Module 2 Study Guide PDF

**Cardiovascular** **Blood Components** Know the basic functions of the blood. - - - List the major blood components. From where in the body do the formed elements originate? - - - - - - - List characteristics of RBCs, WBCs and platelets. What is the main purpose of eac...

**Cardiovascular** **Blood Components** Know the basic functions of the blood. - - - List the major blood components. From where in the body do the formed elements originate? - - - - - - - List characteristics of RBCs, WBCs and platelets. What is the main purpose of each? - - - - - - Describe the regulation of RBC production. What hormone is involved? - List the 3 types of anemia mentioned in class. What is the cause of each? - - - - Define terms like: polycythemia, leukemia, leucopenia, leukocytosis. - - - - A few types of WBCs were listed in the Class Notes. Know the function associated with each. - - - - - - - Describe how B-lymphocytes are activated and how this triggers antibody production. - Explain how vaccinations help to protect us from disease. - **Hemostasis/ Blood types** Explain what happens to a damaged blood vessel. What happens to the smooth muscle tissue? How do platelets help to minimize blood loss? Describe the process of fibrin formation. Be sure to incorporate positive and negative feedback mechanisms. Explain the different ways in which anticoagulants can interfere with various stages of this process. What removes the clot when the damaged vessel has been repaired? - - - - - - - - - - - Distinguish between a thrombus and an embolus. Why do they form? - - Know which blood types can receive/donate to others and why. - - Describe the circumstances that would contribute to HDN. How can it be prevented? - **Anatomy of the Heart/ Conduction System** Be familiar with the basic anatomy of the heart, histology of the heart and the location and function of each valve. - Be able to distinguish between pulmonary, systemic and coronary circulation. Be able to give a general description of blood flow through the heart and the body. - - - - **Know the definition** of terms such as ischemia, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, atherosclerosis, stent, etc. - - - - - Be able to explain the conduction system of the heart as if you were writing as essay. Know the components of the conduction system and their order. What is the significance of the intercalated discs? - - - - - - - **Distinguish between** cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue contraction. Why is there a plateau phase? Why a long refractory period? - - - - - - **ECG/ Cardiac Cycle/ Cardiac Output** Be familiar with a basic ECG. Be able to label the components and describe how it corresponds to the cardiac cycle. Be able to identify the conduction disturbances mentioned in the class notes. - Know the terms associated with the cardiac cycle: EDV, ESV, SV, isovolumetric contraction and relaxation. - - - - - Be able to define cardiac output. Describe how a change in heart rate or SV can alter cardiac output. List 3 things influence SV and give examples. - - - - - - Define CHF. How would you know which side of the heart was damaged? - - - **Heart Rate/ Arrhythmias** **Explain how the ANS** and various hormones can influence heart rate and strength of contraction. List other factors that speed or slow heart rate. - - - - How is fibrillation different from an AV block? Distinguish between the 3 different types of AV blocks. Which is most serious? - - - - - **Blood Vessels** Compare and contrast arteries, veins and capillaries. Which typically has the greatest blood pressure, and most oxygen? Which is most elastic/ muscular? Where does exchange of nutrients occur? In which type of vessel is most of the blood in the body typically found? - - - What is the importance of precapillary sphincters? - - - **Define venous return.** Where in the body is blood pressure lowest? What mechanisms exist to keep blood moving, even against gravity? - - - **Blood Pressure** Blood pressure is influenced by cardiac output and resistance. Cardiac output can be altered by a change in SV or heart rate. Review factors that can contribute to a change in heart rate and SV. - **List the factors** that influence resistance and give examples of each. - - - - - **Where are baroreceptors** located? Explain what excites and inhibits them and how this alters input to the cardiovascular center in the medulla. How does the ANS control blood pressure? Give examples of how sympathetic verses parasympathetic impulses control blood pressure. - **List three conditions** that activate chemoreceptors. Where do chemoreceptors send signals once activated? - - - - Know which hormones act to increase blood pressure. Which hormone decreases blood pressure? Describe the mechanism of action for each. - - **Lymphatic** Know the major functions of the lymphatic system. - - - Be familiar with the flow of lymph. Explain how it flows through the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and ultimately returns to the blood stream. - List several causes of edema. - Be familiar with the 5 lymphatic structures presented in class. Know the basic functions of each. - - - - - **Respiratory** **Basic anatomy/ Ventilation/ Terminology** Know the location and function of the various components of the respiratory system. - - Distinguish between type I and type II alveolar cells. What is the importance of surfactant? - - Explain the mechanics of ventilation. What muscles and nerves are involved? What aspects are active and passive? - Be able to identify terms such as intubation, tracheostomy, pneomothorax, respiratory distress syndrome, eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea and apnea. - - - - - - - - **Gas Exchange and Transport** Define Dalton's law and list the 3 major gases present in the atmosphere. - - Explain how the partial pressure of gases can be used to understand the movement of gases in internal and external respiration. - - Understand how various diseases, altitude and exercise can alter the rate of gas exchange. - - - List 4 things that influence the transport