Agricultural Extension 2A Study Material PDF

Diploma in Agriculture Agricultural Extension 2A AGT 260 S NQF LEVEL: 6 Lecturer: Mr A. Ngqulana CHAPTER THREE STUDY MATERIAL Module 3: Group dynamics and Leadership Introduction Social capital in the form of groups is used in communities worldwide, especially in rural areas...

Diploma in Agriculture Agricultural Extension 2A AGT 260 S NQF LEVEL: 6 Lecturer: Mr A. Ngqulana CHAPTER THREE STUDY MATERIAL Module 3: Group dynamics and Leadership Introduction Social capital in the form of groups is used in communities worldwide, especially in rural areas, as safety nets to cope with risks and for mutual assistance. Traditionally, communities formed groups according to extended family, kinship, funeral associations and resource-sharing relationships. These groupings were not formalized but high levels of trust and mutual cooperation characterized them. Rural communities interact within and across social levels and hierarchies but in general, people are grouped according to gender, wealth and age. 1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF FARMER GROUPS Farmers have been working in groups ever since farming started, varying from cooperation in harvesting and threshing, joint storage of produce and collaborative grazing and management of animals. Farmer Groups are valuable as a form of collective action to farmers, providing resources such as credit, labour and information. Farmer Groups can have different functions ranging from a production focus (management of resources, marketing) to consumption orientation (inputs and credit). Experience has shown that the most effective groups are those initiated by community members themselves and built upon local concepts of social organization. A group approach fulfils a number of conditions, which are essential in fostering genuine partnerships. An FG approach generally has the following structure and characteristics: ✓ An organizational structure with links both horizontally (between groups) and vertically (with higher level farmer organizations), respecting customs and traditions and based on the voluntary right of association. ✓ Representing farmers and providing services to members. ✓ An organization that has its own funds and adequate, competent staff (at higher levels). Within farmer/agricultural groupings, one will find the following sub-categories: Given our focus on agricultural development through farmer groups, we focus on FGs for research and development. The commonly found groups within the R&D arena of the smallholder producer are: research groups extension groups research and extension groups service acquisition groups (credit, marketing, seed) and production groups. Although the input acquisition groups, including savings and credit, are becoming important as a result to the prevalent economic changes, most of the well-established groups focus on either research or extension and in some cases on both research and extension. These three types of groups are discussed below: 1.1 Farmer research groups (FRG) A FRG is a group of farmers who together identify topics for research, conduct field tests, experimentation and evaluation together with specialists from research and extension institutions. The cornerstones of FRGs are participation, communication and group composition. The formation of groups varies from country to country. The advantages of FRGs are: ✓ Stimulates discussion, highlights areas of conflict requiring more details. ✓ Creates interest in, and commitment to collaborative research. ✓ Useful for diagnostic or exploratory work. ✓ Facilitates refinement of secondary data (indigenous knowledge, regional history). ✓ Facilitates execution of farmer-managed trials. ✓ Immediate evaluation on technology and feedback is obtained to station based researchers. ✓ Increases possibility of involving a wider spectrum of population through representation and discussion. ✓ Groups can also form collateral for credit. ✓ Greater farmer participation. Increases farmer input in technology design and testing, thus increases adoption rate of new technologies. Despite these advantages identified the following potential problems, which if not addressed, could render the work of FRG useless: ✓ Groups can be dominated or inhibited by the presence of certain people (often wealthier farmers) producing a false consensus or biased comments. ✓ Members will often withhold opinion on sensitive subjects at a group meeting. ✓ Group activities may not be culturally acceptable. ✓ Groups are sometimes less reliable for quantifying farmer opinions because group members influence each other. ✓ Identifying farming groups that represent user population and/or fit research purposes may be logistically difficult or time consuming when respondents are geographically dispersed. 1.2 Farmer extension groups (FEG) Cost considerations in transferring technologies lead to the formation of farmer extension groups. Many of the benefits listed for FRGs will also apply for FEGs. This approach is also thought to enhance farmer-to-farmer extension technologies. The training and visit (T&V) extension model has recently in many countries changed from one of using groups as a forum for transmitting messages to one in which group members decide what they wish to have help with and hence are becoming somewhat farmer driven. The Farmer Field School model also uses the group approach. Thus, the groups approach to extension is on the increase. 1.3 Farmer research and extension groups (FREG) These are groups formed in order to fine-tune technologies as well as to promote the adoption of such technologies. They exhibit the combined characteristics of both farmer research and farmer extension groups. In one of the projects in Lare Division in Kenya, the following factors were listed as the benefits of employing FREG as the vehicle for technology transfer and dissemination: ✓ It provides an opportunity for the concerned community (FREG members) to identify their technology requirements in a participatory way. ✓ It makes available relevant technology to all the members of the FREG without restricting access and is therefore considered group neutral. ✓ Since the major objective of the FREG system is to access technology, it develops a binding factor that sustains the membership. ✓ The FREG system enhances farmer-to-farmer information exchange thereby ensuring sustainability beyond the project area. ✓ The FREG system provides for organized farming communities and therefore lays the ✓ foundation for demand driven research/extension services that can form the basis for privatization of such services.  ✓ The FREG system improves the capacity of extension staff through training sessions on new technology. 