MOS 3383 FINAL Lecture Notes PDF

**[Lecture 4: Work Analysis, KSAOs, & Job Design ]** **CHAPTER 5: The Analysis & Design of Work** **Definitions** - **Contingent employees:** hired for a limited, fixed term such as a short-term contract or a project consulting contract - **KSAOs:** knowledge, skills, abilities, and othe...

**[Lecture 4: Work Analysis, KSAOs, & Job Design ]** **CHAPTER 5: The Analysis & Design of Work** **Definitions** - **Contingent employees:** hired for a limited, fixed term such as a short-term contract or a project consulting contract - **KSAOs:** knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics used to describe the attributes worker need to carry out their work effectively - **Knowledge:** generally something a person learns from a book - **Skills:** something an employee can learn how to do - **Abilities:** relatively innate talent or aptitude - **Other characteristics:** refers to personality traits such as extraversion or integrity - **Subject matter experts (SMEs):** people who provide information about a job; typically, a job incumbent who performs the job as well as supervisors - **Tasks:** elements of a job analysis that are typically used to describe the job itself; an action verb followed by an object and are clarified in terms of how the work is performed - **Job (job classification):** a grouping of related duties, tasks, and behaviours performed by one or more individuals, namely jobholders; a group of related duties within an organization - **Positions:** refers to the number of individuals who are performing the duties, tasks and behaviours required by a specific job - **Job Specification:** identifying the competencies the jobholder must possess to be successful in the job; focus on the characteristics of an employee who does the job; general requirements for an employee doing the job, including the KSAOs and any physical or emotional requirements - **Competency modelling:** goals are to understand what types of attributes and behaviours are required for a group of jobs, perhaps over an entire organization - **Work analysis (work-flow analysis):** over time, an employee may need to perform a variety of evolving jobs within an organization; organization-level focus on work within the organization and within organizational units - **Job analysis:** the analysis of subdivided work in the organization, both at the level of the individual job and for the entire flow of the production process - Analysis of work and the employee characteristics needed to perform the work is called job analysis - Important for establishing the minimum qualifications required; used for recruitment, needed to understanding human requirements, necessary for good succession planning and developing the most effective training and development programs - Form the basis for all other HR functions, including recruitment, selection, promotion and succession planning, performance management, training and development, and pay and rewards - Results in a very detailed document that allows a person who is unfamiliar with the job to get a good idea of what the job involves in terms of tasks and required KSAOs - Lends itself to the creation of a job description - **Job description:** duties and responsibilities; provide the title and purpose of the job, as well as a general overview of the essential tasks, duties, and responsibilities - Can't force an employee to do a task outside their job description - Used to develop recruitment and job posting material - Shared with job applicants to provide a preview - Provided to new and existing employees to share expectations - Keep up to date by: - Updating descriptions annually - Reviewing and employees' job descriptions during annual performance appraisal **Compensable Factors** - Knowledge and Skills (E.g. education, experience, skills) - Effort (E.g. Commissioned salespeople, waitstaff) \*EXAM\* - Responsibility - Span of control - Who are you responsible for - What are you responsible for - The more you are responsible for = the more pay you receive - Working Conditions (E.g. night shift vs. day shift, outside vs. inside, remote community vs. dense urban center) **Process of Job Analysis** 1. Determine the job or process to be analyzed - Might use benchmarking (comparing with external organizations) - **Benchmark:** measurement of the quality of an organization practice in comparison with those of a peer organization 2. Determine how (methods) to use - Issues - [Cost] -- limiting productivity - [Time] -- can take massive amounts of time to complete - [Validity] -- The job analysis questionnaire must fit with a job to be valid; will it measure what you think it will measure, is it defendable - [Reliability] -- if two people ask the same question will we get the same answer - [Acceptance] -- under best practice HR should tell employees that job analysis is taking place and have them agree to the methodology 3. Collect information - Key info: - [KSA] -- knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to be successful in the job - [Behaviours] -- behaviours during the job, observed by two people - [Duties] -- certain tasks to be done in a certain order or certain person of time - [Tasks] -- what they do - [Responsibility] -- who they are responsible for - [Working conditions] -- conditions of work - [Observation] - Direct (shadowing) or indirect (video) - May be necessary to observe people doing the work to see how they use equipment - [Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)] - Interviewing - Most common method for collecting job analysis data - Job analysts might discuss job tasks they perform, KSAOs needed, and critical job situations they might face - [Questionnaires/surveys] -- generate all possible questions, job analysts customize their questionnaire - Provides a representative sample for large organizations where there may be variations in the way the work is done across the organization - [Journals/diaries] -- outlining tasks and jobs completed, work-related, can't ask employees to complete outside work hours, requires employees to remember tasks they've done - [Output and production] -- how many times have you screwed up - [Interviews (360^o^)] -- must have someone above and below you and peers in the corporate hierarchy - Ask = Why is this job done? - [Critical Incidents Technique] -- any incident to happens within the organization that is unusual or unexpected and it's important that it happened - **The critical incidents technique** involves asking SMEs to describe important situations they frequently encounter on the job - SMEs are then asked to generate examples of good and poor responses to these critical incidents - May be used on its own or in conjunction with other job analysis methods - Provides rich information about frequently occurring, important work situations - Includes both positive and negative performance by employees, and it includes what has happened on the job - Valuable information for developing job-related interview questions for hiring employees, developing training content, and developing performance management systems - [Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)] - easier done with physical jobs, not cognitive jobs, behaviours that are associated with numbers, 1-5 ranking, how much do you agree - BARS = divide the job into key dimensions - Numerically rate actions quantitative - [Competency modelling] - Involves understanding what KSAOs are needed for doing a job and how these KSAOs-or competencies manifested on the job in terms of behaviours - Comprehensive nature of competency models - Broad enough that they can describe a range of jobs within an organization and do so across multiple levels of the organization - Beneficial to organizations wanting to understand similarities and differences across jobs - Beneficial for career development - Can show competencies needed at all job levels - Help both organizations and employees see what competencies an employee may need to develop to advance their careers - Allow organizations to capture their goals and values and disseminate them across the organization - Often directly related to organizational strategies - Often consider future job requirements - [Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)] - "off-the-shelf" job analysis survey consisting of 195 generic statements describing wheat characteristics a worker needs to possess - Job analysts might interview SMEs about their jobs, complete the PAQ survey based on the interview, and then have the PAQ data scored online - A substantial database, such as a detailed report can be generated about the job, giving recommendations for what types of selection procedure might be used for a job with this profile or when the pay should be relative to