Environmental Hazards and Human Health PDF

**CHAPTER 5** **ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY** **E. Environmental Hazards and Human Health** **What Major Health Hazards do We Face?** - People face health hazards from biological, chemical, physical, and cultural factors, and from the lifestyle choices they make. +------------------------------...

**CHAPTER 5** **ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY** **E. Environmental Hazards and Human Health** **What Major Health Hazards do We Face?** - People face health hazards from biological, chemical, physical, and cultural factors, and from the lifestyle choices they make. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Risk Assessment** | **Risk Management** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Hazard identification** | **Comparative risk analysis** | | | | | What is the hazard? | How does it compare with other | | | risks? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Probability of risk** | **Risk reduction** | | | | | How likely is the event? | How much should it be reduced? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Consequences of risk** | **Risk reduction strategy** | | | | | What is the likely damage? | How will the risk be reduced? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Financial commitment** | | | | | | How much money should be spent? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **We can suffer harm from five major types of hazards:** - Biological hazards from more than 1,400 pathogens that can infect humans. A pathogen is a living or- ganism that can cause disease in another organism. Examples are bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, and fungi. - Chemical hazards from harmful chemicals in air, water, soil, and food. - Physical hazards such as fire, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and storms. - Cultural hazards such as unsafe working conditions, unsafe highways, criminal assault, and poverty. - Lifestyle choices such as smoking, eating too much, drinking too much alcohol, and having unsafe sex. **What Types of Biological Hazards do We Face?** - In terms of death rates, the most serious infectious diseases are flu, AIDS, diarrheal diseases, malaria, and tuberculosis; most of these deaths occur in developing countries. - The world is now suffering from a pandemic caused by COVID19 (corona virus) **Infectious Diseases (SOLUTIONS)** Increase research on tropical diseases and vaccines Reduce poverty Decrease malnutrition Improve drinking water quality Reduce unnecessary use of antibiotics Educate people to take all of an antibiotic prescription Reduce antibiotic use to promote livestock growth Require careful hand washing Immunize children against major viral diseases Provide oral rehydration for diarrhea victims Conduct global campaign to reduce HIV/AIDS **What Types of Chemical Hazards do We Face?** - There is growing concern about chemicals that can cause birth defects and cancers and disrupt the human immune, nervous, and endocrine systems. **Mercury Pollution** ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Prevention** **Control** Phase out waste incineration Sharply reduce mercury emissions from coal-burning plants and incinerators Remove mercury from coal before it is burned Tax each unit of mercury emitted by coal-burning plants and incinerators Switch from coal to natural gas and renewable energy resources such as wind, solar cells, and hydrogen Require labels on all products containing mercury Convert coal to liquid or gaseous fuel Collect and recycle mercury-containing electric switches, relays, and dry-cell batteries Phase out use of mercury in batteries, TVs, compact fluorescent lightbulbs, and all other products unless they are recycled **How Can We Evaluate and Deal with Chemical Hazards?** - Scientists use live laboratory animals, non-animal tests, case reports of poisonings, and epidemiological studies to estimate the toxicity of chemicals, but these methods have limitations. - Many health scientists call for much greater emphasis on pollution prevention to reduce our exposure to potentially harmful chemicals. **How Can We Perceive Risks and How Can We Avoid the Worst of Them?** - We can reduce the major risks we face if we become informed, think critically about risks, and make careful choices. **Most Serious Ecological and Health Problems** **High-Risk Health Problems** Indoor air pollution Outdoor air pollution Worker exposure to industrial or farm chemicals Pollutants in drinking water Pesticide residues on food Toxic chemicals in consumer products **High-Risk Ecological Problems** Global climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Wildlife habitat alteration and destruction Species extinction and loss of biodiversity **Medium-Risk Ecological Problems** Acid deposition Pesticides Airborne toxic chemicals Toxic chemicals, nutrients, and sediment in surface waters **Low-Risk Ecological Problems** Oil spills Groundwater pollution Radioactive isotopes Acid runoff to surface waters Thermal pollution **F. Air, Water Pollution, Climate Disruption and Ozone Depletion** **Air Pollution** **What is the Nature of the Atmosphere?