Motivation Slides PDF

Chapter Overvie w  Basic Motivational Concepts  Hunger  Sexual Motivation  Affiliation and Achievement DEFINING MOTIVATION  Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or...

Chapter Overvie w  Basic Motivational Concepts  Hunger  Sexual Motivation  Affiliation and Achievement DEFINING MOTIVATION  Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met (Petri, 1996).  The word itself comes from the Latin word movere, which means “to move.” Motivation is what “moves” people to do the things they do. TYPES  In extrinsic motivation, a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from the person (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Other examples would be giving a child money for every A received on a report card, offering a bonus to an employee for increased performance, or tipping a server in a restaurant for good service. The child, employee, and server are motivated to work for the external or extrinsic rewards.  In contrast, intrinsic motivation is the type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is fun, rewarding, challenging, or satisfying in some internal manner. Both outcome and level of effort can vary depending on the type of motivation Basic Motivational Concepts  Motivation: Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior  Four perspectives for understanding motivated behaviors:  Instinct theory (evolutionary perspective): Genetically predisposed behaviors  Drive-reduction theory: Responses to inner pushes  Arousal theory: Right levels of stimulation  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Priority of some needs over others Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology  Darwin  Classification of many behaviors as instincts; named but did not explain behaviors  Instinct  Fixed, unlearned pattern throughout species  Genes predispose some species-typical behavior. INSTINCTS  Early attempts to understand motivation focused on the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior called instincts that exist in both people and animals.  Just as animals are governed by their instincts to perform activities such as migrating, nest building, mating, and protecting their territory, evolutionary theorists proposed that human beings may also be governed by similar instincts ( James, 1890; McDougall, 1908) Same Motive, Different Wiring The more complex the nervous system, the more adaptable the organism. Both humans and weaverbirds satisfy their need for shelter in ways that reflect their inherited capacities. Drives and Incentives  Drive-reduction theory suggests that physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.  Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; it involves the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry.  Incentive involves a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.  Drive-reduction theory proposes just this connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior. In this theory, there are two kinds of drives.  Primary drives are those that involve survival needs of the body such as hunger and thirst,  whereas acquired (secondary) drives are those that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval, or the need of recent former smokers to have something to put in their mouths. Primary reinforcers satisfy primary drives, and secondary reinforcers satisfy acquired, or secondary, drives  This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. One could think of homeostasis as the body’s version of a thermostat— thermostats keep the temperature of a house at a constant level, and homeostasis does the same thing for the body’s functions.  When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of imbalance. This stimulates behavior that brings the body back into balance, or homeostasis. Drive-Reduction Theory  We have physiological needs.  Unmet needs create a drive.  That drive pushes us to reduce the need. LIMITATIONS  Although drive-reduction theory works well to explain the actions people take to reduce tension created by needs, it does not explain all human motivation.  Why do people eat when they are not really hungry? People don’t always seek to reduce their inner arousal either—sometimes they seek to increase it.  Bungee-jumping, parachuting as a recreation, rock climbing, and watching horror movies are all activities that increase the inner state of tension and arousal, and many people love doing these activities. Why would people do such things if they don’t reduce some need or restore homeostasis? AROUSAL THEORY  Another explanation for human motivation involves the recognition of yet another type of need, the need for stimulation. A stimulus motive is one that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation. Examples would be curiosity, playing, and exploration.  Optimum Arousal:- In arousal theory, people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension.  Task performances, for example, may suffer if the level of arousal is too high (such as severe test anxiety) or even if the level of arousal is too low (such as boredom).  For many kinds of tasks, a moderate level of arousal seems to be best. This relationship between task performance and arousal has been explained by the Yerkes-Dodson law (Teigen, 1994; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908), although Yerkes and Dodson formulated the law referring to stimulus intensity, not arousal level (Winton, 1987). Motivational Concepts  Arousal theory  Humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels.  