of contracts for both the local and the export market, Contemporary pillar base especially tombstones for Korea and Japan. (above) and sculpture (below), There exists now a burgeoning construction industry Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu almost all over the country. People are demanding more in terms of ëfinishí to their houses than just plain cement and concrete. They like to beautify houses with objects of art both functional and aesthetic, traditional and modern. Carved stone lends itself to both interior and exterior spaces. It can be used in construction work, objects of art, traditional and modern designs. Stone can be used in a variety of combinations with other materials. Innovation comes in when there is an active interaction between customer/designer and the craftsman. The craftsman needs to understand the requirements of the client and the customer/designer needs to understand the material, its capabilities and the capacity of the craftsman. Another important factor is cost. The craftsman would obviously like to make and sell something that can be made as cheaply as possible and sold as dearly as possible. It is important that the price worked out should be such that the craftsman gets the maximum benefit at an affordable cost to the client. A simple example would be carved pillars for a portico. A range of styles should be available from simple columns to carved ones so that they can suit the taste and budget of the client. 36 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA E XERCISE............................. 1. What are the inherent qualities of stone as compared to clay? How do such qualities determine the techniques that can be used on one material and not on the other? 2. Compare the patronage structure of the past with the present. How does this affect the objects created?† 3. Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic are different varieties of stone, each having its own properties. How does the craftsman use these properties to advantage in his craft? (Example: Granite, because of its hardness, has been used to create temples of lasting value in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu.) 4. Coomaraswamy makes a distinction between classroom learning and apprenticeship with a traditional craftsperson. Compare your practical work in the field with crafts communities with your experience of classroom teaching. Do you agree with Coomaraswamyís views?† 5. What do you think are the occupational health hazards and environmental concerns around the use of stone in crafts and buildings? 6. The boom in the construction industry, with every middle-class house boasting of marble floors and granite counters, has led to depletion of stone resources. Draft a Bill or write an article for the local newspaper keeping in mind the following: ✁ protecting forest lands from quarrying and mining ✁ protecting the rights of the craftsmen to access the stone ✁ suggesting alternative materials to replace stone in buildings.  4 METAL At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times. Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes. There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known as shanal or karnal and the ëSí-shaped curved trumpet known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths who are often attached to the temple. Wind instruments, Himachal Pradesh 38 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA The Role of the Blacksmith Metal craft is one of the most vital traditions of Himachal Pradesh. Here blacksmiths, carpenters and stone workers consider themselves a single group. While they maintain their occupational distinctions, they frequently intermarry. Carpenters and metalsmiths call themselves Dhimans and trace their origins back to Vishwakarma. Blacksmiths are the largest craft group in Himachal villages and, like all other artisans, they are largely employed as farm labour. They are also traders who sell their products. Like many crafts communities in India, their workshops are in their homes. In Himachal the blacksmiths usually work from their workshops located on the ground floor of their homes. In any village in the world, the blacksmithís importance springs from the fact that he is indispensable. The lohar (blacksmith) makes and mends the agricultural implements that are made of iron and also fashions utensils with material provided by the customers. In addition, he also makes tools for other artisans, creates icons and ornaments, and repairs damaged metal objects. His payment usually comes in the traditional way ó he receives a share of the produce. Inside the Metal Workerís Studio The wheelwright was also the blacksmith and the tinker of our locality. He and his apprentices did all sorts of odd jobs ó plumbing, carpentry, cabinet-making, forging pots and pans, overhauling carriages and carts, repairing boats and barges and a hundred other things. The things that he did not undertake Inside a metal would make a shorter list than those he did. workerís studio We could not imagine a wizardís cavern more fascinating than our wheelwrightís workshop. Its furnaces, big one and some smaller ones, were a great attraction. What interested us most about these furnaces was the intense glow the coal gave when the bellows worked. It was also engrossing to watch the red hot metal bars hammered into shape. Cascades of sparks flew as from a fountain of fire. It was like fireworks at the Diwali festival! It took our breath away to see the bullocks shod with iron hoofs and the cartwheels fitted with iron bands and then dipped into water. How the sizzling steam came out ó vapour coloured by the light of the furnaces! ñ SUDHIN N.GHOSE, And Gazelles Leaping METAL 39 Patrons of Metal Craft The patronage of the temple and royal court gave rise to highly accomplished craftspersons, one generation following Mohras are fashioned out another practising the same skill for centuries. of ashtadhatu, an alloy of As time went by, temple and rural art traditions came eight metals ó gold, silver, closer together. Innumerable bronze figurines cast by rural brass, iron, tin, mercury, metalsmiths can be seen in village shrines and in home copper and zinc. altars even today. These images appear to be timeless. For our traditional rulers, the nobility and wealthy landowners, objects made of precious metal were symbolic manifestations of power. Much of their income from taxes was converted into treasure (khazana) in the form of objects made from precious metals and jewellery. It was in workshops (karkhanas) that goldsmiths and silversmiths, whether private or public servants, practised their skills The Himachal State Handicrafts Corporation under the patronage and close supervision of their masters. has established metal craft Some of these objects were made to be presented as gifts training centres all over on special occasions such as the public assemblies (durbars) the State to impart that formed part of court ritual, while others were only training in bronze casting brought out for specific religious rituals. Still others were and all metal craft designed for everyday