** - The atmosphere is structured in layers, including the troposphere, which supports life, and the stratosphere, which contains the protective ozone layer. **What are the Major Outdoor Air Pollution Problems?** - Pollutants mix in the air to form industrial smog, mostly the result of burning coal, and photochemical smog, caused by motor vehicle, industrial, and power plant emissions. **Lead Poisoning** ----------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Prevention** **Control** Phase out leaded gasoline worldwide Replace lead pipes and plumbing fixtures containing lead solder Phase out waste incineration Remove leaded paint and lead dust from older houses and apartments Ban use of lead solder Sharply reduce lead emissions from incinerators Ban use of lead in computer and TV monitors Remove lead from TV sets and computer monitors before incineration or land disposal Ban lead glazing for ceramicware used to serve food Test for lead in existing ceramicware used to serve food Ban candles with lead cores Test existing candles for lead Test blood for lead by age 1 Wash fresh fruits and vegetables **What is Acid Deposition and Why is it a Problem?** - Acid deposition is caused mainly by coal-burning power plant and motor vehicle emissions, and in some regions, threatens human health, aquatic life and ecosystems, forests, and human-built structures. **Acid Deposition** ----------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- **Prevention** **Cleanup** Reduce coal use Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes Burn low-sulfur coal Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lake Increase natural gas use Increase use of renewable energy resources Remove SO~2~ particulates and NO~x~ from smokestack gases Remove NO~x~ from motor vehicular exhaust Tax emissions of SO~2~ Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency **What are the Major Indoor Air Pollution Problems?** - The most threatening indoor air pollutants are smoke and soot from wood and coal cooking fires (a hazard found mostly in developing countries) and chemicals used in building materials and products. **Indoor Air Pollution** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- **Prevention** **Cleanup or Dilution** Clean ceiling tiles and line AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces Ban smoking or limit it to well-ventilated areas Increase intake of outside air Set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials Change air more frequently Prevent radon infiltration Circulate a building's air through rooftop greenhouses Use office machines in well-ventilated areas Use efficient venting systems for wood-burning stoves Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products Use exhaust hoods for stoves and appliances burning natural gas **Indoor Air Pollution** Test for radon and formaldehyde inside your home and take corrective measures as needed Do not buy furniture and other products containing formaldehyde Remove your shoes before entering your house to reduce inputs of dust, lead, and pesticides Test your house or workplace for asbestos fiber levels, and check for any crumbling asbestos materials if it was built before 1980 Do not store gasoline, solvents, or other volatile hazardous chemicals inside a home or attached garage If you smoke, do it outside or in a closed room vented to the outside Make sure that wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, and kerosene- and gas-burning heaters are properly installed, vented, and maintained Install carbon monoxide detectors in all sleeping areas **What are the Health Effects of Air Pollution?** - Air pollution can contribute to asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, heart attack, and stroke. **How Should We Deal with Air Pollution?