other jobs - Advantages: far less labour intensive and thus less expensive than the task KLSAO analysis, generic items and rich database allow for comparison across job types - Drawbacks: does not provide rich detail as other job analysis methods, items are written at a high reading, it cannot simply be given to SMEs to complete, but it must be completed by a job analyst who has been trained in its use - (e.g., how a worker obtains information) - Break down by what you want to investigate - [KSAO Analysis] - Focussed on carefully defining the tasks that make up the job, as well as the KSAOs needed to do those tasks - Develop an initial list of tasks and KSAOs - Job analyst determines a list of tasks that make up the job as the KSAOs that are needed to complete them - **Cognitive task analysis** focuses on mental tasks that may not be observable by others but could be described by an SME - Document the criticality of tasks and KSAOs - Job analyst asks SMEs to document tasks and KSAOs critical to performing the job - **Criticality survey:** a larger group of SMEs rate each task and KSAO in terms of how critical or essential it is - Demonstrate that the KSAOs are linked to critical tasks - The final list of KSAOs is reviewed by the SMEs to document that the KSAOs on the list are needed to do the critical job tasks - **Linkage survey:** possible to document that KSAOs are needed for important tasks for larger groups of SMEs - A good method to use when trying to understand job details such as when developing job-specific technical training or when developing content-valid selection procedures - [Functional Job Analysis] -- each job should serve functions, - Rate tasks done - Focus on people, data, and things (incl. the environment) - [Functional Job Analysis (O\*NET)] - A handy source of job analysis data about a range of occupations - Can provide a useful start to the job analysis process - Important to also remember that O\*NET provides a useful job analysis framework in itself - KEY = subject matter experts (SMEs) - people who do the jobs being analyzed \*\*\*If Step 3 suggests improvement... 4. Define and formalize new methods and performance standards for the job - Consider how jobs can be designed/redesigned to better fit with human needs - Important for reducing boredom and improving employee motivation and performance - not all employees will do well with enriched or enlarged hobs - Some employees may prefer not to take on additional responsibilities, while others may not perform well with such responsibilities - **Job design:** how jobs are experienced by workers, regardless of the objective characteristics of the work; designing/redesigning jobs based on how workers perceive and experience their work (eg. stressful, boring, meaningful): it can affect worker motivation, job attributes, and job performance - **Job enlargement:** addition of more responsibilities to a job so it is less boring and more motivating for workers; might include adding some challenges that can make the job more interesting or allow workers to gain more skills - **Job enrichment:** allowing workers to have greater decision-making power; important for reducing boredom and improving employee motivation and performance - **Job rotation:** rotating employees from one job to another, not only making their work less boring but also allowing them to learn new skills 5. Maintain New Methods and Performance Standards - Maintaining - Through Communication and training -- make sure employees who have new jobs and roles have substantial training to be successful - Through Supervisory reinforcement -- make sure supervisors and management agree with any changes - Through Employee feedback -- ask how employees like changes, and likely be more willing to cooperate in the future - Through reward systems -- modify to align with tasks **Problems with Job Analysis** 1. Costly! -- ensure the cost is worth it 2. Takes time -- from preparation 3. May not be updated enough 4. Results in vague job descriptions 5. Problems with Job Analysis 6. Contamination. -- (e.g. too many critical incidences that are blown out of proportion) - Extra "stuff" added 7. Problems with Job Analysis 8. \*EXAM\* Deficiency -- e.g. Missing tasks that you want people to do, giving people rights to say no to those tasks - Missing "stuff" **Job crafting:** workers themselves may redesign their jobs to fit their needs and personalities, provided they stay within the guidelines of the organization - This can lead to significant improvements in worker morale and performance - Employees may decide to job craft as they learn more efficient ways to do their jobs, or late-career employees may adapt their jobs to fit their changing needs - The willingness and ability of workers to craft their jobs is associated with the personality characteristics of proactivity - Job crafting requires an active role on the part of workers - This leads to more proactive and engaged employees, benefits the organization as well **Flexible work arrangements** - Many organizations offer flexible work arrangements to workers, intending to help them to balance work and life needs. - **Flexitime:** workers can choose from several work schedules - **Remote work:** The employee is not physically at an office or other location but instead works a substantial amount of time away from the office, allows workers to better manage their nonwork lives and saves commuting time - The drawback of remote work is that it can be hard to manage relationships at work, including the value of working face-to-face with collaborators for making real-time, data-based decisions - Not universally beneficial for all types of work, it benefits certain groups of employees **Job Design Models** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hackman & Oldham's Job | - First complete model of job | | Characteristics Model** | design | | | | | | - Proposes enhancing | | | characteristics of the job | | | leads to improved | | | psychological states | | | | | | - Specifically: | | | | | | - Skill variety (applying a | | | range of skills on the | | | job), task identity | | | (completing a complete | | | piece of work on the | | | jobs), and task | | | significance (doing work | | | that is important) leads | | | to experienced | | | meaningfulness of work | | | | | | - Autonomy (freedom in how | | | the work gets done) leads | | | to experienced | | | responsibility | | | | | | - Feedback (the degree to | | | which the job gives | | | feedback about | | | performance) leads to | | | knowledge of results | | | | | | - Three psychological states | | | (meaningfulness, | | | responsibility, and knowledge | | | of results) lead to improved | | | outcomes such as higher | | | motivation and better | | | performance | +===================================+===================================+ | **Job demands-control model | - Focusses on understanding how | | (JDC)** | workers experiences might | | | affect outcomes such as | | | stress | | | | | | - Emphasizes that employees' | | | experiences stress when there | | | are high job demands and | | | little control over their job | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Job Demands-Resources Model | - Emphasizes that job demands, | | (JDR)** | such as workload and time | | | pressure, can be counteracted | | | by characteristics such as | | | job control, participation, | | | and supervisor support | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Morgenson & Humphrey's | - Considers the dimensions from | | Comprehensive Job Design Model** | previous job design models | | | | | | - Includes 18 types of job | | | characteristics falling into | | | four broad categories: | | | | | | - Task characteristics | | | | | | - Knowledgeable | | | characteristics | | | | | | - Social characteristics | | | | | | - Work content (includes | | | physical aspects of the | | | job) | | | | | | - Proposes there are a number | | | of job characteristics that | | | may be seen as "levers" | | | available to organizational | | | decisions makers who want to | | | enhance workers' jobs to | | | increase motivation, | | | satisfaction, and performance | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[Lecture 5: Recruitment]** **CHAPTER 6: Workforce Planning & Recruitment** **Definitions** - **Labour market conditions:** the number of jobs available compared to the number of individuals available with the required KSAOs to do those jobs - **Workforce labour shortages:** labour market conditions in which there are more jobs available than workers to fill them - **Workforce labour surplus (slack):** labour market conditions in which there is more available labour than the organization needs - **Talent analysis:** actively gathering data to determine potential gaps