PS102 Psychology PDF
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Wilfrid Laurier University
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This document provides an overview of several key concepts in psychology. It covers different schools of thought, such as psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanistic, and cognitive psychology. It also touches upon research methods and the importance of statistics in psychology.
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Chapter 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis – Psychology of the Unconscious Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) believed that people’s behaviours are based on their unconscious desires and conflicts. Freud developed a form of therapy, psychoanalysis, that aimed to resolve unco...
Chapter 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis – Psychology of the Unconscious Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) believed that people’s behaviours are based on their unconscious desires and conflicts. Freud developed a form of therapy, psychoanalysis, that aimed to resolve unconscious conflicts. Behaviourism Behaviourism – Study of Observable Behaviour Psychological research should only focus on behaviour you can observe. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) proposed research findings from the study of animals could help explain human behaviour. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) found that dogs could learn to associate a bell with an automatic behaviour, such as salivating for food. This is called classical conditioning. John B. Watson (1878–1958) conducted the 'Little Albert' experiment demonstrating that children (people) could be classically conditioned. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) developed operant conditioning to shape behaviour. Operant conditioning is a mechanism of learning through which humans and animals come to perform or to avoid performing behaviours in response to the presence or absence of certain environmental stimuli. Used reinforcement to change the frequency of the expression of a behaviour. Positive reinforcement increases and negative reinforcement decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring. Social Learning Albert Bandura (1925 – 2021) described learning by social observation in children. We now know that this type of learning can be observed in several species of primates. Modern Psychological Perspectives Humanistic Psychology Humanistic Psychologists stressed that a person has a capacity for personal growth and the freedom to choose his or her destiny, and positive qualities. Our subjective perceptions of the world are unique and are more important than behaviour itself. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology - Revitalization of Study of the Mind Ulric Neisser (1928-2012) coined the term cognitive psychology as the study of information processing. The role of mental processes in how people process information, develop language, solve problems, and think. Cognitive psychologists initially compared the human mind to a computer. Psychobiology/Neuroscience Psychobiology/Neuroscience – Exploring the Origins of the Mind The study of brain structure and activity and how this relates to and controls behaviour. Karl Lashley (1890–1958) attempted to determine which areas of the brain are responsible for memory, learning, and other functions. Donald Hebb (1904-1985) developed the concept of a cell assembly. Neurons (the cells in the brain) develop networks of connections based on our experiences as we develop and interact with our environments. Subfields and Trends in Psychology Subfields Influenced by Psychobiology Behavioural genetics – the study of the influence of gene expression on the development of the brain and its control of human behaviour. Evolutionary psychology – the study of how the process of evolution has shaped our brain and expression of behaviour. Main Branches of Psychology Clinical and counselling psychology work as therapists. Academic psychologists work as professors, both teaching and doing research. Applied psychologists work in schools, marketing firms, research institutions, etc. applying psychological skills to real-life situations. Shared Values and Trends Psychology is: Theory-driven: uses theories to explain behaviour Empirical: based on research Multi-level: explained by the brain, the individual, and social influences Contextual: based on cultural context Trends: Growing diversity in the field with more women and members of minority groups Advances in Technology: Development of computers and brain imaging has led to new research in the fields of cognitive neuroscience and social neuroscience New Schools of Thought: Positive psychology and positive psychotherapy focus on happiness and other positive emotions. Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) is a term that was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2013. Chronic anxiety or apprehension that an exciting or interesting event may be occurring elsewhere. Experienced by three quarters of young adults and is exacerbated by social media. Chapter 2: Psychology as a Science How do Psychologists Make Sense of Research Results? Researchers in psychology will run analyses on data collected. Type of analyses will depend on whether the study seeks to: 1. Explore the relationship between variables ○ Descriptive research – correlation analyses indicate if there is a relationship between the variables 2. Explore the differences between variables ○ Experimental research - statistics indicate if the hypothesis has been supported or if there is a meaningful difference between the groups Correlations Describe Relationships Show how two or more things are related to each other Positive correlation - when one variable increases, the other increases (Study 1-2) Negative correlation - when one variable increases the other decreases (Study 3) No correlation (Study 4) A correlation coefficient symbol r is used to represent the strength of the relationship -1 ≤ r ≤ 1 r = -1 = perfect negative correlation r = 0 = no correlation r = 1 = perfect positive correlation Statistics symbols (i.e., “letters”) are always in italics. Correlation Does Not Reveal the Cause Correlation analyses describe how related variables are to one another but they cannot determine cause and effect E.g., Research has found a strong correlation between stress and clinical depression. This correlation does not tell us whether stress causes depression, depression causes stressful events, or other factors, such as poverty, produce both stress and depression. Experimental Analyses: Cause and Effect Descriptive statistics - describe the data Mean - average of all of the scores Standard deviation (SD) - how much the participants’ scores vary from one another Inferential statistics - help to draw conclusions about the data The p statistic is a value that tells you the likelihood that the results of the analysis are not due to chance alone. p =.01 E.g., p <.05 means there is a 95% probably that the results are not due to chance, but rather some sort of influencing variable. 5% is the typical amount of uncertainty that psychological studies accept to be 'statistically significant or not'. Post-analyses: Publishing and Building a Theory What Ethical Research Guidelines Do Psychologists Follow? Research Ethics Boards (REB) are a research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study. Every university has one and in the case of large departments such as Psychology, there are specialized REBs for studies in psychology. When a psychology involves a human/animal in any way, REBs typically require: Obtain informed consent from the participant after they know what the study involves and the risks and benefits of participating Protect participants from harm and discomfort Protect confidentiality Ensure that participation be voluntary Be cautious if methods include deception or incomplete disclosure Provide complete debriefing—revealing to participants any information that was withheld during the study Ethical Research Guidelines Psychologists Follow – Animal Research The Canadian Council on Animal Care oversees research involving animals as subjects Animals are used only if the research promises significant benefit to humans or animals Animals are used if there is no other alternative Humane methods must be used The smallest number of animals possible must be used All pain and distress must be limited Appendix B: Statistics in Psychology Importance of Statistics Psychologists use statistics to help them interpret the data they collect. Don’t be scared of statistics! In this class we will only talk about a few types of statistical analyses, when they are used, and what they tell us. Types of Statistical Analyses Common statistical analyses used in psychology: Descriptive statistics: used to describe and summarize data from studies that are often observational in natural or lab environments and case studies. Inferential statistics: used to make conclusions about data. Descriptive Methods and Limitations Naturalistic Observations Must wait for an event to happen. Observer biases. Laboratory Observations Loss of spontaneity and/or natural behaviour. Observer biases. Case Studies Genie (feral child) studied later in PS102. Limited sample size, low generalizability. Observer biases. Hawthorne effect (participants changing behavior because they know they are being tested). No Cause and Effect. Frequency Distributions Definition and Presentation A frequency distribution is an ordered presentation of data in table or graph format. Always shows: The categories that make up the scale The frequency, or number of individuals, in each category. The data can be presented in groups or individually. Frequency Distribution Tables Table B.3: Grouped Frequency Distribution for 30 Exam Scores. Table B.2: Ungrouped Frequency Distribution for 30 Exam Scores. Frequency Distributions in Graph Form Also called 'Histogram'. A bar chart showing the frequency of specific data points. All scores on X-axis from minimum thru maximum observed data values. Y-axis corresponds to frequency. Frequency Polygon A frequency polygon is similar to histograms but are typically used to graphically represent grouped frequency distributions. A mid-point (called the median) in the data is identified for each group of data and plotted in a linear manner. Central Tendency Definition and Measures Central tendency refers to describing a whole set of data with a single value that represents the middle or centre of its