** - Legal, economic, and technological tools can help to clean up air pollution, but much greater emphasis should be focused on preventing air pollution. **Stationary Source Air Pollution** ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Prevention** **Dispersion or Cleanup** Burn low-sulfur coal Disperse emissions above thermal inversion layer with tall smokestacks Remove sulfur from coal Remove pollutants after combustion Convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel Tax each unit of pollution produced Shift to less polluting energy sources **Motor Vehicle Air Pollution** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ **Prevention** **Cleanup** Use mass transit Require emission control devices Walk or bike Inspect car exhaust systems twice a year Use less polluting fuels Set strict emission standards Improve fuel efficiency Get older, polluting cars off the road Give large tax write- offs or rebates for buying low-polluting, energy efficient vehicles **Air Pollution** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Outdoor** **Indoor** Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use Reduce poverty Rely more on lower-polluting natural gas Distribute cheap and efficient cookstoves or solar cookers to poor families in developing countries Rely more on renewable energy (especially solar cells, wind, and solar-produced hydrogen) Reduce or ban indoor smoking Transfer energy efficiency, renewable energy, and pollution prevention technologies to developing countries Develop simple and cheap tests for indoor pollutants such as particulates, radon, and formaldehyde **Climate Change and Ozone Depletion** **How Might the Earth's Temperature and Climate Change in the Future?** - The overwhelming scientific consensus is that the earth's atmosphere is warming rapidly, mostly because of human activities, and that this will lead to significant climate change during this century. **What are Some Possible Effects of a Warmer Atmosphere?** - The projected rapid change in the atmosphere's temperature during this century is very likely to increase drought and flooding, shift areas where food can be grown, raise sea levels, result in intense heat waves, and cause the premature extinction of many species. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **2°C (3.6°F) Warming | **3°C (5.4°F) Warming | **4°C (7.2°F) Warming | | with 450 ppm CO~2~ | with 550 ppm CO~2~ | with 650 ppm CO~2~ | | (now unavoidable | (potentially | (potentially | | effects)** | avoidable effects)** | avoidable effects)** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Forest fires worsen | Forest fires get | Forest fires and | | | much worse | drought increase | | Prolonged droughts | | sharply | | intensify | Prolonged droughts | | | | get much worse | Water shortages | | Deserts spread | | affect almost all | | | Deserts spread more | people | | Major heat waves | | | | more common | Major heat waves | Crop yields fall | | | and deaths from heat | sharply in all | | Fewer winter deaths | increase | regions and cease in | | in higher latitudes | | some regions | | | Irrigation and | | | Conflicts over | hydropower decline | Tropical diseases | | water supplies | | spread even faster | | increase | 1.4 billion people | and further | | | suffer water | | | Modest increases in | shortages | Water wars, | | crop production in | | environmental | | temperate regions | Water wars, | refugees, terrorism, | | | environmental | and economic collapse | | Crop yields fall by | refugees, and | increase sharply | | 5--10% in tropical | terrorism increase | | | Africa | | Methane emissions | | | Malaria and several | from melting | | Coral reefs | other tropical | permafrost accelerate | | affected by bleaching | diseases spread | | | | faster and further | Ecosystems such as | | Many glaciers melt | | coral reefs, tropical | | faster and threaten | Crop pests multiply | forests, alpine and | | water supplies for up | and spread | Arctic tundra, polar | | to 100 million people | | seas, coastal | | | Crop yields fall | wetlands, and high- | | Sea levels rise | sharply in many | elevation | | enough to flood low- | areas, especially | mountaintops begin | | lying coastal areas | Africa | collapsing | | such as Bangladesh | | | | | Coral reefs | Glaciers and ice | | More people exposed | severely threatened | sheets melt faster | | to malaria | | | | | Amazon rainforest | | | | may begin collapsing | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | High risk of | Up to half of | Sea levels rise | | extinction for Arctic | Arctic tundra melts | faster and flood many | | species such as the | | low-lying cities and | | polar bear | Sea levels continue | agricultural areas | | | to rise | | | | | At least half of | | | 20--30% of plant | plant and animal | | | and animal species | species face | | | face premature | premature extinction | | | extinction | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **What Can We Do to Slow Climate Change?