2. USING FARMER GROUPS IN EXTENSION Farmer groups in agricultural innovation (FRG and FEG group functions) have primarily been in participatory technology development, participatory learning and action research, and technology adaptation/ dissemination. In addition to these tasks, FGs can have other functions in relation to the innovation system: 2.1 Communication and information function. FRGs are popular hosts of external visits and representatives may participate in farmer radio programs (Tanzania, Zambia). FRGs contribute to the development of extension material. FRGs legitimize the concept of farmer-to-farmer trial visits and researcher–farmer trial visits at least in a normative sense (Drinkwater 1994). 2.2 Dissemination functions. Apart from the organization of field days as part of the contribution to the technology development cycle, FRGs play an active role in linking up with FEGs and can have a leading role in farmer-to-farmer extension. FRGs are often involved in seed and vegetative planting material multiplication and contribute in this way to the dissemination of technology. 2.3 Networking functions. FRGs can link up with other FRGs, as well as with FEGS and other community groups and form horizontal networks, which can exercise a stronger lobby function. The networks can develop into local farmer unions, which federate at a higher (national) level. 2.4 Other activities. These are often along the lines of marketing and input supply including credit and savings associations. Groups also have the informal function of social cohesion and belonging. 3. GROUP DYNAMICS Group dynamics refer to a system of behaviours and psychological processes occurring within a group or between groups. The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. Group dynamics is to understand how groups form, grow and perform tasks. A group may be seen as two or more persons with common problems, needs and interests, residing in one locality, who interact with one another for the common goal. A group normally has a definite membership, which may vary depending on the objective/purpose, task and personalities of members. Group members interact and influence each other as they become mutually dependent in solving their common problems. The crucial factor is that, as in the case of a member of the family, each member carries some responsibility and perceives some direct or indirect benefit to him/herself. In a group, individual’s strengths are exploited and weaknesses are minimized. Groups are important vehicles of rural and individual development. Groups play an important role in developing both the communities and individuals. 3.1 Groups as building blocks for development Groups are increasingly being acknowledged as essential building blocks for rural development because of the following advantages: ✓ They offer the rural poor an opportunity to collectively develop their skills, mobilize resources and influence the nature and direction of development activities in order to improve production, incomes and hence their livelihood. ✓ Working with groups offers development agencies an opportunity to efficiently and effectively, utilize limited resources to reach a larger audience as compared to working with individuals. ✓ Groups are also seen as a basis for economic ‘take-off’ as they have the potential to mobilize resources that will enhance the prospects of rural people’s participation in development. ✓ Groups can act as collateral substitute for members to access credit. In addition, groups have the potential to increase the sustainability and outreach of the credit program. Further, groups have the advantage of reducing the transaction costs and improving credit management among members. ✓ Groups enhance the bargaining power of the rural poor. ✓ Group dynamics is to understand how groups form, grow and perform tasks. This will enable ✓ development agents to facilitate the process, while group members will also appreciate the role of facilitation in group development. In this light, development agents need to understand the following: ✓ Why groups form? ✓ Why individuals join groups? ✓ What causes group failure or success? ✓ The stages in the development of groups ✓ The culture of groups ✓ How the community and groups relate. 3.2 Groups as mechanism for individual enhancement Groups form to satisfy both individual and group needs. Individuals may not be able to perform certain tasks alone due to a number of factors such as lack of resources, knowledge and skills. Why do people join a group? ✓ Building up resource base through income generation. ✓ Bargaining and lobbying power. ✓ Sharing labour in performing productive tasks. ✓ New experiences and challenges. ✓ To learn from each other (sharing experiences). ✓ Accessing resources—both capital and human. ✓ As an opportunity for recognition and acceptance. ✓ Preservation of self-integrity. ✓ Sense of belonging and security. ✓ To influence others and take lead. ✓ For assumption of roles and expression of abilities and skills. ✓ Solution to an individual problem. ✓ Parents belonged to the group and so children are expected to join. ✓ Increase unity among members on specific issues. ✓ Pooling marketable products and increasing chances of market access By forming groups, farmers are able to: ✓ Combine knowledge, skills and resources. ✓ Gain enhanced access to services and inputs through collective action. ✓ Exchange views and ideas, and choose best options; and ✓ Be in a position to enhance their bargaining power with other groupings, e.g. service providers.  ✓ For example, an individual may not be able to procure inputs for his/her operations due to high input and transaction costs. This can be achieved through joining an input group. 3.3 Characteristics of groups A successful group acts as a single unit. As a group matures, it acts and reacts as a single unit to external stimuli, and members retain their individuality but form a part of a unit. Some common group characteristics are summarized below: ✓ Structure: a group’s structure may be formal, but also informal. Each member of ✓ the group occupies a position and there is a pattern of relationships among the positions. This gives the group the organizational base from which to seek participation. ✓ Rules and codes of conduct: the group will adopt ‘the right way of doing things’ for ✓ itself, by establishing codes of conduct. The group often shares common values and norms. ✓ Common interest/goal: which is shared by all members. The more members accept ✓ the goals of the group, the more effective the group will be. Groups respond as a whole to the stimuli directed to their parts. ✓ Cohesiveness: the ability to work and stick together. The degree of interaction among the members of groups determines the strength or cohesion of the whole. ✓ Group size: usually varies from 20 to 30 members, although they may be smaller. ✓ Leadership: necessary to rally the efforts and interests of the group. This should ideally emerge from the group as it develops. 