distribution. There are three measures of central tendency that are commonly used in statistics: Mean = average Median = mid-point when the data is listed in numerical order Mode = the single-most frequently-occurring number in the data. The three measures often converge, but not always. Each on their own can be misleading. How to Find the Mean Mean = average. Add all the values and divide by the number of values. Example: 29 + 8 + 4 + 11 + 19 = 71 ÷ 5 = 14.2. How to Find the Median Median = mid-point when the data is listed in numeric order. Arrange the numbers from least to greatest. Identify the number in the middle. This number will be the median value. How to Find the Mode Look at the data and find the number that appears most frequently. You should arrange them from least to greatest to easily see it. If there are multiple scores that each have equal frequencies, then there will be multiple modes. If there is no score that occurs most frequently (e.g., all scores occur only once), then there is no mode. Normal Distribution and Variability Normal Distribution Normal distribution refers to a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution seen in the histogram (frequency distribution) in which most scores are in the middle with smaller groups of equal size at either end. In normal distributed data sets, the mean, median, and mode are all equal. Example: ask 9 basketball players to throw 20 free throws and see how many are successful. Results of the number of successful tries for each player: 8, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 12. In this case, the results follow a normal distribution curve. The mean, median, and mode are all 10. ![Here's a concise alt text/caption for the image: Measures of Variability Statistics includes much more than measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode). For statistics to be accurate, they must also consider how variable the data is within the set being analyzed. A few measures that tell us about this variability: Range: The distance covered by the scores in a distribution from smallest value to highest value. But, it’s based on two scores, not all the data, so it is an unreliable measure of variability. Standard deviation: The most common and most important measure of variability. A measure of the standard, or average, distance from the mean. Describes whether the scores are clustered closely around the mean or are widely scattered = it is the index of how much scores vary within a group. Calculated as the square root of the variance. How to Find the Standard Deviation Find the mean of a data set. Example: 1,505 ÷ 30 = 50.1667. Subtract that mean from each score to find their deviation scores. Calculate the square of each deviation score. Find the average of all deviation scores. Standard Deviation and Normal Distribution Calculating Standard Deviation Calculate the square of each deviation score. Find the average of all deviation scores. 1,828.167 ÷ 30 = 7.81 Normal Distribution Curve How does standard deviation relate to the normal distribution curve? Remember, the bell curve is a theoretical distribution: 'the perfect data set'. 95% of the data falls within 2 SDs from the mean. 68% of the data fall within 1 SD from mean. ~4.2% of the data are 3 SDs or more from the mean. (often called 'outliers') The Wechsler IQ scores show this normal distribution of data. Measures of Association Correlation Correlation When both factors change in the same direction, there is a positive correlation. When one factor increases and the other decreases, there is a negative correlation. Often called Pearson’s correlation coefficient and is represented by the symbol r. Strength of the correlation ranges from -1 … 0 … +1. -1 is the largest negative correlation. +1 is the largest positive correlation. Scatter Diagrams for Correlations Graphically, correlations are shown in scatter diagrams. Larger magnitude Smaller magnitude Inferential Statistics Understanding Inferential Statistics So far, we have only talked looked at ways of describing data. But how do we interpret them? How do we know if they truly represent the full population? Definitions Population: The entire group to which we want to generalize our findings. Sample: A subset of the population that provides data on which inferences can be made. Sampling and Hypothesis Testing Sampling is the selection of people/participants/items from a larger population. Most common type is random sampling. Once a sample has been identified to examine, two types of hypotheses are formulated: A null hypothesis (H0) is one that predicts no differences between the groups being examined (i.e., always stated in the negative). An alternative hypothesis (H1) is one that predicts that there is a difference between the groups. Hypothesis testing: analyzing a statement or claim about a population using a sample and looking at experimental and control group differences. Hypothesis Testing Example Study on Relaxation and Anxiety Example study on relaxation and anxiety. RQ: Does learning and using a relaxation technique reduce anxiety levels? The control group thinks of relaxing things every day. The experimental (treatment) group is taught a relaxation method in the laboratory and is instructed to conduct these exercises at home every day. After 4 weeks, both groups