Batangas State University IT 111: Introduction to Computing PDF

IT 111: Introduction to Computing Module 2: An Overview of Ethics Leading Innovations, Transforming Lives, Building Nation 2 WHAT IS ETHICS? IT 111: Introduction to Computing 3 WHAT IS ETHICS? Every society forms a set of rules. These rules are often expres...

IT 111: Introduction to Computing Module 2: An Overview of Ethics Leading Innovations, Transforming Lives, Building Nation 2 WHAT IS ETHICS? IT 111: Introduction to Computing 3 WHAT IS ETHICS? Every society forms a set of rules. These rules are often expressed in statements about how people should behave. However, there are people who are uncertain on which rule they will follow. 4 THE ETHICAL POINT OF VIEW ▸ Virtually everybody shares “core values” ▸ Life ▸ Happiness ▸ Ability to accomplish goals ▸ Two ways to view world ▸ Selfish point of view: consider only own self and its core values ▸ Ethical point of view: respect other people and their core values 5 DEFINING TERMS ▸ SOCIETY ▸ Association of people organized under a system of rules ▸ Rules: designed to advance the good of members over time ▸ MORALITY ▸ A society’s rules of conduct ▸ What people ought/ought not to do in various situations (road network – good or bad) ▸ ETHICS (philosophical study of morality – guidelines) ▸ Rational examination of morality ▸ Evaluation of people’s behavior. 6 WHY STUDY ETHICS? ▸ Not everyone can do what they want ▸ Ethics: a way to decide the best thing to do ▸ New problems accompany new technologies ▸ Email and spams ▸ www and pop-up ads for pornographic web sites ▸ “Common wisdom” not always adequate 7 ORIGIN OF ETHICS “ Man should not simple live, but live well with conduct governed by moderate virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.” 8 WHAT MAKES AN ETHICAL THEORY PERSUASIVE? ▸ What makes a good argument? “New technologies made us socially responsible.” GROUP A: Argue for GROUP B: Argue against Try to convince the other group 9 ETHICAL THEORIES ▸ Subjective Relativism ▸ Cultural Relativism ▸ Divine Command Theory ▸ Kantianism ▸ Act Utilitarianism ▸ Rule Utilitarianism ▸ Social Contact Theory 10 SUBJECTIVE RELATIVISM ▸ Relativism ▹ No universal norms of right and wrong ▹ One person can say “X is right”, another can say “X is wrong”, and both can be right. ▸ Subjective Relativism ▹ Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself. ▹ “What is right for you may not be right for me” 11 SUBJECTIVE RELATIVISM ▸ Case for Subjective Relativism ▹ Well-meaning and intelligent people disagree on moral issues ▹ (Ex: Abortion in US) ▹ Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless ▹ Takes time on debates (30 years) 12 SUBJECTIVE RELATIVISM ▸ Case against subjective relativism ▹ With subjective relativism, the line between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to do is not sharply drawn. ▹ By allowing each person to decide right and wrong for himself, subjective relativism makes no moral distinction between the actions of different people. ▹ We should not give legitimacy to an ethical theory that allows people to make decisions based on something other than reason. 13 CULTURAL RELATIVISM ▸ What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s actual moral guide. ▸ These guidelines vary from place to place and from time to time. ▸ A particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in other society at another time. ▹ Example: (driving with a friend and killing a pedestrian) ▹ (90% in Norway – don’t testify, 10% in Serbia, 50% in Mexico) 14 CULTURAL RELATIVISM ▸ Scenario You are riding in a car driven by a close friend. He hits a pedestrian. You know he was going at least 35 miles per hour in an area of a city where the maximum allowed speed is 20 miles per hour. There are no witness other than you. His lawyer says that if you testify under oath that he was driving only 20 miles per hour, you will save him from serious consequences. 15 CULTURAL RELATIVISM ▸ Case for Cultural Relativism ▹ Different social context demand different moral guidelines. ▹ Example: Survival among centuries has shifted from people to nature ▹ It is arrogant for one society to judge another. ▹ Example: It is arrogant to people in US nowadays to judge nations in the past ▹ Morality is reflected in actual behavior ▹ Example: Not in saying. Parents say do as I tell you not as I do, but the society don’t do so. 16 CULTURAL RELATIVISM ▸ Case against Cultural Relativism ▹ Because two societies do have different moral views doesn’t mean they ought to have different views. Sometimes societies have bad and wrong guidelines. ▹ Example: severe drought ▹ Doesn’t explain how guidelines evolve ▹ Segregation of students as to male and female schools ▹ Provides no way out for cultures in conflict ▹ Gaza poverty and the armed struggle against and larger Israel and expansion in settlements. 17 CULTURAL RELATIVISM ▸ Case against or Cultural Relativism ▹ Because many practices are acceptable does not mean any cultural practice is acceptable (many/any fallacy) ▹ Example: too many ways to document programs – which is good and which is bad ▹ Societies do, in fact, share certain core values ▹ Example: (no murder, care for babies) ▹ Only indirectly based on reason (do what society asks you to do, not what it makes sense) – based on tradition. ▹ Not a workable ethical theory 18 DIVINE COMMAND THEORY ▸ Good actions: those aligned with God’s will ▸ Bad actions: those contrary to God’s will ▸ Holy books reveal God’s will. ▸ We should use holy books as moral decision-making guides. 19 DIVINE COMMAND THEORY ▸ Case for Divine Command Theory ▹ We owe obedience to our creator. ▹ God is all-good and all-knowing. ▹ God is the ultimate authority. 20 DIVINE COMMAND THEORY ▸ Case against Divine Command Theory ▹ Different holy books disagree ▹ Society is multicultural, secular ▹ Some moral problems not addressed in holy books ▹ “The good” ≠ “God” (equivalence fallacy) related things but they are distinct. ▹ Based on obedience, not reason 21 KANTIANISM ▸ Good will: the desire to do the right thing ▸ Immanuel Kant: The only thing that is good without qualification is the good will. ▹ Courage and intelligence may be used to harm people. ▸ Reason should cultivate desire to do the right thing. (Dutifulness – respect some moral values – universal moral rules) ▹ What we ought to do NOT what we want to do 22 KANTIANISM ▸ Categorical Imperative (1st Formulation) ▹ Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal moral laws. ▹ EXAMPLE: Make promises to break them? If universalized, there is no mean for making promises. 