3.4 Group composition Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge. Heterogeneous groups in terms of personalities, opinions, abilities, skills are more likely to be effective than homogeneous groups. The larger the size, the greater the diversity of talent, skills and knowledge likely to be present. Small groups may be less effective due to a limited range of knowledge. However, if the group is too large, new learning constraints arise. There is no single ideal group composition and size because other factors, such as leadership, cohesiveness and desire for consensus play an important role. With reference to FGs for research and extension, it is important to have a voice for all categories of farmers, inclusive in one form or another (subgroups), all depending on the local context. The selection of group members is crucial to the effective functioning of the group. Often there are no strict regulations so that groups can be flexible; changes in membership can occur quite frequently. However, some FRGs have established specific criteria for membership. These criteria are often related to the social behaviour of potential members. Other FRGs charge a membership fee, as a means to exclude those people that “are not serious”. 3.5 Group size and participation Empirical evidence shows that a group of 5–7 members usually works best for achieving optimum productivity and participation. However, due to cost constraints, normally a group is formed around 20–25 members. Some situations, such as microcredit, input acquisition and marketing may demand a larger group for it to be cost effective. Group size and participation 5–6 people: Everyone speaks and all members participate 7–10 people: Almost everyone speaks (one or two may not speak at all; quieter people usually are left behind in discussions) 11- 18 people: 5- 6 people say a lot, 3- 4 join in occasionally 19- 30 people: 3- 4 people will dominate 30 people and above: Little participation possible 3.6 Female participation in groups Often, especially in rural communities, women cannot easily express themselves in a mixed group and hence the need for special subgroups in such situations. It is generally accepted that women often need to be encouraged to join FGs, which means in fact, influencing the composition of the FG to make it more effective in expressing the demands of this important group. The following steps are advisable to enhance women participation in FGs: ✓ Adjust the period and timing of the group meetings so that they fit within women’s programs. ✓ If necessary, discuss issues with women separately (in subgroups) so that they may feel free to give their opinions. ✓ Try not to involve women only in activities with ‘women’s crops or tasks’. As women are an integral part of the household, they are also involved in activities dealing with less typical women’s tasks or crops. Discuss with men and women how this involvement can best take place. ✓ Include activities, which address women’s specific problems and constraints. 4 Groups based on hierarchy According to this classification, groups may be primary or secondary. 4.1 Primary groups These groups exhibit the following features: ✓ Characterized by a high degree of intimacy. ✓ Bring out the social nature and ideals of an individual within a group; ✓ Members strongly identify themselves with the group; ✓ Members are often with similar background and experience and may live in the same locality. 4.2 Secondary groups Secondary groups exhibit the following features: ✓ Characterized by the partial involvement and loyalties of members; ✓ Motive for involvement is what the group does to the individual and not what it means to the person; ✓ These groups may transform into primary groups. 4.3 Groups based on function The third classification is based on the primary functions of the groups. Functional groups enable various types of group work to be done in such a way that both group interaction and program activities contribute to the growth of the individual and the achievement of desirable group objectives. In the context of rural development, groups may be further categorized according to the focal point of their formation. These categories are: ✓ input acquisition groups ✓ output focused groups ✓ marketing groups ✓ social groups ✓ resource sharing groups ✓ research groups ✓ extension groups ✓ research and extension groups ✓ multipurpose groups 5. GROUP FORMATION 5.1 Introduction People form or join groups for various reasons. What brings people together is the desire to solve common problems thereby satisfying individual needs and interests. Individuals have different expectations as to what the group will do for them. The motivation to form a group may be external to the community as in the case of groups formed through the intervention of research, extension or development agents, or internal where the idea to form a group is conceived by members of the community. In both instances, a group will only be formed when two or more people establish a relationship such that they begin to value one another’s input towards the achievement of set goals. 5.2 Planning the formation of a group The Extension Agent’s initial task is to gain the confidence of the community. This process takes time and he/she needs to show respect and interact with people from various backgrounds. The following are the steps involved in entering the community and building trust: ✓ Prepare yourself by gathering information about the community and its leadership. This information can be obtained from other developmental agents and/or secondary sources. ✓ Meet with local leaders, chiefs and other influential people in the community. Your goal is to explain your reasons for coming into the community. This dispels suspicion and builds rapport. ✓ Usually the local leaders will call for a meeting for you to meet all the villagers. In this meeting, explain your purpose and how it will improve the general living conditions in the village etc. ✓ Work to gain peoples’ confidence by talking to them wherever you meet them, i.e. in the fields, at shops and in their homes. Talk to people about what interests them. ✓ Demonstrate your cultural sensitivity and show respect to community beliefs and norms. ✓ Show genuine interest in local issues. ✓ Interact with all social groups, i.e. men, women, youth etc. Ensure that men in the village understand your motives for wanting to talk to women. Examples of information to be gathered: ✓ Living conditions of different socioeconomic groups in the village. ✓ Needs of the community. ✓ The different ways in which the community solves its problems. ✓ Social and communication patterns in the community—who talks to whom and why.  ✓ The communities’ power structures. ✓ The informal and formal organizations (both for men and women). ✓ The links between the community and supply of services and who controls them. ✓ Preferred channels of communication. 