use. techniques. Less well off zamindars followed the example set by the court. Even the rural population, with little money at its disposal, copied the customs of their superiors. Whatever surplus earnings they had was invested by them in silver ornaments worn by women daily. These proclaimed the wearerís social and economic status like the beautifully attired women of Rajasthan. Durbar of Bahadur Shah Zafar Gold Coins, Gupta Period 40 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Did you know that... For 11,000 years human beings have been fashioning metal for their use. ♦ Ore metals are the source of most metals. First the ores are mined or quarried from beneath the earth, or dredged from lakes and rivers, then they are crushed and separated, and finally they are refined and smelted to produce metal. ♦ By 5000 BCE copper was used to make beads and pins. By 3000 BCE tin was added to copper to produce bronze, a harder metal. Iron, even harder than bronze, was widely produced by 500 BCE. ♦ The technology of how to master metals (copper, bronze, iron) developed independently in various parts of the world. ♦ By 3000 BCE, most of the gold extracting techniques used today were already known in Egypt. ♦ The concept of carats indicates the amount of gold in gold! Nowadays copper and silver are often added to gold to make it harder. The gold content in this is known as carats. ♦ More than half of the gold mined with so much labour, returns to the earthóburied in bank vaults! METAL 41 Crafting Metals Human cultures around the world have a long history of experimentation and expression using alloys like brass and bronze, and precious metals like gold and silver, and in more recent human history using iron and steel. We have created countless objects from different metals, from tiny coins to buildings, pots and pans to timeless images of gods and goddesses. Materials and Processes Other than silver, the metals used in our country for Soldering is used to join craftwork are brass, copper and bell-metal. Brass is an two parts of an article alloy of copper and zinc, bell-metal is a mixture of copper when it is manufactured and tin. in more than one piece. The shaping of an object is done either by beating the Joining together is done by ingot or sheet metal to the approximate shape with a using a metal alloy which hammer while it is hot, or by pouring the molten metal in the artisan prepares. a mould that is made of clay for ordinary ware and of wax for more delicate objects. The beating process is preferred particularly for bell-metal and copperware as it is supposed to make the object more durable. Further, tempering is done by heating the article till it is red-hot, and then dipping it in cold water. If it turns black in this process, light Commonly used hammering rectifies it. traditional metal vessels 42 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA The Lost Wax Process The lost wax process is a specific technique used for making objects of metal. In our country it is found in Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. In each region, a slightly different technique is used. 1. The lost wax process involves several different steps. First a wax model of the image is made by hand. This is made of pure beeswax that has first been melted over an open fire, and then strained through a fine cloth into a basin of cold water. Here it resolidifies immediately. It is then pressed through a pichki or pharni ó which squeezes the wax into noodle-like shape. These wax wires are then wound around to the shape of the entire image. 2. The image is now covered with a thick coating of paste, made of equal parts of clay, sand and cow-dung. Into an opening on one side, a clay pot is fixed. In this the molten metal is poured. The weight of the metal to be used is ten times that of wax. (The wax is weighed before starting the entire process.) This metal is largely scrap metal from broken pots and pans. 3. While the molten metal is poured in the clay pot, the clay-plastered model is exposed to firing. As the wax inside melts, the metal flows down the channel and takes on the shape of the wax image. The firing process is carried out almost like a religious ritual and all the steps take place in dead silence. The image is later chiselled with files to smoothen it and give it a finish. Casting a bronze image is a painstaking task and demands a high degree of skill. METAL 43 Sometimes an alloy of five metals ó gold, silver, copper, brass and lead ó is used to cast bronze images. The oldest bronze images in our country date back to Mohen-jo-daro (2500 BCE). Today metalsmiths make images with a mixture of brass, copper and lead due to a scarcity of raw materials and the tremendous cost of precious metals. 44 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA Govind Jhara, a metalsmith Making of a Bronze Image from Raigadh, sitting before In ritual items made of bronze the best is statuary which his primitive kiln, starts his represents the visible forms of the deity to be worshipped. metal casting with a little prayer: For this the Shilpa Shastraís elaborate treatise is faithfully followed. From the Rig Vedic times there have been references Ao Dai (Come, Devi, sit to two casting processes, solid and hollow, termed ëghanaí with me) and ësushiraí. While the images are countless, each is very Andhe ko chaku dani (To individualistic, and the craftsman has to learn not only the the blind give the seeing eye) physical measurements of the right proportions to make the images but also familiarise himself with the verses describing each deity, its characteristics, symbolism and above all the aesthetics. These verses are known as ëdhyanaí, which means meditation. This is to convey the need for intense concentration Chola Bronze, Tamil Nadu on these instructions. While the tradition is there to preserve the core of our heritage, obviously the craftsman is expected to do much more than merely put the limbs together; he has to endow them with the character each image has to convey from out of his own emotions, thoughts and volitions. To give guidance in modelling each of the important parts of the body, it is likened to some object from nature: eye-brows modelled after the neem leaf or a fish; nose, the sesame flower; the upper lip, a bow; chin, a mango stone; neck, the conch shell; thigh, the banana tree-trunk; knee-cap, a crab; ear; the lily, and so on. Icon-making is still a laborious and time- consuming job which requires a lot of concentration and demands a formidable array of tools, extreme skill and precision. Usually a coconut palm-leaf is used for marking out the relative measurements for the icon with marks made by folding the leaf. When the mould is broken, care is taken to see that the head of the icon is removed first as a good omen. Tamil Nadu is one of the famous bronze- casting regions. Stylistically, the images belong to different periods like Pallava, Chola, Pandyan and Nayaka and the images that are now produced belong to one or the other of these styles. The icon- makers are known as stapatis. ñ KAMALADEVI CHATTOPADHYAY, The Glory of Indian Handicrafts METAL