or the difference between an organization's talent demand and its available talent supply - **Talent pool:** group of individuals (employees or potential applicants) who possess the KSAOs to fill a particular role **Workplace planning:** the process of determining what work needs to be done in both the short and the long term and coming up with a strategy regarding how those positions will be filled - Helps eliminate surprises, smooth out business cycles, identify problems early, prevent problems, and take advantage of opportunities - Workforce planning and recruitment process steps - **Forecast:** refers to the act of determining estimates regarding what specific positions need to be filled and how to fill them - Analysis includes understanding internal and external talent supply and demand, labour costs, company growth rates, and revenue - Set recruitment goals - Set recruitment-specific goals that are aligned with the organization's strategic plans - The overarching goal is to identify and attract qualified applicants while avoiding problems associated with labour shortages or surpluses - Develop the recruitment process - Implement the recruitment process - Evaluate the recruitment process **Succession planning & leadership development** - **Succession planning:** refers to the active forecasting of leadership needs and the strategies for filling them over time - Involves both the identification and training of individuals who might serve as replacements for top leaders - **Leadership development:** the formal and informal opportunities for employees to expand their KSAOs - Both recruitment and retention are tied to whether potential employees and existing employees perceive that there are developmental opportunities in the form of training and promotion - **Replacement planning:** identify a minimal plan of individuals to take over top leadership roles over time - **Succession management:** refers to identifying and developing successors at all levels of the organization **Recruitment:** a process of identifying and working to attract individuals interested in and capable of filling identified organizational roles - A set of activities an organization uses to attract job candidates who have the abilities and attitudes needed to help the organization achieve its objectives - Improves innovation, firm performance, and organizational culture - Quantity and quality matter - **Recruitment strategy:** formalization of the recruitment process at a given organization - Includes recruitment objectives, strategy development, and recruitment activities, which may influence any of these factors - Objectives might include the number of qualifications and characteristics of applicants, the time frame for recruitment, and how effective recruitment will be determined - Recruitment activities include which methods will be used, what information about the job will be conveyed, and the details of the strategy developed in the previous step - **Recruitment needs:** results of the workforce planning process I terms of what KSAOs are needed within the organization as well as when they will be needed - **Placement:** two aspects of strategy development - Where do we need the talent to be placed? Where in the organization are employees needed? - Where will they be found? Will these be internal or external hires? Is the talent pool sufficient, or do steps need to be taken to develop the necessary talent? - Starts with a need to fill a position - **Automatic need:** need to fill this position now, usually urgently filled - **Forecast-based need:** forecasting a need for extra labour during the Christmas rush, tends to be less urgently filled - **Hiring managers: a** person who asked for the role to be filled and/or whom the new hire will be reporting to as their manager **Stages of recruitment** - **Recruitment funnel: The** number of participants gets smaller the further down the funnel the applicant goes - **Generating applicants** determines the talent pool that will be considered for positions within an organization - **Quantity:** enough applicants during the first stage of the recruitment process - Important for several reasons; including that the effectiveness of the selection process depends upon having a large enough talent pool that has the skills needed to do the job and meets other strategic needs such as diversity and succession planning - **Quality:** relates to applicants having the requisite skills needed as well as representing a diverse pool of applicants - **Realistic job preview (RJP):** offers applicants a realistic, and sometimes unappealing, view of the actual job - Realistic enough that once they begin the job, they will not be disappointed and quit - Crucial for reducing turnover rates - **Recruitment sources:** how to reach potential applicants is both a strategic and financial decision; divided into two main categories - **Passive recruitment:** a strategy where employers attract potential candidates without actively soliciting them - Instead of directly reaching out to applicants, organizations create an environment that encourages candidates to express interest - **Active recruitment:** proactive approach of seeking out and engaging potential candidates for job openings - Involves directly reaching out to individuals who may not be actively looking for a job but possess the skills and qualifications the organization needs **Recruiting Plan:** 1. **Internal or External Recruiting** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Advantages** | **Drawbacks** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Internal** | - Boosts employee | - Suspicious if | | | morale and | company has | | | motivation | always hired | | | | internally then | | | - Organization | suddenly switches | | | knows the person, | to externally | | | retain company | | | | information | - Limited pool of | | | | candidates | | | - Person knows the | | | | company | - Potential for | | | | internal politics | | | - Cheaper | ad bias | | | recruiting costs | | | | \~ done via job | - May lead to | | | postings and job | stagnation in | | | bidding | ideas and | | | | innovation | | | - Comparatively | | | | faster | - Risk of creating | | | recruitment | a homogenous | | | process | workplace | | | | | | | - Reduced | - Possible | | | onboarding time | resentment from | | | | unsuccessful | | | - Support employees | internal | | | career | candidates | | | development | | | | | | | | - Easier to | | | | evaluate | | | | candidates | | | | | | | | - Higher retention | | | | rates | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **External** | - Fresh perspective | - Longer | | | and new ideas | recruitment | | | | process | | | - Opportunity to | | | | diversify the | - Higher costs | | | workplace and | (advertising, | | | meet new people | recruitment fees) | | | | | | | - Meeting | - Longer adjustment | | | employment equity | period for new | | | Criteria | hires | | | | | | | - Fill skills gaps | - May disrupt team | | | not internally | dynamics or | | | available | culture | | | | | | | - Access to larger | - Uncertainty about | | | talent pool | the culture | | | | | | | - Potential to | | | | attract higher | | | | level talent | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Additional Recruiting Info** - Methods of External Recruiting - Media advertisements - Television - Radio - Newspapers or professional journals - More applicants when ad: - Is creative - Uses illustrations - Displays logo - Point-of-purchase ads - Notice of vacancy at location - "Now hiring\..." - e.g., restaurants, stores, etc. - **Applicants respond using 1 of 4 methods:** 1. **Telephone the company** - Quick screening of applicants - Able to hear the applicant's voice - Applicant should be prepared to answer questions 2. **Apply in person** - Avoids the telephone - Complete job application - Chance to see the applicant - Applicant should have a resume and be prepared for an interview 3. **Apply to the company through the mail** - Send resume and cover letter (could be through e-mail) 4. **Blind box mailings** - Mailboxes - Used when a company does not want to release the name - Send resume and cover letter - Might be a scam! - Employment agencies (private or public) - Executive search firms ("Headhunters") - Fee from the organization and not the applicant - Other Methods of External Recruiting: - Internships -- gives students a sample and a connection with the company - College/University recruiting/job fairs -- makes connections - Unions -- advertisements for other positions within the same union - Trade Organizations -- can blue-collar/white collar 2. **Ads or word-of-mouth** - Research suggests word-of-mouth better than job ads, why? - Four possible explanations: - Differential knowledge