5.3 Steps involved in group formation Step 1: Conception of a group The idea to form a group to solve certain problems may be conceived and thought through by an external agent or by a member of the community. The idea may be sold to a few individuals who help synthesize this ‘dream/vision’ into a concrete plan of action. If the idea is conceived by a member of the community, the opinion of the development agents and or local leaders may be sought. Step 2: Mobilization or conscientization of “would-be” members The idea is sold to a wider audience in a meeting called for this purpose. Group proponents explain their vision to others and respond to issues raised. Step 3: Convergence of interested parties (getting consensus) ✓ Members meet to further discuss and cement the idea to form or join the group. ✓ A development agent may be called in to highlight experiences from elsewhere with regards to group formation. If the concept of groups is new to the area, an outline of a group maybe required. A visit to a well-functioning group in the neighbourhood may be desirable. ✓ Explain that membership to the groups is voluntary. Step 4: Birth of the group ✓ The group is given an identity—name and locality. ✓ Members elect a committee. ✓ Members agree on meeting days and venue. ✓ Members agree on desired membership. ✓ Extension Agent may be invited to outline criteria for selection of leaders. Step 5: Setting of goals and objectives ✓ Establish group vision ✓ Set goals This step may require input of a development agent so that tangible objectives are set and given a time frame to achieve the objectives. Step 6: Establishment of operational guidelines ✓ Group develops constitution and by-laws. ✓ Extension agents and community leaders may be required to help identify potential areas of friction that need to be addressed and possible ways to avoiding them. Step 7: Resource mobilization Group identifies resources needed and what is available in order to reach their goals. These resources can be classified as: 1. human: skills, attitudes, interest, ability 2. material: equipment, raw materials 3. financial Additional resources may be required and need to be mobilized. Here the development agent can play a crucial role. Step 8: Planning of group activities ✓ Identify activities to be engaged in. ✓ Group outlines the steps they will follow in order to achieve set goals. ✓ Prepare a budget for activities to be carried out. ✓ Development agent may take members through the steps involved in planning of projects. Step 9: Implementation of group activities ✓ Assignment of individuals to tasks. ✓ Performance of tasks. ✓ Monitoring of performance against set targets. ✓ Evaluation/review of task performance. The development agent may assist group leaders in managing the process and provide technical back up. He/she must make sure that monitoring and evaluation becomes an integral part of project implementation and ensure the beneficiaries’ participation in the process. There may be no clear boundary between the steps outlined above but put simply, this is how groups form. Once formed, the groups undergo a developmental phase. 5.4 Possible problems encountered during group formation ✓ Experience reveals that a number of problems may be encountered during group formation and development: ✓ Underrating member contributions. ✓ Stereotyping—it is difficult to form a group where there have been group failures in the past. The community believes nothing good can be achieved with groups. ✓ Competition for leadership positions. ✓ Political interference. ✓ Patronizing and ‘ownership’ of groups by development agencies/agents. ✓ Members’ failure to raise subscription fees especially poor and female-headed households. ✓ Meeting place and time not convenient to all members. ✓ Failure to accommodate the views of the marginalized members of society such as women, poor men and youth. ✓ Cultural beliefs—for example in some societies, young women may not accept membership of groups that include their in-laws, as they normally do not feel able to freely express themselves in the groups. ✓ Lack of transparency in decision-making. ✓ Lack of recognition of women’s leadership capabilities. 5.5 Group management Groups don’t automatically operate successfully and optimally. In any cases the Extension Agent will have to provide guidance to groups in developing a group vision, setting goals and objectives, developing operational procedures and selecting effective leaders who can build and maintain groups. 5.5.1 Developing a group vision It is critical for a group to have a vision, which will serve as their guiding light in identifying and defining paths to follow. The vision is often broad or general, in some ways it is like a dream. Often asking some relevant questions can help a group develop their vision. During this process the group debates, challenges, suggests, rejects and finally arrives at an acceptable vision and purpose. Relevant questions to ask: ✓ What do we want to achieve?  ✓ Where are we now? ✓ Where do we want to be? ✓ How will we get there? Collectively getting answers to these questions will result in a vision for the group that can be achieved by setting goals and objectives. 5.5.2 Formulation of group goals and objectives When a group formulates its own goals, and objectives, it will always strive to achieve them whole-heartedly. Goals should be made clear to everyone and guide the group in its long- term endeavour to better the lives of the group members. It is very important that the groups set their objectives in a manner that is clear and understandable to all group members. Examples of an objective: ✓ Increased per capita food production by all members by year 2024. ✓ Increased incomes for households of all group members by year 2024. Issues to consider while formulating objectives: ✓ Members are heterogeneous with different needs and expectations. ✓ Consider all members’ opinions by encouraging all to participate. All members should be able to clearly articulate the objectives of the group. During the process of objective formulation, members could be split into groups according to age or sex for maximum interaction and detailed discussions. ✓ If some members feel that they were not part of the decision-making process, cliques may form to the detriment of the group. Objectives that do not conform to the above criteria will be very difficult to measure and evaluate. Once objectives have been agreed upon, it is advisable that each member of the group gets a copy of the objectives. After doing this, the group should identify and set indicators for measuring achievements Questions to ask: ✓ How will we know we have succeeded? ✓ When should we have accomplished our targets? ✓ What will success look like or how will it feel? ✓ From what and whose perspective do we need to look at it? Answers to the above questions will indicate critical success factors for group members to judge whether they are achieving their objectives. The indicators should be SMART: S = Specific M = Measurable A = Achievable R = Realistic T = Time framed 5.5.3 Formulate group constitution The group’s constitution is the supreme document that should guide the operations of any fully constituted group. Any group that does not have these may soon find themselves engulfed in problems. A constitution is a document, which outlines the physical make up and operational procedure of a group of people. There are vital issues to consider in setting up a group constitution: ✓ Objectives of the group. ✓ Membership: requirements to become a member, names, qualities, duration, responsibilities. ✓ Type of leadership and