** - To slow the rate of global warming and climate change, we can increase energy efficiency, sharply reduce greenhouse gas emissions, rely more on renewable energy resources, and slow population growth. - Governments can subsidize energy efficiency and renewable energy use, tax greenhouse gas emissions, set up cap-and-trade emissions reduction systems, and help to slow population growth. **Global Warming** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Prevention** **Cleanup** Cut fossil fuel use (especially coal) Remove CO~2~ from smokestack and vehicle emissions Shift from coal to natural gas Store (sequester) CO~2~ by planting trees Improve energy efficiency Sequester CO~2~ deep underground (with no leaks allowed) Shift to renewable energy resources Sequester CO~2~ in soil by using no-till cultivation and taking cropland out of production Transfer energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies to developing countries Sequester CO~2~ in the deep ocean (with no leaks allowed) Reduce deforestation Repair leaky natural gas pipelines and facilities Use more sustainable agriculture and forestry Use animal feeds that reduce CH~4~ emissions from cows (belching) Limit urban sprawl Reduce poverty Slow population growth **Reducing CO~2~ Emissions** Drive a fuel-efficient car, walk, bike, carpool, and use mass transit Use energy-efficient windows Use energy-efficient appliances and lights Heavily insulate your house and seal all air leaks Reduce garbage by recycling and reusing more items Insulate your hot water heater Use compact fluorescent lightbulbs Plant trees to shade your house during summer Set your water heater no higher than 49°C (120°F) Wash laundry in warm or cold water Use a low-flow showerhead Buy products from, or invest in, companies that are trying to reduce their impact on Climate **How Have We Depleted the Ozone in the Stratosphere and What Can We Do About It?** - Widespread use of certain chemicals has reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere, which allows for more harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth's surface. - To reverse ozone depletion, we must stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals and adhere to the international treaties that ban such chemicals. **Effects of Ozone Depletion** **Human Health** Worse sunburns More eye cataracts More skin cancers Immune system suppression **Food and Forests** Reduced yields for some crops Reduced seafood supplies from reduced phytoplankton Decreased forest productivity for UV-sensitive tree species **Wildlife** Increased eye cataracts in some species Decreased populations of aquatic species sensitive to UV radiation Reduced populations of surface phytoplankton Disrupted aquatic food webs from reduced phytoplankton **Air Pollution and Materials** Increased acid deposition Increased photochemical smog Degradation of outdoor paints and plastics **Global Warming** While in troposphere, CFCs act as greenhouse gases **Reducing Exposure to UV Radiation** Stay out of the sun, especially between 10 A.M. and 3 P.M. Do not use tanning parlors or sunlamps. When in the sun, wear protective clothing and sunglasses that protect against UV-A and UV-B radiation. Be aware that overcast skies do not protect you. Do not expose yourself to the sun if you are taking antibiotics or birth control pills. When in the sun, use a sunscreen with a protection factor of at least 15. Examine your skin and scalp at least once a month for moles or warts that change in size, shape, or color and sores that keep oozing, bleeding, and crusting over. If you observe any of these signs, consult a doctor immediately **Water Pollution** **What are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution?** - Water pollution causes illness and death in humans and other species and disrupts ecosystems. - The chief sources of water pollution are agricultural activities, industrial facilities, and mining, but growth in population and resource use makes it increasingly worse. **What are the Major Water Pollution Problems in Streams and Lakes?** - While streams are extensively polluted worldwide by human activities, they can cleanse themselves of many pollutants if we do not overload them or reduce their flows. - Addition of excessive nutrients to lakes from human activities can disrupt lake ecosystems, and prevention of such pollution is more effective and less costly than cleaning it up. **What are the Major Water Pollution Problems Affecting Groundwater and Other Drinking Water Sources?** - Chemicals used in agriculture, industry, transportation, and homes can spill and leak into groundwater and make it undrinkable. - There are simple ways and complex ways to purify drinking water, but protecting it through pollution prevention is the least expensive and most effective strategy. **Groundwater Pollution** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Prevention** **Cleanup** Find substitutes for toxic chemicals Pump to surface, clean, and return to aquifer (very expensive) Keep toxic chemicals out of the environment Inject microorganisms to clean up contamination (less expensive but still costly) Install monitoring wells near landfills and underground tanks Pump nanoparticles of inorganic compounds to remove pollutants (still being developed Require leak detectors on underground tanks Ban hazardous waste disposal in landfills and injection wells Store harmful liquids in aboveground tanks with leak detection and collection systems **What are the Major Water Pollution Problems Affecting Oceans?