Architectural History Study Guide PDF

I. Why Study Architectural History? Understanding Evolution: The core idea is that architectural history isn't just a record of buildings, but an analysis of their evolution in form and purpose: "History of Architecture is the discipline that records, analyzes and interprets building design archite...

I. Why Study Architectural History? Understanding Evolution: The core idea is that architectural history isn't just a record of buildings, but an analysis of their evolution in form and purpose: "History of Architecture is the discipline that records, analyzes and interprets building design architecture. It studies its forms, purposes, and most importantly its evolution." Cultural Reflection: Architecture reflects the society and culture that created it: "Studying architectural history enables us to understand the society and culture they represent". The Importance of 'Why': The document repeatedly emphasizes asking "why?" about architectural forms: "If you want to MAKE, or at least understand good architecture - you just need to continuously ask the question “-Why?”" and "The ''why'' is what really must be understood in order to produce the kind of architecture our contemporary society needs." Impact on Well-being: The text stresses that the built environment has a profound impact on our health, productivity, cognitive abilities, and emotions: "The way we design our built environment can dramatically affect our : health, productivity, cognitive abilities, emotions, and our overall well-being." This connects historical architectural lessons to modern design principles. Environmental Responsibility: It explicitly states that environmentally harmful buildings can't be good for us: "If our buildings contribute to polluting and deteriorating the environment, can it be good for our health and well- being?" followed by "If it is harming the environment… It will NEVER be good for you." Analytical and Comparative Methods: The study of architectural history employs analytical and comparative methods to understand "why the various cultures produced the architecture of their time." Forces Shaping Buildings: Several forces that shape buildings are identified as: Technical: Available materials, construction techniques, and structural systems Government: Regulations and requirements for building development Architect/Builder: The professional training and judgments applied to design Environment: Site nature, topography, weather, and views. Influences on Architectural Character: These are categorized into: Geographical: Site location, land type Geological: Available building materials (limestone, sandstone, granite, etc.) Climatic: Temperature, rain, sun. Religious: Spiritual beliefs and practices Social & Political: Societal structure, government, and power dynamics These factors impact several aspects of building character including: Plans, Walls, Openings, Roof and Columns. II. Ancient Egyptian Architecture Central Concept: The ancient Egyptians saw themselves as "God's stewards ‫خلفا‬," which deeply influenced their architecture. This belief contributed to their long- lasting civilization. Geography: Egypt’s geography was essential, particularly the Nile River which provided "food, water, and transportation" and the desert providing "natural protection." The Nile also divided the land into the fertile 'black land' (Kemet) and the 'red land.' The "valley of dead" and where the tombs and pyramids are built is on the West side of the Nile. "the fertile strip" where settlement and life are possible on the East of the Nile. Building Materials:Lack of forests led to a scarcity of wood for building. Primary materials were mud bricks (made from Nile mud and straw), limestone, sandstone, and granite, all of which were influenced by the geological location. "The availability of construction materials in each region defines its own architectural characteristics" and "Replacing a material with another requires the style of building to be modified or its proportion to be changed". Sun-dried mud bricks were used in houses; stones like limestone, sandstone and granite were used in more important buildings such as temples and tombs. The mud bricks were not very sturdy and deteriorated quickly. Houses:Located along the Nile for water and transport, they were typically one or two stories. Features included flat roofs (used as living spaces), small high openings for ventilation, and thick mud walls for thermal mass. Mud houses had thermal insulation properties - cool in summer and warm in winter. "A mud brick construction is built with great attention to the thickness and mass of the wall thus giving it high thermal qualities. This type of wall slows the penetration of heat during the day and retrocedes it usefully during the