qualities: types of posts, duties of committee, committee members etc. ✓ Organizational structure: committees and their roles and responsibilities. ✓ Disciplinary action against committee members: action if duties are not carried out, e.g. fines, dismissal. ✓ Contributions: when to pay, fixing the joining fee, shares, purpose of contributions. ✓ Disciplinary action against members: absenteeism, lateness, fines, and action on non-payment. ✓ Record keeping: what to be recorded, by whom etc. ✓ Savings: purpose, where kept, how to save, record keeping. ✓ Profits and benefits: use, sharing, when and who. ✓ Loans: rules of lending of group savings to members, interest rates, terms of repayment, penalties etc. 5.5.4 Formulate group operational procedures The group has to establish a number of operational procedures, frameworks or structure. These have to be strictly followed or adhered to or else effectiveness and efficiency of the group will be curtailed. This includes the rules and regulations together with associated penalties for breaching them. The purpose of these operational procedures is to: ✓ To instil commitment to the objectives of the group; ✓ Guide the operations of the group; ✓ Formalize the existence of the group; ✓ Ensure that those put in management positions follow set guidelines and to ensure discipline among group members; ✓ Ensure continuity of existence; ✓ Run the activities of the group and to guide the leadership of the group, i.e. meant to ensure constitutional compliance; ✓ Spell out rights and responsibilities of members. Group operational procedures should obviously be in line with the objectives and the constitution. The group must look at each and every constitutional item and issues related to those items and then set disciplinary measures for breaking those issues. The operational procedures should be set, understood, followed and accepted by all members. Ideally, each group member should have a copy of the operational procedures to ensure transparency. 5.5.5 Developing work plans Once goals and objectives have been set, the group needs to make definite plans to achieve them. This is done by formulating a work plan. Every group member should be made accountable for a particular activity, hence sharing the burden of achieving goals and objectives. Questions to consider: ✓ What has to be done and when? ✓ Who has to do it and with whom? ✓ How should it be done? ✓ What resources are required and when are they required? ✓ Who will provide these resources? Answers to these questions are used in developing the work plan. 6. EVALUATING GROUP PROGRESS To judge and evaluate if a specific farmer group is making progress in their functioning, Extension Agents should ask questions about the following aspects of the programme: 6.1 Results: What happened as a result of the Extension programme? Were they the results that were expected, and were there any unexpected results? 6.2 Inputs: Were all the planned inputs available and, if not, why? 6.3 Operations: Did the extension activities take place in the planned sequence and at the right time? Did these activities lead to the expected results? If the answers are negative, the Extension Agent should try to understand why and investigate firther. Perhaps he was over-ambitious about how many extension activities he could undertake, or maybe he did not receive the support he needed from other agencies. 6.4 Individual activities: Evaluate at the level of each extension activity. All extension activities, such as demonstrations, talks or meetings with a farmers' group, have a purpose. The Extension Agent should try to check, not only how well the activity itself was conducted, but whether the purpose was achieved. This will usually involve finding out whether the extension activity led to any changes in one or more of the following: ✓ awareness of a particular idea, possibility or problem; ✓ motivation to act in a particular way; ✓ knowledge about new farming practices; ✓ skills needed to adopt a new practice; ✓ behaviour by farmers and their families (such as new farming methods), or by an extension group (such as making an application for funds to carry out a group project or the preparation of a formal group constitution). 7. CONFLICT IN GROUPS As with any social unit, conflicts within groups will always arise. What matters most is how it is managed. Conflict, depending on the types, may be harmful or beneficial to the group. Generally, it is poor management of conflicts that weakens groups. 7.1 Definition of conflict Conflict arises when the hopes, desires, needs or activities of individuals become incompatible in a group or organization. It involves people’s feelings. Most conflict arises from the way people behave with each other in a particular situation. 7.2 Forms of conflict; ✓ Controversies: normally take place over disputes, ideas of what is right or not, what ought or ought not to be, how or how not etc. ✓ Conflict over needs: arises mostly due to competition for resources or their uneven allocation. It is the result of stifling of differences, which attempts to overlook the issues of choice and priority. ✓ Development conflict: arises due to the need for relocation adjustment, response to new demands, to changes in activities and purposes, which result in a deviation from the status quo 7.3 Causes of conflict in groups Groups consist of different individuals and there may be a varying range of causes of conflict. Below are the most common causes: ✓ Gossiping of member(s) within the group and outside. ✓ Theft of group assets or products. ✓ Failure to adhere to by-laws or constitution of the group. ✓ Personality clashes. ✓ Unequal application and commitment to group tasks or activities. ✓ Lack of respect of members by leadership and vice versa, and among members. ✓ Dominance by some members. ✓ Misuse or misappropriation of group resources especially in the case of projects. ✓ Lack of understanding of project activities by group members. ✓ Dictatorial leadership. ✓ Unfair distribution of tasks. ✓ Failure by members or leaders to give feedback to the group after being given assignments ✓ Infidelity among members of a group. 7.4 Beneficial aspects of conflict in groups Although this may sound strange, conflict in a group is considered good if it results in the following: ✓ Brings problems and issues into the open for discussion; ✓ Promotes creativity, generating new ideas and work practices;  ✓ Focuses people to give their work more detailed analysis; ✓ Increases commitment to take part and to become involved in group activities; ✓ Improves the quality of decision-making; ✓ Deepening of relationships between those involved in the conflict. 7.5 Undesirable aspects of conflict in groups ✓ In general, conflict should be avoided in groups as it may have the following negative effects: ✓ Creates stress, stirring up negative feelings. ✓ Makes working environment less pleasant. ✓ Causes lack of commitment to group activities. ✓ Severely reduces the effectiveness of communication process. ✓ Interferes with coordination of efforts between groups and individuals. ✓ Stifles member contributions. ✓ May lead to factionalism or withdrawal of members. Up to a point there is a complementary between conflict and unit performance; beyond these points, however, it will definitely have negative effects on performance. 