** - The great majority of ocean pollution originates on land and includes oil and other toxic chemicals and solid wastes, which threaten aquatic species and other wildlife and disrupt marine ecosystems. - The key to protecting the oceans is to reduce the flow of pollutants from land and air and from streams emptying into these waters. **Coastal Water Pollution** -------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Prevention** **Cleanup** Reduce input of toxic pollutants Improve oil-spill cleanup capabilities Separate sewage and storm lines Use nanoparticles on sewage and oil spills to dissolve the oil or sewage (still under development) Ban dumping of wastes and sewage by ships in coastal waters Require secondary treatment of coastal sewage Ban ocean dumping of sludge and hazardous dredged material Use wetlands, solar-aquatic, or other methods to treat sewage Regulate coastal development, oil drilling, and oil shipping Require double hulls for oil tankers **How Can We Best Deal with Water Water Pollution?** - Reducing water pollution requires preventing it, working with nature to treat sewage, cutting resource use and waste, reducing poverty, and slowing population growth. **Water Pollution** Prevent groundwater contamination Reduce nonpoint runoff Reuse treated wastewater for irrigation Find substitutes for toxic pollutants Work with nature to treat sewage Practice the three R\'s of resource use (reduce, reuse, recycle) Reduce air pollution Reduce poverty Slow population growth **Reducing Water Pollution** Fertilize garden and yard plants with manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizer Minimize your use of pesticides, especially near bodies of water Prevent yard wastes from entering storm drains Do not use water fresheners in toilets Do not flush unwanted medicines down the toilet Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil, antifreeze, or other products containing harmful chemicals down the drain or onto the ground **G. Solid and Hazardous Waste** **What are Solid and Hazardous Waste, and Why are They Problems?** - Solid waste represents pollution and unnecessary waste of resources, and hazardous waste contributes to pollution, natural capital degradation, health problems, and premature deaths. **What Harmful Chemicals are in Your Home?** **Cleaning** Disinfectants Drain, toilet, and window cleaners Spot removers Septic tank cleaners **Paint Products** Paints, stains, varnishes, and lacquers Paint thinners, solvents, and strippers Wood preservatives Artist paints and inks **General** Dry-cell batteries (mercury and cadmium) Glues and cements **Gardening** Pesticides Weed killers Ant and rodent killers Flea powders **Automotive** Gasoline Used motor oil Antifreeze Battery acid Brake and transmission fluid **How Should We Deal with Solid Waste?** - A sustainable approach to solid waste is first to reduce it, then to reuse or recycle it, and finally to safely dispose of what is left. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **First Priority** | **Second Priority** | **Last Priority** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Primary Pollution | **Secondary Pollution | **Waste Management** | | and Waste | and Waste | | | Prevention** | Prevention** | Treat waste to | | | | reduce toxicity | | Change industrial | Reuse | | | process to eliminate | | | | use of harmful | | | | chemicals | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Use less of a | Repair | Incinerate waste | | harmful product | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Reduce packaging and | Recycle | Bury waste in | | materials in products | | landfills | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Make products that | Compost | Release waste into | | last longer and are | | environment for | | recyclable, reusable, | | dispersal or dilution | | or easy to repair | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Buy reusable and | | | | recyclable products | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Solid Waste** Follow the three Rs of resource use: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle Ask yourself whether you really need a particular item, and refuse packaging where possible Rent, borrow, or barter goods and services when you can, buy secondhand, and donate or sell unused items Buy things that are reusable, recyclable, or compostable, and be sure to reuse, recycle, and compost them Avoid disposables, and do not use throwaway paper and plastic plates, cups, and eating utensils, and other disposable items when reusable or refillable versions are available Use e-mail or text-messaging in place of conventional paper mail Read newspapers and magazines online Buy products in bulk or concentrated form whenever possible **Why is Reusing and Recycling Materials so Important?