hypothesis - Informal information provides more info about what the job is like - More info than is typically given in a job ad - Type of realistic job preview - Different applicant population hypothesis - Informal recruits are different from formal recruits (are \"screened\" by their peers) - a.k.a. differential recruitment source - Employee similarity - Referrals similar to the employee - Similarity bias -- likely won't increase diversity - Socialization theory - Friend will help the applicant adjust to the job - Increases chance individual will stay with the company - Employees tend to stay longer - Informal mentorship **Final Recruitment Plan Issues:** 3. **Geographical Scope** - Breadth of plan - Legality -- hiring outside of Canada then must be able to prove that the non-Canadian has better skills than the Canadian - Must keep detailed records of all applicants and KSAOs - Hard to quantify Os - "other skills and abilities" 4. **Self or agency** **Recruiting for diversity** - Gender diversity - Racial diversity - Age diversity - Veterans - Differently abled individuals **Evaluating effectiveness** 1. Don't start with the measure 2. Don't rely on benchmarking (**benchmarking:** matching what others do) 3. Don't expect measurement alone to fix problems 4. Focus on the strategic impact of the workforce 5. Measure both levels and relationships between workforce measures **[Lecture 8: Applicant Screening & Interviews]** **CHAPTER 7: Selection & Procedures** **Linear Assumption:** higher test scores result in better job performance - Criterion cut off - Min. level to distinguish successful from unsuccessful individuals - Ideal if the criterion cut-off is.50 - Best for predictor if not everyone is doing well (100%) or all are doing poorly (0%) - Determining cut-off scores - If too high: then there is an increased chance of false negatives - If too low: then there is an increased chance of false positives - Top-down selection **Three Selection Strategies** 1. Multiple regression - 2 or more predictors - Predictors are weighted - 2 assumptions: - 1\) Linear relationship between predictors and criterion - 2\) Scoring very high on one predictor compensates for lower scores on other predictors (limitation) 2. Multiple cut-offs - Need a minimum amount of all abilities - Need to pass all tests taken at once 3. Multiple hurdles - Need to pass various predictors over time - The group gets smaller after each hurdle - Must meet the qualification at each stage to move on **Interviews** - The most popular & most frequently used screening method - Two main types of selection interviews: - **Structured:** interviewer asks all job applicants the same, job-related questions - **Situational interview:** job applicants are asked what they would do in a hypothetical work-related situation - More appropriate when job applicants have little work experience and cannot answer behavioural interview questions - Measure cognitive ability and job knowledge - **Behavioural interview:** applicants are asked how they handled a work-related situation in the past - Measures personality variables and job experience - **Unstructured:** interviewer has a conversation with the job applicant +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Structured** | **Unstructured** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Ask everyone the same | - Opportunity to have a casual | | questions in the same order | conversation with a job | | | applicant | | - Easy to score | | | | - Sell the applicant on the job | | - Scripted | | | | - Give applicant a realistic | | - Doesn't matter who is doing | job preview | | the interview | | | | - Make an impression regarding | | - Good predictive validity in | the specific job and | | making hiring decisions | organization | | | | | - May be the most valid | - Opportunity for applicants to | | selection procedure available | ask questions about the | | | organization, the job, and | | | coworkers to see if job is a | | | good fit | | | | | | - Good way to assess | | | interpersonal skills and some | | | personality traits | | | | | | - Measure different | | | characteristics than | | | structured interviews | | | | | | - No consistent set of | | | questions for each applicant | | | | | | - Different applicants are | | | likely to receive different | | | questions | | | | | | - Questions may not be job | | | related | | | | | | - Relatively low validity in | | | terms of predicting job | | | performance | | | | | | - Hard to compare applicant | | | responses | | | | | | - Risk of unfair treatment or | | | biases | | | | | | - Based on more qualitative | | | | | | - Poor prediction for job | | | success | | | | | | - Tendency to hire like | | | individuals | | | | | | - Goes off script | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Differences in the number of participants** - (Typically) One applicant and one interviewer - Multiple interviewers, 1 applicant, multiple interviews (pool decision) - Panel of interviewers, 1 applicant, 1 interview, and pool decision **Quality of Selection Measures** - **Psychometrics:** estimate the quality of the measures used in personnel selection - Possible to examine how consistent or dependable a section procedure is (reliability) and how accurately its use results in predicting actual job performance - **Reliability:** consistency of measurement - **Validity:** how accurately the test measures something or predicts job performance - **Content validity:** how accurately an approach to test development focused on sampling a domain such as the job - **Criterion-related validity** shows an empirical relationship between a test and measures of job performance, using either a sample of current employees or job applicants - **Predictive validity:** administering the test to job applicants and then seeing how well the test correlates with their later job performance scores - **Concurrent validity:** involves administering the test of current employees and showing that their test scores are correlated with their current job performance - **Construct validity** involves the demonstration that a test measures a particular construct of interest, such as mechanical ability - **Validity generalization: the** assumption that selection procedures have been validated for similar roles in similar organizations can be assumed to be valid for new situations - **Unity:** the degree to which selection procedures are worth the time and money to carry out \*EXAM\* given scenario asked what type of reliability is being tested - **Intra-interviewer reliability:** the interviewer gives consistent impressions about the same applicant across different interviews - Consistency within the same person over time - Order can impact, might rate not knowing what will come next - High intra-interviewer reliability, computer survey that ranks based on selections - Problems with one individual being consistent over time because of sleep, hunger, boredom, mood, etc. - Allows some degree of flexibility without sacrificing reliability - **Inter-interviewer reliability:** agreement among interviewers about the same applicant - Consistency between people **Methods to Reduce Biases** - Structured interviews (standardize questions and how answers are scored) - Train interviewers - Blind decision-makers - The interviewer collects info. and another person interprets the info to decide - Limit the type of information gathered at the interview (e.g., historical info. From the application form and not the interview) - Use situational interviews - Resume/application is stripped of any identifying information - Situational Interview - Ask applicants what they would do in a situation which might occur during the job **Factors Influencing Interview Outcomes** - Applicant\'s qualifications - Including knowledge, the applicant has about the company - Stereotypes of the ideal candidate - Negative information is perceived as being more important - May result in increased dishonesty by applicants - Temporal placement of information \[recency and primacy effects\] - Info at the start and end most important - e.g., most interviewers have made their decision about a candidate in the first 5 minutes! - Contrast effects - Order of applicants - Judge applicant considering the previous applicant - Halo effects - Both negative and positive effects - (Positive/negative characteristics influence the rest of the interview) - Poor intuitive ability - "Gut reactions" of interviewer - Individuals are not good at predicting another person's behavior - Lack of job-relatedness - Questions asked in interviews may not apply to the job - e.g., "Why should I hire you?" - Interviewer-interviewee similarity - More similarity = higher positive ratings - Factors include attitudes, sex, religion, etc. - Interviewee