7.6 How individuals react to conflict People in general don’t like conflict situations. Different individuals will react differently to conflict, for instance: 7.6.1 Withdrawal Taking the retreat course. Seeking to establish and then emphasize the areas of agreement and avoiding the areas of disagreement. This is done with the hope that areas of conflict become minor and are eventually subject to compromise. 7.6.2 Compromising Each side starts from a rigid position but expressing a willingness to search for a solution. Allows both sides of the conflict to feel they are satisfied with the amount gained as well as the amount lost. 7.6.3 Coercing Exerting an opinion or view at the expense of the other. This is characterized by competitiveness leading to a win–loss result that ultimately becomes a loss–loss result due to the damaged relationship. 7.6.3 Confrontation Facing the conflict directly to cause face-to-face debate and discussion of the disagreement and deriving options for resolution. This often defuses a violent situation and reduces the conflict to a level where compromising or even smoothing can resolve the conflict. 7.7 Conflict resolution Some conflicts may need the interference of external forces once the group and its leadership have failed to handle it. Groups exist in societies, and have access to political, traditional and religious leaders, particularly in rural settings. The following may apply: ✓ Elimination of the conflict party/parties Members that oppose or disrupt the groups’ aims and objectives are driven out of the group. This can happen through punishment, bad talk or just ignoring their wishes. This means that the opponents must go and their reactions are on the lines of “we give up”, “we are insulted” or “we are going to make a group of our own”. ✓ Suppression of the minority The group suppresses those with contrary opinions by any means they have. The minority is expected to listen and cow down to what the majority want and thinks is best for the group (or for them). For some time this strategy will work because the minority is afraid, but sooner or later tensions and hostility will become so strong that the group will break apart. Voting is actually a smoother form of suppression as well, because there will always be a winning majority and a losing minority.  ✓ Agreement The majority rules and decides, but the minority does not feel oppressed by that and agrees to what is opposed. ✓ Alliance The different parties do not give up their different opinions, but they agree on a common point to reach a step both think is good for them. The conflict is still there; it is just sleeping for a while, until the step or the short-term goal is reached. If that is done and the conflict is still there, it will arise again. ✓ Compromise When the parties involved in a conflict have about the same amount of power and cannot oppress each other, they will look for a compromise. Each group gives in as much as it thinks it can stand to in order to reach a better solution in the end. Conflicts are very often solved like this. The parties think “better to give in a little bit to reach some sort of solution than none at all’. But they are not fully happy about the final solution, as it is often less than they expected. ✓ Integration of the different wishes into a new one This form of solving a conflict is the best, but also the least common. The different opinions are discussed, weighed against each other and measured against the common aim. The whole group is involved in the conflict solving process and each member takes care that his/her wishes are recognized as much as possible. The solution can differ from the wishes of the conflicting parties, but the newfound solution could be an even better one than the ones that existed before. Something new was created by involving everyone. As a general guideline, parties in conflict must be encouraged to identify and agree on the areas of full agreement and the areas of disagreement. Effective conflict management is dependent on persuading everyone involved to listen, to understand, not to evaluate and criticize. Apology and reconciliation is critical to the sustenance of peaceful work relations in groups. Reference to the group’s operational procedures, if they include the necessary sanctions to be preferred on trouble causer, will aid the group in suppressing dysfunctional conflicts. Identify areas of conflicts These can be identified by agreeing on the original goal and noting any obstacles hindering the group members from achieving the already agreed upon goals by doing the following: 1. List all problem areas 2. Prioritize problems and take the highest ranking. 3. Discuss the core problem and reach a common understanding. 4. Identify the factors causing the problem. 5. Come up with basic solutions. 6. Controlling and maintaining difficult members 7. Use members to evaluate every group activity undertaken. 8. Hold member-centred meetings (having everybody feel appreciated). 9. Make available on time, all previous meeting information to prevent speculation or rumours. 10. Allow members to express themselves freely. 11. Encourage, generate and share information from silent and fence sitters. 12. Aspire to have a productive group 13. Ensure there are equitable responsibilities and avoid domination by a few. 14. Evaluate group performance. 15. Engage in productive group activities, e.g. 16. Initiate new ideas 17. clarifying issues 18. seek new information (especially from professionals) 19. motivate and reward members 20. call for expert help 21. consult relevant bodies to solve specific problems, e.g. social services, provincial administration, technical bodies and seeking assistance of facilitators. The conflict facilitator should: ✓ Aspire to be accepted by the conflicting parties ✓ Remain impartial ✓ Create human contacts among conflicting parties ✓ Pinpoint conflicting issues and agree on procedures to address these issues ✓ Let the conflicting parties explain their views with minimum interruption ✓ Invite the conflicting parties to negotiate. 