23 KANTIANISM ▸ Categorical imperative (2nd Formulation) ▹ Act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to and end. ▹ Don’t “USE” people, “RESPECT” them ▹ This is usually an easier formula to work with than the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative 24 ACT UTILITARIANISM ▸ UTILITARIANISM ▹ Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent ▹ Focuses on the consequences ▹ A consequentialist theory ▸ ACT UTILITARIANISM ▹ Add up change in happiness of all affected beings ▹ Sum > 0, action is good ▹ Sum < 0, action is bad 25 ACT UTILITARIANISM ▸ Case for Act Utilitarianism ▹ Focuses on happiness ▹ Down-to-earth (practical) ▹ Comprehensive ▹ Workable ethical theory 26 ACT UTILITARIANISM ▸ Case against Act Utilitarianism ▹ Unclear whom to include in calculations ▹ Too much work ▹ Ignores out innate sense of duty ▹ Example: I made a promise. If kept, 100 unit of pleasure will go to Person A. If not, 101 units of pleasure will go to Person B. ▹ Result – I’ll break my promise. 27 ACT UTILITARIANISM ▸ Case against Act Utilitarianism ▹ Susceptible to the problem of moral luck ▹ Example: Sending flowers to a patient and causing an allergy for him. This cost him much. Then your act is BAD. 28 RULE UTILITARIANISM ▸ We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed by everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in total happiness. ▸ Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to individual actions ▸ Rule utilitarianism applies Principles of Utility to moral rules. 29 RULE UTILITARIANISM ▸ Case for Rule Utilitarianism ▹ Compared to act utilitarianism, it is easier to perform the utilitarian calculus. ▹ Not every moral decision requires performing utilitarian calculus. ▹ Moral rules survive exceptional situations ▹ RU suggests that on the long term keeping promises will produce more good than breaking them ▹ Avoids the problem of moral luck ▹ Workable ethical theory 30 RULE UTILITARIANISM ▸ Case against Rule Utilitarianism ▹ All consequences must be measured on a single scale. ▹ All units must be the same in order to do the sum ▹ In certain circumstances utilitarian must quantify the value of a human life ▹ Utilitarianism ignores the problem of an unjust distribution of good consequences. ▹ Utilitarianism does not mean “the greatest good of the greatest number” ▹ That requires a principle of justice ▹ What happens when a conflict arises between the Principle of Utility and a principle of justice? 31 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ▸ Thomas Hobbes ▹ “State of nature” Ex: Iraq Invasion ▹ We implicitly accept a social contract ▹ Establishment of moral rules to govern relations among citizens ▹ Government capable of enforcing these rules ▸ Jean-Jacques Rousseau ▹ In ideal society, no one above rules ▹ That prevents society from enacting rules 32 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ▸ James Rachel’s Definition ▸ “Morality consists in the set of rules, governing how people are to treat one another, that rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those rules as well.” ▸ Similar to Kantianism but rules are not to be universalized, but specific society should agreed upon. 33 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ▸ John Rawls’ Principles of Justice ▹ Each person may claim a “fully adequate” number of basic rights and liberties, so long as these claims are consistent with everyone else having a claim to the same rights and liberties ▹ Any social and economic inequalities must ▹ Be associated with positions that everyone has a fair and equal opportunity to achieve. ▹ Ex: People with same intelligence should have the right to achieve the same position regardless of social position ▹ Be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle) ▹ Ex: differences in Taxes according to income 34 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ▸ Case for Social Contract Theory ▹ Frame in language of rights ▹ Explains why people act in self-interest without common agreement ▹ Provides clear analysis of certain citizen/government problems ▹ Why to punish criminals? To protect lives. ▹ Workable ethical theory 35 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ▸ Case against Social Contract Theory ▹ No one signed contract ▹ Some actions have multiple characterizations ▹ (Ex: Don’t steal?) ▹ Conflicting rights problem ▹ Ex: Abortion - the privacy right of mother, against the fetus’s right to live. ▹ May unjustly treat people who cannot uphold contract ▹ Ex Drug addicts – some countries put in prisons ▹ Other countries put in hospitals 36 KINDS OF RIGHTS ▸ Negative right: A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alone ▹ Free Expression ▸ Positive right: A right obligating others to do something on your behalf ▹ Free education – Other must do something for you ▸ Absolute right: A right guaranteed without exception ▹ Free expression and right for life ▸ Limited right: A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances ▹ Free education limited to 12th grade because of under budgeting 37 COMPARING WORKABLE ETHICAL THEORIES Theory Motivation Criteria Focus Kantianism Dutifulness Rules Individual Act Consequence Actions Group Utilitarianism Rule Consequence / Rules Group Utilitarianism Duty Social Rights Rules Individual Contract 38 10 COMMANDMENTS OF COMPUTER ETHICS 1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. 2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work. 3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files. 4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. 5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. 6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid. 39 10 COMMANDMENTS OF COMPUTER ETHICS 7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation. 8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output. 9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing. 10.Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that insure consideration and respect for your fellow human Source: Computer Ethics Institute 40 IT 111: Introduction to Computing Thank you!