appearance - In general, conservative dress = higher ratings - If job is sex-neutral, typically attractive people are rated more positively - BUT the effect may differ on who and what type of job - e.g., attractive females rated positively for non-managerial jobs - BUT less attractive females rated more positively for managerial jobs - Non-verbal cues - Higher interview scores when: - Make eye contact - Smile - Engage in active/participative listening - Shake hands **7 steps in creating situational interviews** 1. Collect critical incidents (from job analysis) a. What happened up to the event b. What happened after the event 2. Rewrite incidents into situations 3. Make situations into questions c. What would you do in this situation 4. Generate possible answers d. Worst answers (not hiring), best answers (hiring) e. Needs a high level of agreement 5. Rate possible answers (appropriateness) 6. Create a scoring key for answers (benchmark answers) \*EXAM\* 2 exam questions on BARS (behavioural anchored rating scale) vs BOS (behavioural observation scales -- singular dimensions) 7. Conduct a validation study (did answers predict job performance???) **Personality Tests** - Relatively easy, quick, and inexpensive to administer - Generally lower adverse impact than other selection tests - **Five-Factor Model (FFM):** personality typology which found that personality is related to several work performance dimensions - O - openness to experience - A person's willingness to learn new things - Found to be related to employees' performance in training programs - C -- consciousness - Traits such as dependability and achievement orientation - Found to relate to job performance across most jobs - E -- extraversion - Traits such as sociability - Related to jobs such as sales and management - A -- agreeableness - Degree to which a person is kind, sensitive, and pays attention to other people's feelings - N -- neuroticism - Opposite is emotional stability - Relates to anxiety and worry **Integrity Tests** - Used to screen out applicants who are at risk of exhibiting negate behaviours on the job - The number of analyses that integrity test is that integrity tests correlate with negative work behaviours such as violence and theft - Two main types of integrity tests: - **Personality-based integrity tests:** more subtle in their working, such that the correct answer may not be obvious to test-takers - Considered to be a function of conscientiousness, neuroticism, and agreeableness, plus H-H - **Overt integrity tests:** in contrast, ask the test taker to give their opinions about negative at work, whether such behaviours are acceptable, and whether they have engaged in these behaviours themselves **Cognitive Ability Test:** an assessment of the ability to "perceive, process, evaluate, compare, create, understand, manipulate, or generally think about the information and ideas - Providing high utility with strong validity and relatively low cost - Prone to lead to disparate impact with the means score of certain groups - Diversity and the possibility of legal challenges - Tests of general cognitive ability, help workers gain important job skills both during training and on the job - **Wonderlic Personnel Test** - 50-item, 12-minute test - Includes items such as math reasoning and verbal tasks - **Emotional Intelligence (EI):** one's ability to recognize and appraise emotions in oneself and others and behave accordingly - Some researchers describe EI as a cognitive ability that is focused on social skills - Do not predict job performance over and above traditional tests like personality and cognitive ability **Physical Ability Tests** - Used for hiring people for physically demanding jobs such as police - Generally, two approaches: - Standard work sample test, which samples the physical requirements - Physical ability test, which determines the various types of strength required for the job **Work Samples, Situational Judgement Tests (SJTs), and Assessment Centers** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Work Samples** | **Situational | **Assessment | | | Judgement Tests | Centers** | | | (SJTs)** | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - Sample or example | - Referred to as | - Developed to | | of the work | low-fidelity | assess management | | produced by an | simulations | skills | | applicant | | | | | - Capture some of | - Typically carried | | - Hiring manager | the realism of | out over a series | | decides to meet | work sample tests | of days at a | | with each | | remote site | | applicant and | - Easier to use | provided by an | | give them a short | with large | organization | | task to see how | numbers of | | | well they do | applicants | - Also, can be an | | | | in-basket or | | - SMEs evaluate the | - Presents the | in-box where the | | task completed | applicant with a | candidate is | | | scenario and then | asked to respond | | - Good validity | asks them to | to a series of | | | choose a series | emails | | - Applicants like | of alternatives | | | work samples, | | - Generally | | seem fair | | evaluated by at | | | | least two raters | | - Relatively more | | | | expensive | | - Good content | | | | validity, good | | - Typically used at | | for training and | | the end of a | | development | | series of hurdles | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Definitions** - **Biodata:** as a predictor of job performance, with the assumption that past behaviours are the best predictor of future behaviours **[Lecture 9: Performance Management]** **CHAPTER 9: Performance Management** \*EXAM\* (who is performance management for managers & employees) **Performance management:** the process of measuring, communicating, and managing employee performance in the workplace so that performance is aligned with organizational strategy - Involves obtaining some form of measurement of employee performance, or performance appraisal - May take a number of different forms - Involve giving feedback to employees regarding where they stand - Important to motivate employees, ensure that their behaviours are aligned with the organization's goals, and address performance gaps **Objectives of Performance Management** - Giving employee feedback - Communicate standing - Annually, semi-annually, quarterly - dependent on employee status - One-on-one meetings -- increase openness to discuss weaknesses - Improvement is not guaranteed - Identify strengths and deficiencies - If you only focus on deficiencies, you likely increase workplace oppression - Bring something positive - Performance ratings - How have employees done based on other people's assessments - Ideally more than one source of information - Decision making - Make certain decisions using the performance metrics available to them - Basis for many HR decisions, including pay raises, distribution of bonuses and other financial awards, promotions and layoffs - Data analytics - The ability of a firm to harness power comes from the availability of data on critical outcomes of interest - Potential to produce data that can be predicted and managed using data analytic tools - Legal purposes - Metrics that are objective, accurate, and regularly collected are useful in defending organizations against costly lawsuits - Several non-perishable decisions they may make, such as any of the protected grounds to make decisions about employees - Providing records and documentation of the employee's performance over time and regularly conducted, objective, and systematic performance reviews will be helpful in making the organization's case **Challenges in Performance Management** - Performance appraisals as a measurement tool - Measured objectively through the design of appropriate instruments - If the right tools are designed, performance ratings will be objective and accurate - Performance ratings as motivated action - May be competing motives, such as the desire to preserve a relationship or send a signal - Can be made a political tool - Not actively solely owned by HR, it is important to consider contexts in which ratings take place and ensure the organization has a strong culture of feedback - Effective only if feedback is accepted **Characteristics of effective performance appraisal systems** - Strategic alignment - Aligned with corporate strategy - Motivate employees to demonstrate behaviours and actions that are consistent with the strategic direction of the organization - Don't always need to be a cheerleader, but you can't walk around complaining - **Organizational cheerleader:** only positive regarding organizational changes, even if they aren't likely to succeed - Perceived fairness - Usefulness depends on the degree to which it is perceived as fair - If employees don't perceive the system and their rating as fair, they