8. ROLES & DUTIES WITHIN GROUPS Within groups different members play different roles: Members’ position Role Chairperson Key person in the group. His/her role in general is to motivate, articulate and set the pace for the group in a friendly, participative but firm manner. In particular the Chairperson’s role is to: Oversee the general activities of the group and keeps members up-dated Preside over all group meetings Guide the group to reach decisions and achieve their goals Represent the group in other forums and be the spokesperson for the group Arbitrate and motivate group members Vice Chairperson Takes the chairperson’s duties if he/she is absent Secretary Invites or reminds people of the meetings Writes minutes or reports of each activity undertaken by the group Reads to the group all documents and correspondences received by the group Custodian of group documents (minutes book, visitors book, materials received and issued, group plan book, work plans, members register and profile books) Keeps a file of all group correspondence Ask visitors to sign the visitor’s book for the group Vice Secretary Deputizes for secretary if not around Treasurer Collects all monies due to the group and acts as custodian to the group’s petty cash Pays all monies the group owes Banks group funds General members They make the supreme body of the group they attend general meetings they elect or remove committees adopt resolutions of the group 9. LEADERSHIP 9.1 Introduction The relevance of rural leadership in extension servicing cannot be overemphasized. The Extension Agent basically cannot hope to achieve success without deliberately involving, und using, leaders in the farming community to assist him/her in the extension task. Leaders can assist as follows: ✓ leaders can convey messages of development more convincingly in the people’s language. ✓ leaders can help in enlisting participation of people in development programmes and ensure their voices are heard. ✓ leaders can assist with interpretation and explanation of the community’s traditional ✓ beliefs, customs, superstitions and ignorance which influence development negatively. 9.2 Defining leadership Leadership is a process by which one person attempts to influence the behaviour of another or a group with the expressed purpose of achieving set goals. It is the skill of achieving results through encouraging people’s efforts. The leaders should have a vision and commitment to the cause. 9.3 Types of leaders In communities we have different types of leaders who can and will directly or indirectly impact on the performance and/or management of groups. There are different views in communities about leaders. Some members believe that leaders are born while others believe leaders are made. Nonetheless, leaders are an important component of the development process. Traditional leader Many traditional leaders are born from certain lineages; they are endorsed and highly respected by their subjects. These leaders can be useful to groups in resolving conflicts and in cases of resource allocation. Professional leader Leaders by virtue of their professional engagements, such as extension workers, teachers, midwives/nurses etc. Exercise their leadership through the execution of their professional duties Groups should tap and effectively utilize the services of such professionals to their advantage Political leader Usually voted by the electorate into leadership positions and are therefore accountable to the electorate. E.g. Members of Parliament, Councillors, Governors etc. Wield political power and can strongly influence development in their areas Groups should therefore use these leaders effectively for their development needs Religious leaders Very influential and respected in communities Can be helpful in conflict resolution, mobilizing their congregation Opinion leaders Individuals whose advice in a particular subject is sought with relatively high frequency by others because of their experience and knowledge These may exist even within groups and must be known by the group leaders and used to sway followers towards the attainment of group objectives. Failure to do so may result in opinion leaders, mobilizing followers against  the group’s leadership leading to friction in the group. They may easily influence the rejection of a particular practice or its adoption if they are ignorant of the subject or not convinced of its value. 9.4 Leadership styles The term “style of leadership” refers to the behaviours of the leader in the discharge of his/her leadership functions, i.e. what he/she does, what he/she emphasizes and how he/she deals with his/her followers. Leaders often depict one of the following leadership styles: 9.4.1 Autocratic "Do as I say" typically illustrate an autocratic leadership style. Generally, an autocratic leader believes that he or she is the smartest person at the table and knows more than others. They make all the decisions with little input from team members. This command-and-control approach is typical of leadership styles of the past, but it doesn't hold much water in a modern world. Nevertheless, the autocratic leadership style may be appropriate in certain situations. For example, you can utilise an autocratic leadership style when crucial decisions need to be made on the spot, and you have the most knowledge about the situation, or when you're dealing with inexperienced and new team members and there's no time to wait for team members to gain familiarity with their role. 9.4.2 Authoritative “Follow me” nicely describes the authoritative leadership style (sometimes also known as "visionary"). This leadership style is the mark of confident leaders who map the way and set expectations, while engaging and energizing followers along the way. In a climate of uncertainty, these leaders lift the fog for people. They help them see where the group is going and what's going to happen when they get there. Unlike autocratic leaders, authoritative leaders take the time to explain their thinking: They don't just issue orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and latitude on how to achieve common goals. 9.4.3 Pacesetting "Keep up!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders who utilize the pacesetting style. This style describes a very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing. Pacesetters set the bar high and push their team members to run hard and fast to the finish line. While the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in getting things done and driving for results, it's an approach that can turn off team members. Even the most driven group members may become stressed working under this kind of pressure in the long run. 9.4.4. Democratic Democratic leaders are more likely to ask "How do you see it?" And, wherever possible, they share information with other group members that affects their work responsibilities. They also seek members’ opinions before making a final decision.There are numerous benefits to this participative leadership style. It can engender trust and promote team spirit and cooperation from group members. It allows for creativity and helps group members to grow and develop. A democratic leadership style gets people to do what you want to be done but in a way that they want to do it. 9.4.5 Coaching When you have a coaching leadership style, you tend to have a "Consider this" approach. A leader who coaches seeks to unlock people's potential. Leaders who use a coaching style open their hearts to and doors for people. They believe that everyone has power within themselves. A coaching leader gives people a little direction to help them tap into their ability to achieve their full potential. 