High arousal levels motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels.  Low arousal levels motivate activities that can increase arousal—often through curiosity.  Yerkes-Dodson law: Performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. SENSATION SEEKER  Even though the average person might require a moderate level of arousal to feel content, there are some people who need less arousal and some who need more. The person who needs more arousal is called a sensation seeker (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994).  Sensation seekers seem to need more complex and varied sensory experiences than do other people. A Hierarchy of Needs  Maslow  Viewed human motives as pyramid  At the base are basic physiological needs; at the peak are the highest human needs. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs The first humanistic theory is based on the work of Abraham Maslow (1943, 1987). Maslow proposed that there are several levels of needs that a person must strive to meet before achieving the highest level of personality fulfillment. According to Maslow, self-actualization is the point that is seldom reached—at which people have satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential  These needs include both fundamental deficiency needs, such as the need for food or water, and growth needs, such as the desire for having friends or feeling good about oneself (Maslow, 1971; Maslow & Lowery, 1998).  For a person to achieve self-actualization, which is one of the highest level of growth needs, the primary, fundamental needs must first be fulfilled.  Maslow’s series of needs as a pyramid with the most basic needs for survival at the bottom and the highest needs at the top. This type of ranking is called a hierarchy.  The only need higher than self-actualization is transcendence, a search for spiritual meaning beyond one’s immediate self that Maslow added many years after his original hierarchy was formulated.  t. Times in a person’s life in which self-actualization is achieved, at least temporarily, are called peak experiences. For Maslow, the process of growth and self-actualization is the striving to make peak experiences happen again and again  Classic Motivation Theories Theory Its Big Idea Instinct theory/evolutionary psychology There is a genetic basis for unlearned, species-typical behavior (such as birds building nests or infants rooting for a nipple). Drive-reduction theory Physiological needs (such as hunger and thirst) create an aroused state that drives us to reduce the need (for example, by eating or drinking). Arousal theory Our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need (such as our yearning for stimulation and our hunger for information). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs We prioritize survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning. McClelland’s  Harvard University psychologist David C. Theory: McClelland (1961, 1987) Affiliation, proposed a theory of Power, and motivation that highlights the importance of three Achievement psychological needs not Needs typically considered by the other theories: affiliation, power, and achievement.  nAFF  According to McClelland, human beings have a psychological need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others. Called the need for affiliation (abbreviated as nAff in McClelland’s writings), people high in this need seek to be liked by others and to be held in high regard by those around them. This makes high affiliation people good team players, whereas a person high in achievement just might run over a few team members on the way to the top.   A second psychological need proposed by McClelland is the need for power (nPow).  Power is not about reaching a goal but about having control over other (left) The human body needs water , especially when a person is working hard or under stress, as this man appears to be. Thirst is a survival need of the body, making it a primary drive, according to drive- reduction theory.  Some people are driven to do strenuous, challenging activities even when there is no physical need to do so. nPOW When a drive is acquired through learning, it is called an acquired or secondary drive. Fulfilling an acquired drive provides secondary reinforcement.  People high in this need would want to have influence over others and make an impact on them. They want their ideas to be the ones that are used, regardless of whether or not their ideas will lead to success. Status and prestige are important, so these people wear expensive clothes, live in expensive houses, drive fancy cars, and dine in the best restaurants. Whereas someone who is a high achiever may not need a lot of money to validate the achievement, someone who is high in the need for power typically sees the money (and cars, houses, jewelry, and other “toys”) as the achievement. nACH  The need for achievement (nAch) involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones. People who are high in nAch look for careers and hobbies that allow others to evaluate them because these high achievers also need to have feedback about their performance in addition to the achievement of reaching the goal. Although many of these