A&P 2 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF
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This document is a study guide for an A&P 2 exam. The guide covers topics such as cardiovascular physiology, blood vessels, blood pressure regulation, and the lymphatic system. Focus your study on the key concepts and be prepared to apply them in questions that address conditions related to the material.
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A&P 2 Exam 2 Study Guide his study guide outlines the key concepts and topics covered on your exam. Use this as a tool T to focus your studying, but be sure to review all relevant lecture materials, notes, and textbook sections to fully understand these concepts. Cardiovascular Physiolo...
A&P 2 Exam 2 Study Guide his study guide outlines the key concepts and topics covered on your exam. Use this as a tool T to focus your studying, but be sure to review all relevant lecture materials, notes, and textbook sections to fully understand these concepts. Cardiovascular Physiology and Cardiac Cycle Heart Function and Pressure-Volume Relationships Understand the concepts of end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), and stroke volume (SV) and how they relate to the pressure-volume loop. Review Starling’s Law of the Heart and how stretching of heart muscle fibers affects contraction force. Learn about the cardiac cycle, including the sequence of events (phases) in one complete heartbeat. Cardiac Electrical Activity Identify the role of the cardioacceleratory center and cardioinhibitory center in regulating heart rate. Understand the function of neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, acetylcholine, etc.) in heart rate regulation. Review the electrical conduction system of the heart, including ECG wave components and what they represent in the cardiac cycle. Define arrhythmias and how they affect normal heart rhythm. Cardiac Output and Blood Pressure Learn the formula for cardiac output (CO) and what factors influence it. Understand how the autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates cardiac output through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Be familiar with blood pressure and how it is calculated. Study the impact of physical fitness and heart conditions on cardiac reserve. Blood Vessels and Circulation Blood Vessel Structure and Function Identify the layers of blood vessels (tunica intima, tunica media, tunica externa) and their composition. Compare and contrast arteries, veins, and capillaries, focusing on their structure and function. Understand which blood vessels contain valves and why they are necessary. Types of Arteries and Capillaries Learn the difference between elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles and their roles in circulation. Understand capillary function and the three types of capillaries (continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal) and where they are found. Be familiar with the concept of anastomoses and how they provide alternative blood flow pathways. What is the adaptive anatomy of the aorta? Blood Flow, Pressure, and Resistance Understand which blood vessels experience the highest and lowest blood pressure and why. Understand the inverse relationship between vessel radius and resistance (Poiseuille’s Law: resistance ∝ 1/radius⁴) and how small changes in diameter significantly impact blood flow and pressure. Study the four Starling forces and how blood hydrostatic pressure primarily drives fluid out of capillaries during filtration. Study bulk flow and diffusion as mechanisms for capillary exchange. What are the unique features of pericytes? Blood Pressure Regulation Short-Term and Long-Term Control of Blood Pressure Review baroreceptors and chemoreceptors including their location and how they regulate blood pressure. Understand the role of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and how it affects blood volume and pressure. Learn the effects of hormones like ADH, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and nitric oxide on blood vessel diameter and blood pressure. Understand how vasoconstriction and vasodilation impact blood flow and resistance. Learn how RAAS increases blood volume and pressure through renin release, angiotensin II activation, and aldosterone-mediated sodium and water retention. Understand how ACE inhibitors lower blood pressure. Cardiovascular Shock and Circulatory Pathologies Differentiate between circulatory shock, vascular shock, cardiogenic shock, and hypovolemic shock and what causes each. Learn how blood loss, heart failure, or systemic vasodilation can lead to shock. Lymphatic System and Capillary Exchange Lymphatic Circulation and Function Identify where lymphatic vessels are found and where they are absent. Understand the function of lymphatic valves and how they prevent backflow. Know the function of lymphoid organs such as the thymus and lymph nodes and be able to identify the primary vs secondry lymphoid organs. Capillary Exchange and Transport Mechanisms Review the forces involved in fluid movement across capillary walls and how they contribute to filtration and reabsorption. Learn about transcytosis and what type of molecule it transports and how across capillary endothelial cells. Understand how changes in blood pressure, blood volume, and vessel diameter affect circulation. Study Tips Make sure you can define important physiological concepts without simply memorizing them. Understand relationships between concepts. For example, how changes in vascular resistance affect blood pressure or how the autonomic nervous system regulates heart function. Be prepared for questions that require understanding how conditions like heart failure or hypertension affect circulation and pressure. Review diagrams and charts. Study ECG waveforms, the pressure-volume loop, and diagrams of blood vessels and capillary exchange