of oxygen. - - - - Explain the Bohr effect. How does pH effect oxygen transport and how does PCO2 play a role in this? - - Why is carbon monoxide so dangerous? - Carbon dioxide can be found in 3 forms. What are they? Which one is most common? How does it form? Be sure to include the role of carbonic anhydrase and the chloride shift. - - - - **Regulation of Respiration and Blood pH** Nuclei in both the medulla and pons regulate breathing. Which nucleus sets the basic rate for breathing? Which nerves and muscles are involved in respiration? How do the breathing centers in the pons alter the functioning of the VRG? - - - Give examples of other factors that can increase or decrease the rate of respiration. - - - - Distinguish between the central and peripheral chemoreceptors. - - Define hypercapnia and hypocapnia, hypoxia, acidosis and alkalosis. Which conditions will activate the inspiratory area? Which condition most strongly stimulates the inspiratory area? - - - - - List 3 factors that can influence blood pH. - - - Explain how too much or too little CO2 can alter blood pH. How does this correlate to the rate of respiration? - List 2 buffers found in the blood. - Be familiar with the causes of respiratory acidosis and alkalosis. How do the kidneys help to stabilize blood pH in each condition? - - --JEOPARDY **\*\*Blood System\*\*** \*\*Functions of Blood\*\* \- \*\*Transportation\*\*: What is the role of transporting nutrients, hormones, gases, and wastes? \- \*\*Protection\*\*: What do white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets do to protect the body? \- \*\*Regulation\*\*: What helps regulate pH, osmolarity, and temperature in the blood? \*\*Blood Components\*\* \- \*\*Formed Elements Origin\*\*: What originates in the red bone marrow? \- \*\*Plasma\*\*: What makes up about 55% of blood volume and carries water, proteins, ions, nutrients, wastes, and gases? \- \*\*Proteins\*\*: What are albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen known for in blood function? \*\*Cell Characteristics\*\* \- \*\*Red Blood Cells (RBCs)\*\*: What cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide and have a biconcave shape? \- \*\*White Blood Cells (WBCs)\*\*: What cells defend the body and can move out of blood vessels to fight infections? \- \*\*Platelets\*\*: What cell fragments form clots and have no nucleus? \*\*Disorders and Definitions\*\* \- \*\*Polycythemia\*\*: What is the condition of having an excessive RBC count? \- \*\*Leukemia\*\*: What is the dramatic increase of WBC count, usually due to cancer? \- \*\*Anemia Types\*\*: What are pernicious anemia, iron deficiency anemia, and sickle cell anemia? \-\-- **\*\*Heart and Circulatory System\*\*** \*\*Circulation Types\*\* \- \*\*Pulmonary Circulation\*\*: What refers to blood vessels that carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and return oxygen-rich blood to the heart? \- \*\*Systemic Circulation\*\*: What refers to the blood vessels that supply the rest of the body? \- \*\*Coronary Circulation\*\*: What supplies the heart muscle itself with nutrients and oxygen? \*\*Cardiac Conduction\*\* \- \*\*SA Node\*\*: What acts as the pacemaker of the heart? \- \*\*AV Node\*\*: What delays the impulse to allow atrial contraction before the ventricles depolarize? \- \*\*Purkinje Fibers\*\*: What fibers transmit electrical signals to ventricular muscles, causing contraction? \*\*Heart Pathologies\*\* \- \*\*Myocardial Infarction\*\*: What is another term for a heart attack, often caused by a blockage? \- \*\*Ischemia\*\*: What is reduced blood flow to the heart known as? \- \*\*Angina Pectoris\*\*: What is severe chest pain due to low blood flow to the heart? \*\*Cycle and Output\*\* \- \*\*Cardiac Output\*\*: What is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per minute? \- \*\*Stroke Volume\*\*: What is the amount of blood pumped out with each heartbeat? \- \*\*EDV and ESV\*\*: What terms refer to the volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole and systole? \-\-- **\*\*Lymphatic System\*\*** \*\*Functions\*\* \- \*\*Drainage\*\*: What function involves draining excess interstitial fluid? \- \*\*Immune Response\*\*: What function includes forming lymphocytes and filtering lymph? \- \*\*Lacteals\*\*: What absorbs lipids and vitamins from the digestive tract? \*\*Lymphatic Structures\*\* \- \*\*Lymph Nodes\*\*: What structures filter lymph and trap pathogens? \- \*\*Thymus\*\*: Where do T lymphocytes mature? \- \*\*Spleen\*\*: What lymphatic organ removes old RBCs and stores platelets? \*\*Pathology and Flow\*\* \- \*\*Edema\*\*: What is the condition of fluid accumulation in tissues? \- \*\*Lymph Flow\*\*: Through what vessels does lymph travel to return to the bloodstream? \- \*\*Macrophages and Lymphocytes\*\*: What immune cells are found in lymph nodes to help filter debris? **\*\*Respiratory System\*\*** \*\*Anatomy and Function\*\* \- \*\*Alveoli\*\*: What are the small air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs? \- \*\*Type I Alveolar Cells\*\*: What cells make up the lining of alveoli and are involved in gas exchange? \- \*\*Type II Alveolar Cells\*\*: What cells secrete surfactant to prevent alveolar collapse? \*\*Mechanics of Breathing\*\* \- \*\*Diaphragm\*\*: What muscle contracts to allow for lung expansion? \- \*\*Intercostal Muscles\*\*: What muscles between the ribs assist with breathing? \- \*\*Surfactant\*\*: What reduces surface tension in alveoli, aiding lung inflation? \*\*Ventilation and Exchange\*\* \- \*\*Inhalation Process\*\*: What involves taking in oxygen by expanding the lungs? \- \*\*Exhalation Process\*\*: What process involves expelling carbon dioxide from the lungs? \- \*\*Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide\*\*: What gases are primarily exchanged in the lungs? \*\*Conditions and Disorders\*\* \- \*\*Asthma\*\*: What respiratory disorder involves inflamed airways? \- \*\*Pneumonia\*\*: What infection fills alveoli with fluid, impairing gas exchange? \- \*\*Pulmonary Edema\*\*: What is fluid buildup in the lungs often caused by heart problems? -