people do become wealthy, famous, and publicly successful, others fulfill their need to achieve in ways that lead only to their own personal success, not material riches—they just want the challenge. Achievement motivation appears to be strongly related to success in school, occupational success, and the quality and amount of what a person produces (Collins et al., 2004; Gillespie et al., 2002; Spangler, 1992). Personality and nAch: Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation  According to motivation and personality psychologist Carol Dweck (1999), the need for achievement is closely linked to personality factors, including a person’s view of how self (the beliefs a person holds about his or her own abilities and relationships with others) can affect the individual’s perception of the success or failure of his or her actions.  This concept is related to the much older notion of locus of control, in which people who assume that they have control over what happens in their lives are considered to be internal in locus of control, and those who feel that their lives are controlled by powerful others, luck, or fate are considered to be external in locus of control (A. P. MacDonald, 1970; Rotter, 1966).  Dweck has amassed a large body of empirical research, particularly in the field of education, to support the idea that people’s “theories” about their own selves can affect their level of achievement motivation and their willingness to keep trying to achieve success in the face of failure (Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Elliott, 1983; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988). According to this research, people can form one of two belief systems about intelligence, which in turn affects their motivation to achieve.  Those who believe intelligence is fixed and unchangeable often demonstrate an external locus of control when faced with difficulty, leading them to give up easily or avoid situations in which they might fail —often ensuring their own failure in the process (Dweck & Molden, 2008). They are prone to developing learned helplessness, the tendency to stop trying to achieve a goal because past failure has led them to believe that they cannot succeed.  Their goals involve trying to “look smart” and to outperform others (“See, at least I did better than she did”). For example, a student faced with a big exam may avoid coming to class that day, even though that might mean getting an even lower score on a makeup exam.  The other type of person believes that intelligence is changeable and can be shaped by experiences and effort in small increases, or increments. These people also tend to show an internal locus of control, both in believing that their own actions and efforts will improve their intelligence, and in taking control or increasing their efforts when faced with challenges (Dweck & Molden, 2008).  They work at developing new strategies and get involved in new tasks, with the goal of increasing their “smarts.” They are motivated to master tasks and don’t allow failure to destroy their confidence in themselves or prevent them from trying again and again, using new strategies each time. Based on this and other research, Dweck recommends that parents and teachers praise efforts and the methods that children use to make those efforts, not just successes or ability. Instead of saying, “You’re right, how smart you are,” the parent or teacher should say something such as, “You are really thinking hard,” or “That was a very clever way to think about this problem.” The Physiology of Hunger (part 1)  Humans automatically regulate caloric intake through a homeostatic system to prevent energy deficits and maintain stable body weight.  Stomach contractions  Blood sugar glucose regulation  Appetite hormones  Set point  Basal metabolic rate  One factor in hunger seems to be the insulin response that occurs after we begin to eat. Insulin and glucagon are hormones that are secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the whole body, including glucose (blood sugar).  Insulin reduces the level of glucose in the bloodstream, for example, whereas glucagon increases the level. Insulin, normally released in greater amounts after eating has begun, causes a feeling of more hunger because of the drop in blood sugar levels.  In recent years, a hormone called leptin has been identified as one of the factors that controls appetite. When released into the bloodstream, leptin signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food, reducing appetite and increasing the feeling of being full, or satiated. The Physiology of Hunger (part 2)  Glucose  The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues  Triggers the feeling of hunger when low  Hypothalamus and other brain structures  Arcuate nucleus: Pumps out appetite-suppressing hormones The Role of the Hypothalamus T  The hypothalamus itself has different areas, controlled by the levels of glucose and insulin in the body, which appear to control eating behavior.  The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) may be involved in stopping the eating response when glucose levels go up (Neary et al., 2004).  