9.4.6 Affiliative A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership is "People come first." Of all the leadership styles, the affiliative leadership approach is the most up close and personal.A leader practicing this style pays attention to and supports the emotional needs of group members. The leader strives to open up a pipeline that connects him or her to the group. Ultimately, this style is all about encouraging harmony and forming collaborative relationships within groups. It's particularly useful, for example, in smoothing conflicts among team members or reassuring people during times of stress. 9.4.7 Laissez-Faire The laissez-faire leadership style is at the opposite end of the spectrum from autocratic. Of all the approaches, this one involves the least amount of oversight. You could say that the autocratic style leader stands as firm as a rock on issues, while the laissez-faire leader lets people swim with the current.On the surface, a laissez-faire leader may appear to trust people to know what to do. When taken to the extreme, however, such a hands-off leader may fail drastically due to a total lack of guidance and control. 9.5 Leadership problems In group formation, development and functioning, a number of leadership problems are sometimes encountered and the Extension Agent must be aware of this danger: ✓ Some leaders become manipulative of groups for personal gains. ✓ Some leaders want to be life leaders even if they are failing to deliver.  ✓ Some people take up leadership positions for self-gain. ✓ Some leaders lack credibility in the community. ✓ Some lack leadership knowledge and skills and thus fail to motivate followers. ✓ Some fail to coordinate with various community leaders such as the influential ✓ traditional and political leaders, leading to fragmentation in the community, with each leader with a band of followers opposing the efforts of the other. ✓ Some leaders become very boastful of their position to the extent of abusing their authority. ✓ Some are poor communicators, resulting in their failing to properly articulate the affairs and issues of the community or group. ✓ Some leaders are absentee leaders—not always available to the people. ✓ Some leaders fail to delegate their functions in their absence. ✓ Some are scared of challenges from members of the group and then resort to using threats. They do not accept criticism resulting in members not giving objective criticism. ✓ Some leaders arrive late for meetings. ✓ Some delay starting meetings, keeping people waiting in the sun. ✓ Some gossip too much and are harsh with members. ✓ Some always call for meetings at short notice in order to manipulate the process of ✓ decision making. ✓ Some are too old to run around organizing people and meetings but do not want to relinquish power. The list of challenges is endless… 9.6 Challenges faced by female leaders ✓ In a number of occasions women are elected as group leaders and tend to face some unique problems in executing their responsibilities: ✓ Lack of respect from male members. ✓ Even women are yet to fully accept fellow women as leaders despite some women proving to be capable leaders. ✓ Limited mobility to attend all functions on behalf of group due to husband’s not granting permission disguised under the concern that household duties will not be undertaken. ✓ Gossip about women leaders by women. ✓ Suspicions of adultery. ✓ Multiple roles at home leaving women without adequate time to attend to leadership functions fully. 9.7 Selecting a leader There are many ways to locate people with desirable qualities and potential to play leadership role. Below are some ways: 9.7.1 Discussion Method An opportunity for discussion on real issue gets people in action giving expression to their knowledge, group skill and power of conviction. This is said to be a live laboratory to see display of power and influence in natural condition. 9.7.1 The workshop method Through this method, where the large group breaks up into smaller unit, leadership emerges, in each group over a period of time, the extension worker can spot certain leaders who come to the fore in taking responsibilities. The extension worker or professional leader in workshop has the position of consultant observer, discussion group leader etc. 9.7.2 Participative observation Even though observation is part of both discussion and workshop methods, leaders can be selected through close observation in the community by observer being a part of the scene for a period of time. This provides him enough data regarding conditions of the community opportunities of leadership and skills. 9.7.3 Sociometric Technique The term ‘sociometry’ refers to the pattern of attraction among members of a group. Sociometric technique is meant for determining the extent to which individuals are accepted in a group. This helps in revealing the relationship structure within a group. The technique can be applied if all the members of the group know each other well. 9.7.4 Key informants method A community or its members may be asked to indicate opinion leaders in that area. This is cost saving and time saving when compared to sociometric method. 9.7.5 Self-designating Techniques It consists of asking a respondent a series of questions to determine the degree to which he perceives himself to be an opinion leader. 9.8 Qualities of a Good Leader The list below is not complete, but “good leaders” usually demonstrate the following qualities: ✓ Hardworking ✓ Innovative and visionary ✓ Collects and uses information objectively ✓ Acceptable behaviour that is in conformity with community norms ✓ Good rapport ✓ Good interpersonal relations ✓ Good mobilizer and can develop team spirit ✓ Commands respect and has self-discipline ✓ Good listener and understanding ✓ Patient ✓ Tolerant and accommodates different views ✓ Delegates and willing to share responsibilities ✓ Flexible ✓ Effective communicator ✓ Can empathize with group members ✓ Self-confident ✓ Honest and transparent ✓ Reliable ✓ Impartial ✓ Acknowledges and learns from own mistakes ✓ Good time managers ✓ Brainstorms frequently 9.9 Motivational role of a leader Motivation is part of any leader’s role. Motivation can be defined as a reason to act. It is the energizing and control of purposeful behaviour of group members towards specific goals. It arouses an individual’s inner drive to want to act in a certain way. This force that makes an individual want to act may come from inside the person (intrinsic) or from outside (extrinsic). Leaders must use their imagination to dream and visualize: this creates passion and passion precedes conception. Whatever the mind conceives and believes in, is achieved. Leaders must establish where you stand now in relation to where you want to go. This enables the group to establish their current level (let’s say of production), and where they aim to go. Leaders must assist the group to set realistic expectations. Leaders must not try to motivate group members by telling them what they should, ought or must do, but create an atmosphere where group members contribute and actually want to, and believe, that they can achieve set goals = being supportive to people in their growth and self-belief.