Introduction to Psychology - Chapter 12 PDF

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Chapter 12 Emotions, Health, and Stress Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress...

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Chapter 12 Emotions, Health, and Stress Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion Emotion Though emotions comprise a significant and crucial part of our individual and social experience, emotion is an elusive concept, difficult to define and measure. Through scientific research psychologists have learned much about nature of emotions, but some interesting and important questions remain unanswered. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Crucial Importance of Emotion It is by no means true that we would make better decisions if we could keep our emotions in check, despite the pop culture lore that promotes this idea. Brain damaged people with impaired emotions are generally inferior decision-makers. Emotions are a powerful informer of our decisions, closely related to motivation, as almost any motivation has an emotion tied to it. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Module 12.1 The Nature of Emotions Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Measuring Emotions Like many other constructs in psychology, measuring emotion poses challenges to psychological scientists. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses. Self-reports are fast and easy but may have questionable accuracy. Behavioral observations; especially of facial expressions are useful. Although facial emotions can be suppressed, micro-expressions can be very revealing. Physiological measures use autonomic nervous activity. These are harder to control or suppress, although their meaning is subject to interpretation. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Excitement and Physiological Arousal The role of the autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system is the division that controls the functioning of the internal organs. The ANS has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Autonomic Nervous System The sympathetic nervous system The sympathetic nervous system is comprised of two chains of neuron clusters just to the left and right of the spinal cord. It increases the heart rate, breathing rate, production of sweat, and flow of adrenaline. It prepares the body for intense activity, “fight or flight” and other stress-related behaviors. It is the “crisis management” center. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Autonomic Nervous System The parasympathetic nervous system The parasympathetic nervous system consists of neurons with axons extending out from the medulla and the lower spinal cord. These axons connect to neuron clusters near the internal organs. The parasympathetic nervous system is the long-term survival center, promoting rest by decreasing heart rate, digestion, and other functions that keep an organism alive in the long-term. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Autonomic Nervous System The two divisions of the ANS Both systems are active, and the shifting between the two systems helps to keep the body in a balanced condition called homeostasis. Emergencies mainly activate the sympathetic nervous system, but also may involve some parasympathetic activity (i.e., being frightened causes an individual to lose bowel or bladder control). Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Autonomic Nervous System The two divisions of the ANS We generally cannot directly control autonomic responses, but we can influence them by voluntary cognition and behavior, for example, athletes learn to control breathing and focus their concentration for improved aim. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: If you ride on the back of your friend’s brand-new high-powered motorcycle, does your heart rate increase or decrease? During the ride, your heart rate will increase. What happens when the ride is over? When you get off the motorcycle, it will slow down. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion and Perceived Arousal Which comes first, the psychological experience of emotion or the physiological arousal? Common sense dictates that one feels sad and therefore one cries, one feels happy and so one laughs. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion and Perceived Arousal The James-Lange theory of emotions Two nineteenth century psychologists, working independently, came up with a different interpretation of how emotion and physiological reactions are related. The James-Lange theory reverses this process. The theory states that a person’s interpretation of a stimulus evokes the autonomic changes directly. The psychological experience of emotion is the individual’s perception of those physiological changes. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion and Perceived Arousal The James-Lange theory of emotions You decide that you are happy because you are smiling, sad because you are frowning and tears are forming in your eyes. According to the James-Lange theory, the reactions are not enough to produce the emotions, but you will not have the full experience of the emotions without them. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: You arrive at your psychology class and realize that there is a test today and you completely forgot about it. You feel nervous and start to sweat. According to the James-Lange theory, which comes first, the feeling of fear or the sweating? The sweating Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Autonomic Nervous System Effects of decreased perceived arousal Some medical conditions cause people to feel little physiological arousal. In the condition called pure autonomic failure the ANS stops regulating the internal organs. People who suffer from pure autonomic failure recognize situations that call for strong emotions (fear, elation) but they report that their emotions are much less intense. This is what the James-Lange theory predicts. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion and Perceived Arousal Schachter and Singer’s theory of emotions Another theory proposes that the physiological state is not the same thing as the emotion. According to the Schachter and Singer theory of emotions, the intensity of the physiological reaction determines only the intensity of the emotion, not the type of emotion. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion and Perceived Arousal Schachter and Singer’s theory of emotions It is a person’s cognitive appraisal of the situation that determines the emotion that we experience. Research studies based on the Schachter and Singer theory leave some unanswered questions about the role of physiological arousal in contributing to the intensity of the emotional states. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Figure 12.4 According to the James-Lange theory, physiological arousal determines the nature of the emotion. According to Schachter and Singer’s theory, physiological arousal determines the intensity of an emotion, but not which emotion is experienced. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: According to the Schachter-Singer theory, which comes first, the realization that you forgot about the test, or the feeling of fear? The realization (cognitive appraisal) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Range of Emotions Psychologists have yet to agree on a single list of basic emotions but they have agreed on a list of criteria for establishing what a basic emotion should be. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Range of Emotions A basic emotion should emerge early in life without requiring a great deal of experience. The basic emotions should be found across cultures. Each basic emotion should have a unique biological basis and distinct facial expression. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Range of Emotions Producing facial expressions The function of facial expressions in all primates is communication, especially communication of emotions. Facial expression of emotion is much more likely to occur in the presence of other people. Facial expressions of emotion are more likely to indicate a person’s true internal state than simple statements and other indicators. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Range of Emotions Understanding facial expressions Some of our facial expressions develop in the absence of opportunities to observe and imitate others. There is evidence that the basic emotions consist of happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise. Interpretation of these emotions by facial expression is done easily and fairly accurately across cultures. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Range of Emotions Understanding facial expressions But people also rely on gestures, changes in expression, and social situation to make more accurate judgments of others’ emotions. People of different world cultures do not necessarily agree about which internal states are in fact emotions. Also, a state that is associated with a recognizable facial expression is not necessarily an emotion. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Two-dimensional Approach: Circumplex Model The dimensional approach differentiates between emotions according to two or more characteristics that are given some value for all emotions. The Circumplex model has two such dimensions: valence and activity (Russell, 1980). Russell's Circumplex Model of Affect (Figure 12.1) focuses on subjective experiences, and consequently, emotions within these dimensions might not be placed at exactly the same levels for all the people. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Two-dimensional Approach: Circumplex Model Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Two-dimensional Approach: Circumplex Model Emotions are distributed in a system of coordinates the x-axis measures the valence of emotions from negative to positive, the y-axis specifies how actively or passively the emotion is experienced. The model, illustrated in a two-dimensional graph, results in a two-valued vector for each emotion, and makes it possible to compare emotions with each other (Figure 12.1). Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress The Two-dimensional Approach: Circumplex Model While Russell provides a comprehensive set of emotions, these do not perfectly match in the application of learning, and they are too numerous for self-assessment tests (Shen, Leon, Callaghan, & Shen, 2007). For example, both happiness and pleasure have a positive valence, but happiness is an active emotion, while pleasure is a passive emotion. Fear and contentment are almost completely opposite emotions, fear being both active and negative, while contentment, on the other hand, being passive and positive. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: What six states are currently believed to comprise the six basic emotions? Happiness Sadness Anger Fear Disgust Surprise Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: What is the evidence that these six may be the basic emotions? Most people in all cultures recognize the facial expressions associated with these states. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotions and Moral Decisions If emotions were not informative in some way, we probably would not have evolved them. Emotions may influence our moral decisions. Research studies using the Trolley Dilemma and Footbridge Dilemma, problems that involve making decisions about letting a small number of people die to save a larger number of people, have provided evidence that emotions play a powerful role in deciding the most moral course of action. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotion, Decision-Making, and Emotional Intelligence It makes intuitive sense that good decision-making would require some great degree of emotional control, hence the familiar advice to remain calm and rational when contemplating big decisions. This in fact is not entirely true. Only extreme emotions interfere with decision-making. Some degree of emotionality appears to be necessary for good decision-making. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotions and Decision-Making In fact, a number of case studies of patients with brain damage suggest that the ability to experience and express emotions plays a key role in important life and moral decisions. The case of Phineas Gage and more recently, Antonio Damasio’s case study of “Elliot” both provide evidence that feeling distinctly good or bad is crucial in making decisions of major importance in our lives so that the best outcome is achieved. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: A patient experiences a closed head injury, with damage to the prefrontal cortex. What behavioral and emotional problems might result from this injury? Problems with making decisions, expressing and modulating emotions, tendency to impulsive behavior, reduced ability to accurately interpret the emotions of other people. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to perceive, imagine and understand emotions and to use that information in decision-making. The idea of emotional intelligence has gained a great deal of popularity over the past few decades, in psychology and related fields. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotional Intelligence The evidence for the existence of a special kind of intelligence related to emotions is still not too strong though. Measuring this construct poses challenges in assessment that have yet to be well managed. For example, in constructing items for a test of emotional intelligence, too often the best answer to a question might be “it depends.” Emotional intelligence is an interesting idea, but researchers still have a long way to go. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotions and Decision-Making The ability to imagine the feeling that we would have pursuing each option presented to us is a big part of good decision-making capability. “Emotions are inseparable from the idea of good and evil.” -- Antonio Damasio Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotions The debates described in this module may not strike you as terribly important, but they are part of larger issue of great importance to the science of psychology. Human behavior seems to be in large part influenced by emotions. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Emotions Just as the first chemists had to struggle to identify the number and nature of basic elements in order to understand the way the universe works, so we need to keep striving to identify the basic emotions and the relationship of these to human experience and action. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Module 12.3 Stress, Coping and Health Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Health Psychology Health psychology examines how people’s behavior can improve health and prevent illness, and how human behavior influences the course of recovery from illness. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Health Psychology Stress Selye’s Concept of Stress An enormous variety of experiences can cause stress. The physician Hans Selye defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it.” Selye’s definition emphasizes the role that changes in one’s life play in causing stress, and so it does not fully consider the effects of more chronic problems such as poverty or discrimination. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Health Psychology Selye’s concept of stress Selye proposed that the body responds to stress in three distinct stages: Alarm – a brief period of high arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, which readies the body for vigorous activity. Resistance – if the stressor goes on for longer than a few minutes, the body enters a phase of prolonged but moderate arousal. Exhaustion – intense and long-lasting stress causes a depletion of proteins in the immune system. The end result is increased vulnerability to illness, fatigue, and weakness. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: According to Selye’s definition of stress, is going away to college stressful? Yes Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Concept Check: According to Selye’s definition of stress, would remaining in an unhappy marriage of over 30 years’ duration be stressful? No Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Body’s Response to Stress Selye proposed three phases in responding to stressors: Alarm – in which the body mobilizes the sympathetic nervous system to meet the immediate threat. Resistance – in which your body attempts to resist or cope with a stressor that cannot be avoided. Exhaustion – in which persistent stress depletes the body of energy Prolonged stress can lead to illness. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Measuring Stress Life is inherently stressful. How much stress is detrimental to one’s health? In order to answer this question, psychologists need to measure both stress and health. Both of these conditions are difficult to measure. Checklists that have been devised for this purpose have been found to have low reliability and validity. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Measuring Stress The most accurate way to measure stress would be through a careful and detailed interview to assess all the possible stressors and positive aspects in an individual’s life. Stress research is difficult to do well, but researchers are able to identify the types of experiences that endanger health. Some common stressors are: Noise Bereavement and Loss Work-Related Problems Poverty, Powerlessness, and Racism Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Coping Styles and Strategies People tend to prefer one style to the other, but the most effective strategy depends on the nature of the stressor. If you are experiencing stress due to an upcoming psychology test, a monitoring strategy of taking effective action is probably warranted. Form a study group and hit the books! If you are caught in a major traffic tie-up, blunting is probably a better tack, as there is really nothing you can do about your situation. Turn on the radio and chill out. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Coping Styles and Strategies Monitoring strategies The importance of predictability and control When we are engaged in an activity voluntarily, we usually know what to expect and how to change what we are doing or quit if necessary. The ability to predict how things will unfold makes the activity or event less stressful. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Coping Styles and Strategies Massage therapy Mindfulness meditation Learning to accept feelings of anger, sadness, or anxiety without judging them or trying to get rid of them Exercise You may not love doing it, but it has tremendous psychological benefits to go along with the obvious physical benefits. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Coping Styles and Strategies Solving the problem Emotion-focused coping Concentrating on the emotions the problem has caused Problem-focused coping Taking steps to solve the problem Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Coping Styles and Strategies Effective Cognitive Coping Methods: Reappraising the situation Learning from the experience Making social comparisons Cultivating a sense of humor