In one study, rats whose VMH areas (located toward the bottom and center of the hypothalamus) were damaged would no longer stop eating—they ate and ate until they were quite overweight (Hetherington & Ranson, 1940). However, they did not eat everything in sight. They actually got rather picky, only overeating on food that appealed to them (Ferguson & Keesey, 1975; Parkinson & Weingarten, 1990). In fact, if all the food available to them was unappealing, they did not become obese and in some cases even lost weight.  Another part of the hypothalamus, located on the side and called the lateral hypothalamus (LH), seems to influence the onset of eating when insulin levels go up (Neary et al., 2004). Damage to this area caused rats to stop eating to the point of starvation. They would eat only if force-fed and still lost weight under those conditions (Anand & Brobeck, 1951; Hoebel & Teitelbaum, 1966).  Weight Set Point and Basal Metabolic Rate Obviously, the role of the hypothalamus in eating behavior is complex. Some researchers (Leibel et al., 1995; Nisbett, 1972) believe that the hypothalamus affects the particular level of weight that the body tries to maintain, called the weight set point. Injury to the hypothalamus does raise or lower the weight set point rather dramatically, causing either drastic weight loss or weight gain.  The rate at which the body burns energy when a person is resting is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and is directly tied to the set point. If a person’s BMR decreases (as it does in adulthood and with decreased activity levels), that person’s weight set point increases if the same number of calories is consumed The Physiology of Hunger (part 3) The Physiology of Hunger (part 4) The Physiology of Hunger (part 5)  Set point: The point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.  Basal metabolic rate: The body’s resting rate of energy output The Psychology of Hunger  Body chemistry and environmental factors influence taste preferences.  Biology  Universal preferences for sweet and salty tastes  Calming effects of serotonin boost from carbohydrates Taste Preferences: Culture  Examples  Bedouins: Camel eye  Japanese: Nattó  Westerners: Rotted bodily fluid of ungulate (cheese)  Adaptive  Spicier food preferences in hotter climates  Pregnancy-related nausea and food aversion peak at 10 weeks in utero. An Acquired Taste People everywhere learn to enjoy the fatty, bitter, or spicy foods common in their culture. For these Alaska Natives (left) but not for most other North Americans, whale blubber is a tasty treat. For Peruvians (right), roasted guinea pig is similarly delicious. Situational Influences on Eating  Tempting situations  Friends and food: Presence of others amplifies natural behavior tendencies (social facilitation).  Serving size is significant: Quantity of consumed food is influenced by size of serving, dinnerware, and cultural norms.  Selections stimulate: Food variety stimulates eating.  Nudging nutrition: One research team quadrupled the carrots taken by offering schoolchildren carrots before they picked up other foods in a lunch line (Redden et al., 2015). Obesity and Weight Control  Data from 188 countries reveal:  Proportion of overweight adults increased from 29 to 37 percent among men over 33 years and from 30 to 38 percent among women  No reduced obesity rate in any country in this period  In 2010, no U.S. state had an obesity rate less than 20 percent.  Extreme obesity carries a wide range of health risks. The Physiology of Obesity  Genetics influences body weight.  Children’s weights resemble those of their biological parents.  Identical twins have similar weights even when raised apart.  Environment influences obesity.  Sleep loss contributes to a fall in leptin levels and a rise in ghrelin levels.  Social influence seen in the correlation among friends’ weights.  Increased food consumption and lower activity levels are seen worldwide. Waist Management  Begin only if you feel motivated and self-disciplined.  Exercise and get enough sleep.  Minimize exposure to tempting food cues.  Limit variety and eat healthy foods.  Reduce portion sizes.  Don’t starve all day, and eat one big meal at night.  Beware of the binge.  Before eating with others, decide how much you want to eat.  Remember that most people occasionally lapse.  Connect to a support group. Hormones and Sexual Behavior (part 1)  Testosterone  Most important male sex hormone  Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.  Estrogen sex hormones  Estradiol is secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributes to female sex characteristics.  In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. Hormones and Sexual Behavior (part 2)  Large hormonal surges or declines occur at two predictable points in the life span.  The pubertal-stage surge triggers development of sex characteristics and sexual interest.  Estrogen levels fall in later life, causing menopause in women.  A third point sometimes occurs.  For some people, surgery or drugs may cause hormonal shifts. The Sexual Response Cycle  Excitement: The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell. A woman’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge.  Plateau: Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase.  Orgasm: Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates.  Resolution: The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood. Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 1)  Sexual dysfunctions  Impair sexual arousal or functioning  Often involve sexual motivation, especially sexual energy and arousal  Males: Include erectile disorder and premature ejaculation  Females: Include female orgasmic disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 2)  Erectile disorder  Inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis  Premature ejaculation  Sexual climax that occurs before the man or his partner wishes  Female orgasmic disorder  Feeling distressed due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 3)  Paraphilias  Experiencing sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, or nonconsenting persons  People with paraphilias (mostly men) do experience sexual desire, but they direct it in unusual ways (Baur et al., 2016). Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 4)  American Psychological Association (2013)  Classifies people who experience sexual desire in unusual ways as disordered only if:  The person experiences distress from unusual sexual interest.  The interest entails harm or risk of harm to others.  Necrophilia, exhibitionism, pedophilia Sexually Transmitted Infections (part 1)  Sexually transmitted infection (STI)  Also called sexually transmitted disease (STD)  Spread primarily from person-to-person sexual contact  Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)  Is a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection  Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)  Depletes the immune system and leaves the person vulnerable to other infections Sexually Transmitted Infections (part 2)  Rates have increased in recent years, especially for people younger than 25.  CDC report: In 14- to 19-year-old U.S. females, 39.5 percent had STIs.  Condom use effectiveness varies by infection (80 percent effectiveness when used with infected partner; less effective with skin-to-skin STIs).  Significant link between oral sex and STIs  Women’s AIDS rates are increasing the most rapidly. The Psychology of Sex (part 1)  Our sophisticated brain allows us to experience sexual arousal both from what is real and from what is imagined.  External stimuli  Men are more aroused when erotic material aligns with their personal sexual interest.  Content and intensity of sexual experience arouse women.  Pornography may decrease sexual satisfaction with own partner and may change perceptions about rape and other sexual violence. The Psychology of Sex (part 2)  Imagined stimuli  Sexual desire and arousal can be imagined.  90 percent of spinal-injured men reported feeling sexual desire.  95 percent of people report having sexual fantasies.  Males: Tend to be more frequent, more physical, and less romantic Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation Teen Pregnancy (part 1)  Influences on teen pregnancy rate  Minimal communication about birth control  Guilt related to sexual activity  Alcohol use  Mass-media norms of unprotected promiscuity  Thanks to decreased sexual activity and increased protection, U.S. teen pregnancy rates are declining (CDC, 2016b; Twenge et al., 2016). Teen Pregnancy (part 2)  Characteristics of teens who delay having sex  High intelligence  Religious engagement  Father presence  Participation in service-learning program What Is Sexual Orientation?  Enduring sexual attraction toward:  Members of one’s own sex (homosexual orientation)  The other sex (heterosexual orientation)  Both sexes (bisexual orientation)  In all cultures, heterosexuality has prevailed, and bisexuality and homosexuality have endured. Sexual Orientation: The Numbers  Survey results vary by survey methods and population; less open responses are obtained in less tolerant places.  Exclusively homosexual: 3 to 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women  In a follow-up survey, 1.6 percent of women and 2.3 percent of men anonymously reported feeling “mostly” or “only” same- sex attraction (Copen et al., 2016). Sexual Orientation (part 1)  Today’s psychologists view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen nor willfully changed.  In 2016, Malta became the first European country to outlaw the controversial practice of “conversion therapy,” which aims to change people’s gender identities or sexual orientations.  Sexual orientation is especially persistent for men. Women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and, for some women, is more fluid and changing (Dickson et al., 2013; Norris et al., 2015). Origins of Sexual Orientation 1. Is homosexuality linked with a child’s problematic relationships with parents, such as with a domineering mother and an ineffectual father or a possessive mother and a hostile father? 2. Does homosexuality involve a fear or hatred of people of the other sex, leading individuals to direct their desires toward members of their own sex? 3. Is sexual orientation linked with sex hormone levels currently in the blood? 4. As children, were most homosexuals molested, seduced, or otherwise sexually victimized by an adult homosexual? Sexual Orientation (part 2)  Gay-straight brain differences  One hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men.  Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as straight women’s hypothalamus does to the smell of sex-related hormones.  Genetic influences  Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins.  Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated.  Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family. Sexual Orientation: Prenatal Influences  Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals.  Men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly due to a maternal immune system reaction.  The consistency of the brain, genetic, and prenatal findings has swung the pendulum toward a biological explanation of sexual orientation. Gay-Straight Trait Differences Gay-straight trait differences Sexual orientation is part of a package of traits. Studies—some in need of replication—indicate that homosexuals and heterosexuals differ in the following biological and behavioral traits: spatial abilities fingerprint ridge counts auditory system development handedness occupational preferences relative finger lengths gender nonconformity age of onset of puberty in males face structure and birth size/weight sleep length physical aggression walking style On average (the evidence is strongest for males), results for gays and lesbians fall between those of straight men and straight women. Three biological influences—brain, genetic, and prenatal—may contribute to these differences. Brain differences One hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men. Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as does straight women’s to the smell of men’s sex-related hormones. Genetic influences Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins. Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated. Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family. Prenatal influences Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals. Men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly due to a maternal immune-system reaction. Spatial Abilities and Sexual Orientation Sex and Human Relationships  Research does not seek to define the personal meaning of sex.  The benefits of commitment—of “vow power”—apply regardless of sexual orientation. Gay and straight couples experience almost identical stability in their relationships if they have married or entered into a civil union—and almost identical instability if they have not (Rosenfeld, 2014). The Benefits of Belonging  Social bonds and cooperation enhanced early ancestors’ survivability.  Combat was more successful.  Reproduction was strengthened.  Foes were avoided.  Having a social identity—feeling part of a group— boosts people’s health and well-being (Allen et al., 2015; Greenaway et al., 2015, 2016). Affiliation and Achievement: The Need to Belong  Humans are still innately social beings.  The need to belong affects thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.  Feelings of love activate the brain reward and safety systems  Social isolation increases the risk for mental decline and poor health.  Affiliation need: The need to build relationships and to feel a part of a group The Pain of Being Shut Out  Being socially excluded (ostracism) threatens the need to belong.  Real pain is experienced in social isolation.  Increased activity in anterior cingulate cortex is activated (pain response area).  Acetaminophen lessens social as well as physical pain.  Across cultures, social pain is felt with the same earmarks as physical pain.  Social exclusion may interfere with empathy for others, increase aggression, or raise the risk for self-defeating behavior or underperformance. The Need to Belong  Pain of being shut out  Worldwide, many forms of ostracism are used.  Brain scans reveal that ostracism causes physical pain.  Social isolation and rejection foster depressed moods or emotional numbness and can trigger aggression.  Risk for mental decline and ill health may also occur.  Ostracism breeds disagreeableness, which leads to further ostracism (Hales et al., 2016). Connecting and Social Networking  Mobile phones: In 2016, 95 percent of the world’s 7.5 billion people lived in an area covered by a mobile-cellular network (ITU, 2016).  Texts: The typical U.S. teen with a cell phone sends 30 texts a day (Lenhart, 2015). Half of 18- to 29-year-olds with a smart phone check it multiple times per hour and “can’t imagine... life without [it]” (Newport, 2015; Saad, 2015).  The internet: Worldwide, 68 percent of adults used the internet in 2015 (Poushter, 2016).  Social networking: Among 2014’s entering U.S. college students, 94 percent were using social networking sites (Eagan et al., 2014). The Net Result: Social Effects of Social Networking  More or less socially isolated?  Healthy self-disclosure?  Accurate personality reflections in profiles and posts?  Promotion of narcissism? What do you think? Let’s compare your response to the information in your text. Maintaining Balance and Focus  Monitor your time.  Monitor your feelings.  “Hide” from your most distracting online friends.  When studying, get in the habit of checking your phone and e-mail less often.  Refocus by taking a nature walk. Achievement Motivation  Achievement motivation: A desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard  Achievements are not distributed like a bell curve and involve much more than raw ability.  Grit matters. In psychology, it involves passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals. Research-Based Strategies for Achieving Goals  Do make that resolution.  Announce the goal to friends or family.  Develop an implementation plan.  Monitor and record progress.  Create a supportive environment.  Transform the hard-to-do behavior into a must-do habit.  Be persistent.