night." There was a lack of foundations. The concept of the "Batter Wall" was developed due to using mud, where the wall is inclined from the base to the top. Columns: Columns were often inspired by plants like the papyrus flower, lotus bud, and palm, with a decorative purpose. The original columns are made of reeds supported by trunks or bundles of papyrus reeds. Later, stone versions of columns were used. In temples, "open forms are preferred along the main axis of the complex while buds are found in the more peripheral areas such as the outer courts". Corniche: The top of buildings facades were made of papyrus and reeds which was developed to cornices. Hieroglyphics The huge windowless walls were suitable for Hieroglyphics which are carving ornaments, pictures and writing. Evolution of Tombs and Pyramids:Pit Graves: Earliest form of burial, simple holes in the desert sand.  Mastaba Tombs: Bench-like structures made of mud-brick, with an underground burial chamber, serdab (statues of deceased), and an outer chapel with a false door (for communication with the spirit world). Pyramids: Evolved from mastabas with the Step Pyramid of Djoser being an early significant stone structure. Pyramid Shape:Philosophical: The shape symbolized the sun's rays and the path of the pharaoh to the sky. It was also associated with mountains, thought to be dwelling places of gods. Architectural: The wide base gives strength and durability, slopes resist erosion, and rainwater doesn't collect. Pyramid Characteristics:Located on the west bank of the Nile, often near the river for material transport. Early pyramids used stone blocks, while later ones used mud brick with a limestone casing. The outer limestone layer was stripped away over time. The top of the pyramids were capped with gold or metal plates Pyramids of Giza:The great pyramid is in the center of gravity of all continents, and in the center of the land area of the world. Pyramids are aligned to the north-south axis and in relation to each other. The builder of the pyramids were wise to chose the location since the stones can be cut nearby. The Giza plateau is very stable. Quarries‫المحاجر‬: The text discusses different types of stones that were used in building the pyramids, which include: limestone, granite, and basalt. Measurements: Ancient Egyptians used the cubit, palm, and finger as units of measurement, "Measuring ropes of 100 cubits (52.5 meters) were used". They also used the "seked" method to determine angles Funerary Complexes‫ المجمعات الجنائزية‬: Pyramids were part of a larger complex that included temples, causeways, and other structures. "A pyramid was never an isolated structure but always an integral part of a funerary complex." The Great Pyramids: The great pyramid lies in the center of gravity of the continents. The pyramid are aligned with north-south and east-west axis. The pyramids are also aligned in relation to each other. Quarries: Many quarries of different kinds of stones are situated along the Nile. Limestone was used for the inner core of the pyramids, and high quality Tura limestone was used for the outer casing. Building Measurements: Cubit, palms and fingers were used as units of measurements. They used measuring ropes of 100 cubits for great distances. Pythagorean theorem Although they didn't know the theory of the theorem, they knew through experience that they could form right angles by using a primitive version of the theorem. Orientation The Great Pyramid's north-south axis is aligned nearly to the true north. III. Ancient Greek Architecture Geography: Greece's mountainous terrain led to the development of independent city-states (polis) and a reliance on the sea for trade and travel. "The mainland and islands of Greece are rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges(kept villages separated) with few substantial forests". The sea provided many natural harbors that were means of communication and trade. City-States (Polis): These independent city-states influenced the architecture. Greek cities usually surrounded a fort (Acropolis) and included a market place (Agora). Building Materials:Stone (limestone and marble) was readily available, which was a factor in the precision of their work. Clay was used for roof tiles and architectural decorations Wood was used in supports and roof beams. Unbaked brick was used for walls especially in private houses. Metals (especially bronze) were used for some decorative details. Acropolis: An ancient citadel located on a rocky out-crop above the city of Athens. "The word acropolis is from the Greek words (akron, "highest point, extremity") and (polis, "city)". Temple Architecture:Public Focus: Greek architecture focused on public buildings, particularly temples, since they did not have royalty/palaces. Standardization‫ التوحيد القياسي‬: Greek temples were standardized, and construction methods and styles were similar among them. Symbolism: Temples were symbolic dwellings of the gods. Peripteral Style‫ النمط المحيطي‬: Temples were rectangular, lifted on a podium, with colonnades on all sides. Even Number of Columns: To center the entrance, temples usually had an even number of columns at the front. "Petrified Architecture‫" العمارة المتحجرة‬: The design of the temple elements reflect their origin in wood. The transformation in material from wood to stone is called Petrification Trabeated Construction‫البناء الرأسي والعمودي‬: They used the post and lintel system ("Having horizontal beams or lintels rather than arches") to support roofs and openings, rather than arches and vaults. Simple Ground Plans: They had simple rectangular ground plans. Stylistic Elements:Pediments‫واجهات‬, Friezes‫افاريز‬, Architraves‫عتبة‬: Ornamentation was a key part of their temples. Cellae, Columns were elements of the temples Proportions:The Greeks used the "golden ratio" in their architecture, which has the value of 1.61803. "The space between the columns form golden rectangles."  Architectural Orders:Doric: Sturdy, plain capital, fluted columns, emphasis on stability. This is the earliest and most basic style, "massive and weighty". Ionic: Thinner, more elegant, scroll-like capital (volute), "slender and more ornamented". Corinthian: Elaborate capital with acanthus leaves (seldom used in Greece but often seen on roman temples). Classification of Temples: Temples are classified based on the following: The number of columns on the entrance front The type of the colonnade surrounding the naos The type of Portico Different Temple Styles: Prostyle temples are temples that only have columns in front. Amphiprostyle temples have columns at the front and the rear. Tholos temples have a circular plan. Peripteral temples have columns all around. Dipteral temples have a double row of columns surrounding the building. Temple Layout:Naos (cella): The main inner chamber housing the cult statue. Pronaos: The inner area of the portico between the front columns and the entrance of the Cella. Opisthodomos (epinaos): Room in the rear of the cella. Entrance doors on the east and west walls Windows were rare The Agora: The central marketplace and meeting place, framed by structures like the stoa. The Stoa‫الرواق‬: A covered walkway, often framing the agora which is an open but protected space. Theaters: Open air theatres. Design RefinementsThe shafts of the columns swell slightly outward, in order to counter the feeling of slenderness. The stylobate floor of the Parthenon is curved upward, because a perfectly flat floor would seem to sag inwards. Columns are more robust and have greater spacing at the ends, which makes the spacing and size appear equal when viewed from a distance. IV. Roman Architecture Introduction Practical Approach: The Romans were primarily practical, bringing engineering into architecture. They emphasized "grandeur and power" as well as improving the lives of the citizens. Influences: Romans adopted aspects of Etruscan art and design, Greek architecture, and Egyptian stonework. Key Innovations: Romans used arches and vaults as the basis of their design system and systematized their methods of construction. Materials:Tufa (volcanic stone) was used, then travertine, and they also used marble for facing or decorations. The key material was Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which allowed for the construction of strong structures in any shape. Pozzolana sand (volcanic) made their concrete durable. Space vs. Structure: They were concerned with shaping interior space rather than focusing on filling it with structural supports. Arches and Vaults: A strong architectural form used to support a lot of weight. Columns:Adopted Greek columns, but modified to be slenderer and more ornamented. Columns were mounted on pedestals‫قواعد‬. Engaged columns were used as wall decorations. Fluting‫ زخارف‬on columns was omitted‫بارزة‬. The Greek Anta was developed into a Roman pilaster (flat column). Tuscan Column: A modification of Doric column. The Forum: Was the center of the city, which contained temples, shrines, the basilica (law court), and other places for the town council. Aqueducts‫قنوات المياه‬: Designed to carry fresh water to urban centers. Basilica: A space for large gatherings and law courts. Conclusion This document provides an overview of architectural history emphasizing the “why” behind design choices and considering multiple influences. It highlights the unique characteristics of ancient Egyptian and Greek architecture and provides a short introduction to the Roman Empire. It establishes a foundation for a deeper dive into specific architectural styles and periods.