are unlikely to be motivated to improve - **Adequate notice:** the idea that employees should be evaluated using criteria and standards that were clearly communicated to the employee in advance - Must give notice of what will be happening - Give employees time to prepare - **Fair hearing:** involves a formal review meeting explaining to the employee why and how a particular rating was given - **Judgement based on evidence:** the principle that performance standards are administered consistently across all employees, and the ratings are, to the degree possible, free from personal biases and prejudice - Accuracy - Difficult measure - Often impossible to know whether the performance ratings of managers are accurate, given that true cores are not known - Accurate measurement is a good goal to strive towards - Inaccurate measures are likely perceived as unfair - May be affected by unconscious bias - Practicality - When the users of the system find it time-consuming and burdensome, they are more likely to regard it as paperwork pushed to them by HR and motivation will be lowered - Valid for the position that is in question - **Organizational citizenship:** people go above and beyond their position because they feel like they are helping make their organization a better place - Problem is it draws away from the practicalities of position **Design features of performance management systems** - Decisions: define "performance", criteria, rating system, source of information - Top management determines - This can be detrimental because they aren't aware of what lower positions do or how they feel - People's evaluations of your performance **Determining the purposes and desired outcome** - **Developmental purposes:** primarily interested in providing employees with periodical, formal feedback on their performances - Use reviews to provide feedback - Use feedback to create goals for employees - **Administrative purposes:** used to make decisions in the organization, such as assigning merit pay and bonuses, or determining which employees will be sent to remedial training and which will never be promoted - Don't want to have pay discussed during performance appraisal - Keep performance appraisal info for pay discussion later - Rating inflation may happen if they occur at the same time - **Defining performance** - Trait Appraisals - Focus on measuring employees' different attributes, such as dependability, helpfulness, and product knowledge - Simple and cost-effective - Associated with a greater number of rater errors and suffer more from lack of accuracy in ratings relative to behavioural appraisals - Vague and open to interpretation by the rater - Describes a person not behaviours leading to a higher chance of negative reactions to rating - Behavioral Appraisals - Assess the frequency and quality with which employees demonstrate specific behaviours at work - Useful for feedback purposes - Behaviours are observable and typically under the control of the employee - Appropriate when employees have expected certain behaviours - Results-Based Appraisals - May be beyond the person's control - Define performance in terms of job outcomes - Objective and naturally occurring outcomes of performance at work - Measurement does not rely on one person rating another - Less subjective than other appraisal methods - Less likely to result in charges of favoritism and subjectivity - Goal setting - Extension of results-based performance is to engage in goal setting - Useful for feedback purposes - Behaviours are observable and are typically under the control of the employee - Plays a key role in management by objectives (MBO) - **Key performance indicators (KPIs):** measurable business metrics that are aligned with a company's strategy - Translated into individual-level goals for employees as discussed between the employee and manager - SMART goals are the greatest motivational goals - Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Reasonable, Time-bound - An effective way of measuring and managing performance - Electronic monitoring - Using technology to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to an employee's job performance - Creating a surveillance culture where employees feel their every move is recorded and managed **Rating methods** - **Absolute ratings:** comparing employee behaviours or outcomes to performance criteria - Comparison of the employee's performance to predetermined criteria - Treat each performance score within a workgroup as independent of other employees' scores - All employees can technically be rated as exceptional or need improvement - The rater gathers data about each employee's performance, compares performance to agreed-upon criteria, and then rates each employee \*EXAM\* (know the difference between the BARS and BOS and what they both entail, BOS always has more questions) - Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) and Behavioural Observation Scale (BOS) - Can use BOS information to create a BARS - **Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)** - Scale points represent actions - e.g., job knowledge -- awareness of laws/rules - High score = fully aware of rules/laws - Low score = misinforms others about rules/laws - Incidents are ranked on a scale - E.g. How much do you know about the laws/rules in the company - E.g. What do you know u can do legally vs. what you can't do - **Behavioural Observation Scale (BOS)** - Also based on critical incidents - Longer than BARS - Rate employees on the frequency of actions - Incidents are individual items - Frequency of each item - Example\... - Knows the price of competitive products - 1 = never - 2 = seldom - 3 = sometimes - 4 = generally - 5 = always - **Relative rankings:** involves comparison of each employee's performance to that of coworkers - Forces the rater to differentiate among followers - Using ranking may yield results that are more useful for decision-making purposes such as distributing bonuses, increasing pay according to merit and making promotions - **Straight rankings:** involves having the rater rank-order all employees from best to worst - E.g. Who's your best employee, who's the second best, etc. - Can't do this in a large organization - Doesn't work with a large span of control - Maybe a cumbersome process - **Paired comparisons:** involves creating rankings by comparing two employees at a time until every unique pair of employees has been compared and then compiling the results - Takes two people and compares them - Takes forever in large organizations, mentally taxing on rater - Basically, duel to see who is better in each - **Forced distribution:** involves the rater placing a specific percentage of employees under the exceptional adequate, and poor performer categories - Rankings are inconsistent with norms of cooperation - Employee performance doesn't typically follow a normal distribution, irregular - Managers and employees dislike these systems, given the necessity to differentiate between employees even when differences in performance are not large enough to be meaningful - **Qualitative Assessment** - Rely on qualitative assessment or describing the area of strengths and limitations for feedback purposes without assigning a numerical rating to each employee - **Critical incident method:** managers identify examples of exceptionally high and low incidents of performances and document them in narrative form - Diary helps keep notes of when people excel or mess up - Hard to defend - Typically done when a company is starting up - Managers comments on employee performance often converge with manager ratings and provide additional useful data **Source of performance information** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Managers** | - Naturally involves in | | | performance management | | | | | | - Most knowledgeable source in | | | the assessment of employee | | | performance, and they are in | | | a position to collect more | | | information if needed | | | | | | - May provide higher-quality | | | data to the performance | | | assessment compared to other | | | sources | | | | | | - May know little about the | | | employee's performance | | | | | | - Nature of relationship with | | | employee can affect rating | | | and interactions during | | | performance review | +===================================+===================================+ | **Coworkers** | - Ability to rate certain | | | aspects of performance more | | | effectively | | | | | | - Could increase perceived | | | fairness of ratings | | | | | | - Potential to show bias due to | | | liking | | | | | | - Best to have at least 3 | | | coworkers provide ratings | | | | | | - Reviews should be in a form | | | that preserves anonymity | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Direct