** - Reusing items decreases the use of matter and energy resources and reduces pollution and natural capital degradation; recycling does so to a lesser degree. **Reuse** Buy beverages in refillable glass containers instead of cans or throwaway bottles Use reusable plastic or metal lunchboxes Carry sandwiches and store food in the refrigerator in reusable containers instead of wrapping them in aluminum foil or plastic wrap Use rechargeable batteries and recycle them when their useful life is over Carry groceries and other items in a reusable basket, a canvas or string bag, or a small cart Use reusable sponges and washable cloth napkins, dish towels, and handkerchiefs instead of throwaway paper ones Buy used furniture, computers, cars, and other items instead of buying new Give away or sell items you no longer use **Recycling** ---------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------- **Advantages** **Disadvantages** Reduces air and water pollution Can cost more than burying in areas with ample landfill space Saves energy May lose money for items such as glass and some plastics Reduces mineral demand Reduces profits for landfill and incinerator owners Reduces greenhouse gas emissions Source separation is inconvenient for some people Reduces solid waste production and disposal --------------------------------------------- -- Helps protect biodiversity Can save landfill space Important part of economy **What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Burning and Burying Solid Waste?** - Technologies for burning and burying solid wastes are well developed, but burning contributes to pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, and buried wastes eventually contribute to pollution and land degradation. **Incineration** ------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Advantages** **Disadvantages** Reduces trash volume Expensive to build Less need for landfills Costs more than short-distance hauling to landfills Low water pollution Difficult to site because of citizen opposition Concentrates hazardous substances into ash for burial Some air pollution and CO~2~ emissions Sale of energy reduces cost Older or poorly managed facilities can release large amounts of air pollution Modern controls reduce air pollution Output approach that encourages waste production Some facilities recover and sell metals Can compete with recycling for burnable materials such as newspaper **Sanitary Landfills** --------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Advantages** **Disadvantages** No open burning Noise and traffic Little odor Dust Low groundwater pollution if sited properly Air pollution from toxic gases and trucks Can be built quickly Releases greenhouse gases (methane and CO~2~) unless they are collected Low operating costs Slow decomposition of wastes Can handle large amounts of waste Output approach that encourages waste production Filled land can be used for other purposes Eventually leaks and can contaminate groundwater No shortage of landfill space in many areas **How Should We Deal with Hazardous Waste?** - A sustainable approach to hazardous waste is first to produce less of it, then to reuse or recycle it, then to convert it to less hazardous materials, and finally, to safely store what is left. **Phytoremediation** -------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- **Advantages** **Disadvantages** Easy to establish Slow (can take several growing seasons) Inexpensive Effective only at depth plant roots can reach Can reduce material dumped into landfills Some toxic organic chemicals may evaporate from plant leaves Produces little air pollution compared to incineration Some plants can become toxic to animals Low energy use **Hazardous Waste** Avoid using pesticides and other hazardous chemicals, or use them in the smallest amounts possible Use less harmful substances instead of commercial chemicals for most household cleaners. For example, use vinegar to polish metals, clean surfaces, and remove stains and mildew; baking soda to clean household utensils and to deodorize and remove stains; and borax to remove stains and mildew. Do not dispose of pesticides, paints, solvents, oil, antifreeze, or other hazardous chemicals by flushing them down the toilet, pouring them down the drain, burying them, throwing them into the garbage, or dumping them down storm drains. Instead, use hazardous waste disposal services available in many cities. **How Can We Make the Transition to a More Sustainable Low-Waste Society?** - Shifting to a low-waste society requires individuals and businesses to reduce resource use and to reuse and recycle wastes at local, national, and global levels.