return to the laboratory, and their anxiety levels are assessed. Null and Alternative Hypotheses The null hypothesis (H0): There are no differences in anxiety level between the two groups. The alternative hypothesis (H1): There are differences in anxiety level between the two groups. Findings and Statistical Significance Your findings show the following anxiety scores after the study. Lower scores mean lower levels of anxiety. Control group mean anxiety level = 20, SD = 5 Treatment group mean anxiety level = 18, SD = 7 Eyeballing the data shows you that one group had lower anxiety levels after 4 weeks. However, is this a reliable 'statistically significant' finding? The answer to this will depend on the variability within the data of both groups. If there is more variability (i.e., higher SD), then the findings are less reliable. Accepting Statistical Significance How much variation are we willing to accept in order to declare the findings 'statistically significant'? Typically, in psychology the significance level is.05. This means that we can tolerate only up to a 5% possibility that the results may have been due to chance (i.e., we are 95% confident that the results are due to the treatment being tested). Statistical analyses are conducted, most often by computer software, and output a p value. We must have a p value equal to or smaller than.05 (in psychology) to say that they are statistically significant. Interpreting p Values Ex: p =.46 means that there is a 46% chance that the results were due to random chance. So in psychology, if p <.05, we can reject the null hypothesis and thus, have statistical support for the alternate hypothesis. Remember: p value refers to the percent of confidence that the results are not due to chance. E.g., (p =.02, we are 98% confident that the results are not random or due to chance. Effect Size The analyses can also include the calculation of effect size, or how 'strong' are the results? The r (correlation coefficient) and Cohen’s d are both measures of effect size. Chapter 4: Developmental Psychology How Is Developmental Psychology Investigated? Research Methods Cross-Sectional Research - Compares groups of different-aged people to one another at a single point in time. Longitudinal Research - Studies the same group of individuals over multiple time points. Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Design Cross-sectional design Advantage: Quicker, easier, convenient and yields information about age differences Disadvantage: Cannot explain how a change occurs, cannot separate cohort effects from age effects Longitudinal design Advantage: Reasonably reliable information about trait stability over the lifespan, gives information about the effects of early experiences. Disadvantage: Takes a very long time, many participants drop out, cohort effects not controlled, expensive. Cohort-Sequential Design Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Designed to look at both how individuals from different age groups compare to one another and also follow them over time. Themes that Guide Developmental Research Key Themes Maturation—Unfolding development in a particular sequence and time frame. Stages—Distinct developmental phases in which organisms behave, think, or respond in a particular way that is qualitatively and/or quantitatively different from before. Critical periods—A time frame during development when an organism is extremely sensitive to environmental input, making it easier for the organism to acquire certain brain functions and behaviours. Prenatal Development and Heredity Overview of Prenatal Development Prenatal period includes the 9 months or so after conception. Genes: basic building blocks of our biological inheritance. Humans have around 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Every gene contains a specific sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA are molecules onto which genetic information is coded. DNA and genes are arranged in strands called chromosomes. In typical development, each human being has 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent). Heredity Concepts Genotype - the sum (total) of all the genes that a person inherits. If both parents contribute the same variation of the gene, the individual will be homozygous for that gene. If both parents contribute a different variation of the gene, the individual will be heterozygous for that gene. These variations are called alleles: variations of a gene that result in observable traits. These observable traits are the phenotype - the actual observed characteristics of the genes. Traits and Their Expressions Dominant Trait: A trait that is expressed in the phenotype regardless of whether the genotype is homozygous or heterozygous. Recessive Trait: A trait that is expressed in the phenotype only if the genotype is homozygous. Examples of Genetic Traits Example: The melanocortin-1-receptor (MC1R) gene is called 'the freckle gene' (a dominant trait). Example: OCA2 gene, i.e., 'The eye colour' gene (a recessive trait). Variations in the OCA2 gene reduce the amount of P protein produced, which leads to less melanin in the iris. Stages of Prenatal Development Germinal Period - Ovulation to implantation (0-2 weeks) Egg leaves ovary Fertilized in fallopian tubes (conception). Once fertilized, it