Reports** | - Relevant and important source | | | of information | | | | | | - Provide useful and actionable | | | information and help the | | | manager develop leadership | | | skills | | | | | | - Anonymity is essential to | | | maintain quality of | | | subordinate feedback | | | | | | - Feedback provided by | | | subordinates shows more | | | evidence of a leniency bias | | | as a result of likin compared | | | to assessments managers for | | | their employers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Customers** | - Unique perspective to | | | performance measurement | | | | | | - Internal customers are uses | | | of an employee's output | | | within the same firm | | | | | | - External customer are outside | | | an organization | | | | | | - Relevant and often is one of | | | the more important indictors | | | of performances | | | | | | - Signals to customers their | | | opinions matter, may | | | contribute to organizational | | | reputation and customer | | | relationships | | | | | | - O uninterested in giving | | | feedback unless they have | | | complaints | | | | | | - Little accountability and | | | motivation to provide fair | | | feedback, along with little | | | training | | | | | | - Ratings may suffer from bias | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Self-Assessment** | - May capture intentions in | | | addition to actual behaviours | | | and outcomes observable to | | | others | | | | | | - Rating inflation is more | | | likely to occur if the | | | information will be used for | | | decision making purposes | | | | | | - Leniency of appraisals is | | | reduced when appraisals would | | | be verified through other | | | methods | | | | | | - Most useful for developmental | | | purposes, as a way of getting | | | employees to think about | | | their strengths and | | | weaknesses and to have | | | two-way dialogue during | | | performance-related | | | conversations, coaching | | | sessions, ad performance | | | review meetings | | | | | | - Ensures employee is part of | | | the conversation, chance to | | | highlight their greatest | | | contributions, and learns | | | what their manager sees as | | | their greatest strengths | | | | | | - More useful if the criteria | | | used for performance | | | assessment are clear, | | | objective, and unambiguous | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **360-Degree Feedback** | - Performance is evaluated for | | | multiple perspective all | | | around the focal person | | | | | | - Each provide information that | | | is not necessarily captured | | | by the other, providing new | | | perspectives | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Team Appraisals** | - Better to have an independent | | | team | | | | | | - Done at a team level, average | | | rating | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Performance reviews and compensation** - Risk that mangers won't remember how employees were performing at the beginning of the review period - Needs to be coupled with frequent check ins and coaching meetings between employees and managers to make sure that performance is actually managed - **Focal date reviews:** performance reviews take place on the same date for all employees - Easier for the organization to allocate its bonus or merit pay budget - All reviews take place within the same short time period, resulting in a significant time investment for each manager supervising multiple employees - **Anniversary review:** employee is rated on the anniversary of their staff start date in the organization - Generally used if evaluations are not tied to compensation - Allows reviews to be spread out so the performance review period does not become a significant burden on employees and managers **Factors leading to rating errors** \*EXAM\* - Impression management - Behaviours individuals demonstrate to portray a specific image - Particularly effective in positively influencing performance ratings are supervisor-focused tactics - Stereotypes & bias -- depending on the prejudices or stereotypes held by the rater - Liking -- liking or favorable attitudes toward the ratee leading to benefit of the doubt - Rater motivation -- how motivated the rate is to provide an accurate evaluation +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Leniency Error** | - The tendency of a rater to | | | rate most employees highly | | | | | | - Hard time making an extreme | | | decision | +===================================+===================================+ | **Severity Error** | - The tendency to rate most | | | employees close to the lower | | | end of the scale | | | | | | - Either completely agree, or | | | completely disagree | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Central Tendency Error** | - The tendency to rate almost | | | all employees in the middle | | | category | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Halo Effect** | - Basing performance ratings on | | | one or two performance | | | dimensions, with one | | | prominent dimension | | | positively affecting how the | | | employee us perceived on | | | other dimensions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Horns Effect** | - The opposite of halo effect; | | | ratings on one dimension | | | negatively influence how the | | | employee ius perceived on | | | other dimensions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Recency Effect** | - Rater will focus on the most | | | recent employee behaviours | | | they have observed rather | | | than focusing on the entire | | | rating period | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Improving the effectiveness of performance management** - Training managers and employees - **The frame of Reference (FOR):** having raters observe specific instances of performance through videotapes or vignettes and then telling them the true score - Want diversity in raters and rating system - Rating awareness training - Ensures all raters have a standard - Reduces errors and increases accuracy - Increasing rater accountability - Three primary means to increase rate accountability: - Manager's effectiveness in giving feedback and conducting appraisals may be a performance dimension in their evaluations - Managers' supervisors may have to sign off on the appraisals, introducing accountability to a higher-level manager - Utilize calibration meetings - **Calibration meetings:** groups of managers come together and discuss the rating they will give their employees before ratings are finalized - Ratings are dependent on managers' communication and negotiation abilities - Rater accountability improves ratees reactions to performance appraisals - Having raters keep records of employee performance - **Diary keeping:** keeping records of employee performance, this method has been shown to improve rating accuracy by enabling raters to recall specific information about their employee - Managers may find it cumbersome - Allows managers to remember and recognize important milestones and provide feedback-rich detail - Auditing the System - It might reveal if raters are serious about evaluations, whether employees are satisfied with the quality of the feedback, and if they feel their efforts are fairly rewarded and recognized - Uncover address problems (e.g., rater errors) - If one person is rating everyone the same and different as other raters, address the potential for rating errors - Measure improvements by conducting another audit - Teaching managers how to be good coaches and build trust - Trust-based relationship between the manager and employee is essential to positive outcomes in relation to performance management - Focus on coaching performance improvements - Trust provides context - Feedback Delivery Best Practices - Recognize contributions - Conduct regular one-on-one meetings - Be a role model for feedback - Focus on actual behaviours, not personality - Use the start-stop-continue model (what employees should s-s-c doing) - Developing a feedback culture - **Feedback culture:** employees and managers feel comfortable giving and receiving feedback - Comfortable giving feedback - Comfortable receiving feedback - Real-time feedback -- diary keeping/critical incidences, make sure it's relevant and up to date - Must understand why you are doing it, what you are covering - HR employees meet to discuss what they are going to tell employees - Establishing Performance Improvement Plans (PIP) - Keep poor performers accountable and give them a chance to improve - Use SMART goals to make it clear whether the struggling employee meets expectations - Concludes when the employee's performance improves and reaches the established goals - If performance does not improve actions to transfer or terminate must be taken - Poor performers are given a fair