is called a zygote Travels to uterus for implantation and growth Embryonic Stage - 3-8 weeks post conception. All the major organs develop during this time. Fetal Stage - 9-40 weeks. Rapid growth. Teratogens A teratogen is any substance, including some diseases, that causes damage during the prenatal period. Extent of harm done by teratogens depends on: Dose Heredity Age of fetus Fetal alcohol syndrome caused by early prenatal exposure to alcohol, FAS presents several characteristic facial features. Physical Development Brain Development Synapses – points where information is transmitted between two neurons. During first years of development, more connections are made between neurons than are needed. Synaptic Pruning – the loss of unnecessary connections between two neurons, a common event during development. ![Here's a concise alt text/caption for the image: The image shows the reduction in neuronal connections (synaptic pruning) in the brain between the ages of 4 and 6 years.] Growth Trends Cephalocaudal: growth from the top down (head grows faster than the torso and feet) Proximodistal: growth from the inside out (torso grows faster than the arms and fingers) Development of the Senses Taste, smell, and touch are highly developed at birth. Hearing is not mature, and vision is the least developed sense in a baby. Motor Development (Reflexes) Different types of reflexes develop and can be observed: Rooting Reflex - Touch the corner of the infant’s cheek. Infant turns toward the stimulation and begins to suck. Helps infant begin feeding. Grasping Reflex - Press finger against infant’s palm. Infant grasps finger and holds on. Allows infant to hold onto caregiver for safety. Moro Reflex - When infant is lying flat on a blanket, slap the blanket sharply on either side of the head to startle the infant. Infant flings arms outward and then inward in a hugging motion. May help infant to hold on to caregiver when support is lost. Babinski Reflex - Stroke sole of infant’s foot. Toes spread apart. Unknown (but its presence indicates the integration of the nervous system). Cognitive Development Overview of Cognitive Development Cognitive Development – Changes in thinking that occur over time. How babies learn: Piaget’s Theory: Focused on cognitive development (i.e., how thinking and reasoning changes through the active manipulation and exploration of the environment). Information-processing theory (next lecture). Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Piaget believed that all people have schema—mental frameworks or structures for understanding and thinking about the world around them. When children gain new knowledge, their schemes change in one of two ways: Assimilation – including new information or experiences into an existing scheme. Accommodation – schemes are altered to include new knowledge. Engaging in assimilation and accommodation helps reach a mental balance called equilibrium. Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget’s is based on 4 stages spanning 0-12+ years old: Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years of age): infants learn through our senses and our motor actions. During this period they develop object permanence - the understanding that objects exist even when they cannot be seen. E.g., playing 'peek-a-boo'. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) – when a child begins to develop ideas of objects in the external world and the ability to work with them in his or her mind. Characteristics of Preoperational Stage During the Preoperational Stage, we see several characteristics: Egocentrism – inability to take the perspective of another person (i.e., 'perspective taking'). Centration - they can only think about one thing at a time; usually they focus on the appearance of something. Irreversibility - preschoolers think changes in relationships happen in one direction only. Conservation – the understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in the object’s outward appearance (i.e., appearance versus reality) (e.g., same amount of water in two different sized glasses). Later Stages of Cognitive Development Concrete Operational Period (ages 7-12): Children develop the ability to hold an idea in their minds and mentally manipulate it. Children can talk about complex relationships, however, these discussions are limited to understanding ideas about real-world relationships. Formal Operational Stage (ages 11-12 and older): The final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory where children achieve the ability to use hypothetical deductive reasoning and abstract thought. Infancy and Childhood Information Processing Theory Piaget’s theory (last lecture) is criticized for looking at what children could not do and then using this mistakes to determine their cognitive abilities. Information Processing Theory is built around how children learn, remember, organize, and use information from their environment. Focus is on what they can do, not what they can’t or fail to do. One way of testing this is through violation-of-expectation experiments. Theory of Mind – a Critique of Piaget Piaget’s theory is also criticized for his belief that children in the preoperational (stage 2: 2-7 years) and concrete operational stages (stage 3: 7-12 years) have problems with perspective-taking. Theory of Mind is interested in children’s awareness of their own minds and the minds of others. A child is told a story: 'Maxi sees his mother bring home chocolate and put it in the upper cupboard. He then goes out to play and his mother makes the chocolate cake and places the remaining chocolate in the lower green cupboard. When Maxi comes back wanting some chocolate, where do you think he will look?' 3-4 year olds are unable to do this. 4-5 year olds are mostly able. By 6 years old, they regularly can. Sociocultural Theory of Learning in Children Russian and Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s (1896-1934) sociocultural theory is interested in how social interactions with more mature members of a culture shape the development of children. Learning occurs through a step-by-step process with assistance from older mentors such as adults: Scaffolding – developmental adjustments that adults make to give children the help that they need to move to a higher development level. Zone of proximal development – the gap between what a child could accomplish alone and what a child can accomplish with the help of others. Social And Emotional Development in Infancy and Childhood Human development isn’t just about physical and cognitive development, but it also involves social and emotional development (major themes: Temperament and attachment). Temperament: biologically based tendencies to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout lifetime. Babies and toddlers can be: Easy (40%): described as cheerful, regular in routines, such as eating and sleeping, and open to novelty. Difficult (10%): tend to be irritable and likely to have intensely negative reactions to changes or new situations. Slow-to-warm-up (15%): less active and less responsive than other babies: tend to withdraw in the face of change, but their withdrawal is not as sharply negative as those with difficult temperaments. Uniquely blended (35%): have mix of characteristics from the other categories. For example, a child might be cautious in new situations but have regular routines and be relatively cheerful. Social And Emotional Development in Infancy and Childhood Human development isn’t just about physical and cognitive development, but it also involves social and emotional development (major themes: Temperament and attachment). Temperament: biologically based tendencies to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout lifetime. Babies and toddlers can be: Easy (40%): described as cheerful, regular in routines, such as eating and sleeping, and open to novelty. Difficult (10%): tend to be irritable and likely to have intensely negative reactions to changes or new situations. Slow-to-warm-up (15%): less active and less responsive than other babies: tend to withdraw in the face of change, but their withdrawal is not as sharply negative as those with difficult temperaments. Uniquely blended (35%): have mix of characteristics from the other categories. For example, a child might be cautious in new situations but have regular routines and be relatively cheerful. Adolescence Physical Development Puberty - development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Primary sex characteristics – changes to body that occur during puberty that have to do specifically with the reproductive system. Secondary sex characteristics – changes that occur during puberty and that differ according to gender (e.g., deepening of the male voice or increase in female breast size). Adolescent growth spurt: The growth spurt of girls occurs, on average, two years before that of boys. Thus, between the ages of 10 and 14 years, the average girl is taller than most boys. Cognitive Development By mastering formal operational thinking, adolescents may tune in on flaws of other people and recognize their own as well. As a result, there may: adolescent egocentrism: adolescents think about themselves (i.e., how they look, how they act, etc.) more than children and adults. Adolescent egocentrism contains: personal fable: Adolescents have false beliefs that they are unique and invincible. imaginary audience: Adolescents often think that other people are going to be looking at them or analyzing them. Thus, they feel that they are 'on stage' most of the time and this makes them feel more self-conscious. Moral Development American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1927-1987) Stage Theory of Moral Development: expanded on Piaget’s ideas to create a method of evaluating moral and reasoning processes among children and adolescents. Kohlberg (previous slide) believed that girls did not have as many complex social opportunities as boys and as a result, were excessively concerned with the standards of others, often failing to achieve higher stages of moral reasoning. Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development (one of Kohlberg’s students, but not from 'Gilligan’s Island') Moral reasoning used by girls is different than by boys but not inferior. The reasoning of boys and girls is equally sophisticated, but the moral orientation with which they approach dilemmas is distinct. Boys base decisions about moral dilemmas on abstract moral values (e.g., justice/fairness). Girls focus more on care and the value of relationships between those involved in the dilemma. 