chance, increasing perception of fairness - Similar to project management - Ghantt charts -- provide realistic goal timelines - Discuss with the employee: do u think this is a realistic amount of time to improve to whatever level, must be reasonable **[Lecture 10: Training]** **CHAPTER 8: Training, Development & Careers** **Reinforcement:** indirect or direct feedback from the job performance **Practice:** increase familiarity with the task **Repetitive practice:** ideal for motor skills (massed practice) **Distributive Practice:** repeat aspects of a job (learn a bit at a time); better for more complex jobs **Anderson\'s (1985) Three Phases of Skill Acquisition** - Declarative Knowledge - Known facts by memorizing or reasoning - Slow performance - Error-prone - General intelligence (g) important to master - Knowledge Compilation - Integrate cognitive and motor processes - Streamline behaviour - Perceptual speed important to master - Procedural Knowledge - Skill is automatic - Able to do skill and other tasks - Psychomotor ability important to master (coordination) **Training Strategies** - Speed Strategy - Competitive edge from reduced time for products/services - Train in teamwork and streamline methods - Innovation Strategy - Develop products or services different from the competition - Train to think creatively - Quality-Enhancement Strategy - Offer better product or service - Cost-Reduction Strategy - Provide a cheaper product or service **Needs assessment:** systematic evaluation of the organization, the jobs, and the employees to determine where training is most needed and what type of training is needed - Three Steps: +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Organizational | **Task Analysis** | **Person Analysis** | | Analysis** | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - Goals, | - KSAOs and tasks | - Asses current | | strategies, | of the focal job | KSAOs and | | objectives, | | competencies of | | culture | - Competencies | employees | | | | | | - Resources | - Critical | - Develop training | | | incidents | goals | | - External | employees face on | | | environment | the job | - Consider employee | | | | characteristics | | | | (e.g., | | | | demographics, | | | | motivation, | | | | education) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ - Organizational Analysis - Can new behaviour be learned and transferred to on-the-job behaviour - Steps for understanding the organization at a broader level: - Understanding the company goals & strategies so the goals of the training program are aligned with them - Understanding the organization's culture, including the attitudes toward training among managers and employees - Identifying the resources the organization can devote to training - Analyzing the organization's external environment - Task Analysis - Determine training objective - 4 Steps: - Develop Task Statements - What do workers do? - How does the worker do their job? - To whom or what does the worker work with? - Why do the workers do what they do? - Develop Task Clusters - Group tasks into similar groups - Prepare knowledge, skill, and ability analysis (KSAs) - **Knowledge:** needed info. to do the job - **Skills:** psychomotor abilities - **Abilities:** cognitive capabilities - Develop Training Programs for the KSA Task Links - Train KSAs - Person Analysis - Who needs training? - What kind of training is needed? - Information from: - Performance appraisal scores - Surveys of employees - Interviews with employees - Skill and knowledge test scores - Critical incidents on the job **Trainee Characteristics** - Trainee characteristics may affect the success of a training program: - **Self-efficacy:** A person\'s belief that they can accomplish a task is one of the most important predictors of training effectiveness - **Trainee motivation** - Goal-setting theory states that setting specific, difficult yet achievable goals for people will lead to the highest performance - Performance can be further enhanced by adding rewards and providing feedback as to how well the person is achieving their goals - **Metacognitive skills:** a person\'s ability to step back and assess their performance - Some people are better at assessing their performance than others, and this ability can have a serious effect on whether they learn - Personality and cognitive ability can affect a person's learning **Training Delivery Characteristics** - Providing feedback to learners as to their training performance can greatly enhance the effectiveness of training - Training relevance: the degree to which trainees see the training as important to their jobs - Can have a significant impact on the amount of effort they invest in the training - **Schema:** outline or framework to help learners organize the training material so they will better retain the material - Providing trainees with a learning schema at the beginning of the training process can also enhance learning - **Overlearning:** occurs when trainees repeatedly practice a particular behaviour in the training situation so they can perform the behaviour automatically without much cognitive effort - Takes additional resources (time of trainer & trainees) - Should not be used except under special circumstances - **Massed learning:** training occurs in one large chunk - Chosen by many large organizations, less expensive for large groups - **Spaced learning:** training occurs through several sessions - Generally, more effective, allows learners to absorb the material, build self-efficacy incrementally, and even practice the newly learned skill on the job **Transfer** - **Training transfer:** whether the training results in changes in performance on the job - Create increased knowledge among employees, but if performance is not affected the training is not creating value for the organization - **Training transfer climate:** whether there is support for training within an organization - **Identical elements:** the training environment is similar to that of the work environment, increases likelihood of transfer - **Transfer through principles:** when transfer is enhanced by training employees on principles behind the content being taught - **Behavioural tracking:** trainees keep track of their on-the-job behaviours and whether they are performing the behaviours they learned in training **Methods of Training** - On-Site Training - On The Job Training - a.k.a. coaching - Instructors are senior workers - Imitate behaviour - Maximum transfer of training (same content and location) - Easy to administer - Brief and poorly structured - Vestibule Training - Typical for production lines - Equipment is near the actual line - Workers practice at the same pace - Only a few can be trained at once - Job Rotation - Used for blue- and white-collar jobs - Can move people to cover absences - Typical method in early career - People may not want to rotate - Apprentice Training - The new worker works under a journeyman (experienced worker) - At the end apprentice becomes a journeyman - Expensive method (1:1 ratio) - Fixed length of apprentice time - Off-Site Training - Lectures - An expert group speaks to a group of workers to explain and impart knowledge - A large \# of people taught at the same time - One-way communication, little feedback - Audiovisual Material - The initial cost is expensive but can then be used repeatedly - Allows for a visual demonstration - Can be used to provide feedback (worker can be taped) - Conferences - Focus on discussion - Depends on the verbal abilities of the leader and group - Programmed Instruction - Based on work by B.F. Skinner - Operant conditioning (shaping) - "Teaching machine\" or instructional manual - Participants determine their own pace - Information learned is broken into small steps - Feedback on each step - Material in an organized sequence - Time-consuming - Limited to structured behaviour - Computer-Assisted Instruction - Individual instruction - Reduces the need for an instructor - No travelling required - Costly - Simulation - Train in a model of work sit - e.g., pilots - Role Playing - ¾ used to enhance human relations skills or sales techniques - ¾ groups with discussion - ¾ can demonstrate other people\'s perspective - E-learning - Delivered through an online platform via computers or mobile devices, is growing exponentially as an industry that provides training to organizations - Offers specific training through a variety of modules - Offers flexibility - **Behavioural Modeling Training:** trainee observing a person performing a behaviour, practicing it, and then receiving feedback about their own performance **Management Development** - Three Issues: - Cultural diversity - Two approaches: - **Colour blind:** ignore differences - **Embrace differences:** educate and adjust to