History of Architecture 1 - Dr. Alia Amer Fall 2022 PDF

History of Architecture 1 Dr. Alia Amer Fall 2022 Why do we learn History of Architecture? Why do we learn History? INTRODUCTION This course presents an overview of the development of early civilizations and their architecture INTRODUCTION H...

History of Architecture 1 Dr. Alia Amer Fall 2022 Why do we learn History of Architecture? Why do we learn History? INTRODUCTION This course presents an overview of the development of early civilizations and their architecture INTRODUCTION History of Architecture is the discipline that records, analyzes and interprets building design architecture. It studies its forms, purposes, and most importantly its evolution. Studying architectural history enables us to understand the society and culture they represent INTRODUCTION Brain storming and ideas WHY? WHAT? HOW? How and Why each era since the beginning of time formed its own unique style. INTRODUCTION WHY do we need to study History of Architecture??!! If you want to MAKE, or at least understand good architecture - WHY? you just need to continuously ask the question “-Why?” “Why is that that way, and not somehow else?” The ''why'' is what really must be understood in order to produce the kind of architecture our contemporary society needs. Architecture should reflect the philosophies prevalent at any given time. Resolution # 1 The way we design our built environment can dramatically affect our : health, productivity, cognitive abilities, emotions, and our overall well-being. Question # 1 If our buildings contribute to polluting and deteriorating the environment, can it be good for our health and well-being? Resolution # 2 If it is harming the environment… It will NEVER be good for you Question # 2 Does our built environment provide us with what we need? does it enhance our quality of life? Resolution # 3 Resolution # 3 Question # 3 Don’t we need to change the way we think about our buildings design? INTRODUCTION WHY do we need to study History of Architecture??!! History of Architecture answers the question WHY? WHY? WHY the various cultures produced the architecture of their time?? It is important to understand why a building was created a certain way in any given point in history Analytical Comparative method method INTRODUCTION WHY do we need to study History of Architecture??!! It is important to understand why a building was created a certain way in any given point in history INTRODUCTION  Forces that shape buildings Architect /Builder Government Technical Provides concept of good and bad design Nature of site, With specific according the weather, requirements achieved topography, for the building requirements views With Control and Available materials, professional regulate the knowledge of training and development of construction judgement all buildings systmes Owner Society Site &Location INTRODUCTION Architectural Influences Character 1 Geographical 1 Plans 2 Geological 2 Walls 3 climate 3 Openings 4 Religion 4 Roof 5 Social & political 5 Columns 6 Moldings& ornaments The Ancient Egyptians understood that it is the task of mankind to be God’s stewards. This concept was the central pillar of their understanding. The result was the longest lasting and most successful civilization that the world has ever seen. INTRODUCTION Architectural Influences Character 1 Geographical 1 Plans 2 Geological 2 Walls 3 climate 3 Openings 4 Religion 4 Roof 5 Social & political 5 Columns 6 Moldings& ornaments  ‫العوامل التي أثرت علي نشاة العمارة المصرية القديمة‬ ‫عوامل انسانية‬ ‫عوامل طبيعية‬ ‫الحياه الدينية‬ ‫الجغرافيا‬ ‫الجيولوجيا‬ ‫الحياه االجتماعية‬ ‫المناخ‬ ‫الحياه السياسية‬ ‫التأثير علي المنتج‬ ‫المعماري‬ Geography The ancient Egyptians thought of Egypt as being divided into two types of land, the 'black land' and the 'red land The Nile River was the single most important element in the geography of Egypt Geography Geography The geography of Ancient Egypt was very unique and allowed Egypt to become a very successful civilization. Egypt’s geography contributed all aspects of Ancient Egyptians lives such as the Nile River being their source of food, water, and transportation and the desert offering natural protection. kemet=black land.‫كانت مصر تسمي كيميت او األرض السوداء‬.‫الحضارة و العمارة تتأثر بشكل كبير بالموقع الجغرافي‬.the fertile strip ‫نهر النيل و دوره في قيام الحياه في مصر‬.‫مصر العليا و مصر السفلي‬.‫قيام الحضارة‬..‫علي الجانب الشرقي لنهر النيل‬..‫نشاة المدن‬.. ‫خصوبة التربة‬ the valley of dead ‫بناء المقابر و االهرامات علي الجانب الغربي من نهر النيل‬ GEOLOGY ‫‪GEOLOGY‬‬ ‫‪Lime stone‬‬ ‫‪Sand stone‬‬ ‫‪Granite‬‬ ‫مواد البناء‬ ‫‪Sand-dried bricks‬‬ ‫العوامل الجيولوجية لعبت دورا هاما في توفيرالمواد الخام الطبيعية‬ ‫‪Date palm‬‬ ‫ان مادة البناء المستخدمة لها اثر واضح في التصميم و الكتل المعمارية‪.‬‬ ‫‪Limes‬‬ ‫‪Reeds‬‬ ‫‪stone‬‬ ‫استبدال مادة باخري يقتضي تعديل طراز البناء او تغيير نسبه‪.‬‬ ‫‪Sand stone‬‬ ‫مواد إلبناء المتاحة في كل إقليم تحدد سمات الطابع‬ ‫المعماري الخاص به‪.‬‬ ‫التأثير التشكيلي لكل خامة بناء‬ ‫‪Granite‬‬ ‫‪Geology‬‬ ‫تم بناء المنازل في مصر القديمة من الطين الذي جمع من النيل ووضع في قوالب‬ ‫وترك ليجف تحت أشعة الشمس ألستخدامها في البناء‪.‬‬ ‫العديد من المدن المصرية اختفت بسبب قربها من المساحة المزروعة من وادي‬ ‫النيل وغمرت بالمياة وأرتفعت ببطء خالل آالف السنين‪.‬‬ CLIMATE 1. Bright sunshine, 2. intense heat, 3. little rainfall, 4. prevailing breezes were climatic factors responsible for features in buildings..‫قلة الفتحات في الحائط الخارجية‬.‫تصميم األسطح بشكل مستوي‬ ‫زيادة سمك الحائط الخارجية‬ the flat roof, portico, loggia, open forecourt, few windows. CLIMATE CLIMATE CLIMATE SOCIAL LIFE The population of ancient Egypt was divided into groups of people with different jobs and responsibilities to society. These social classes were structured as a pyramid 1.The Pharaoh 2.High government officials like the vizier , the chief treasurer and the army general 3.Priests and nobles (who serve as lesser government officials) 4.Soldiers and scribes (who write down important events and calculate taxes) 5.Craftsmen and merchants 6.Farmers and unskilled workers 7.Slaves ‫كيف أثرت هذه العوامل السابقة علي عمارة كل من‪:‬‬ ‫المساكن‬ ‫المعابد‬ ‫المقابر‬  ‫المساكن‬ There are no forests in Egypt so wood is scarce and is not used for house building. The earliest inhabitants of Egypt lived in huts made from papyrus reeds. it was soon discovered that the mud left behind after the annual flooding of the Nile could be made into bricks which could be used for building. Bricks were made by mixing mud and straw and leaving them to dry in the sun. The development of building materials and its impact on architecture Mud and Diff. kinds of plants mud-brick stone Features of Egyptian architecture Houses There are no forests in Egypt, so wood is scarce and is not used for house building. The earliest inhabitants of Egypt lived in huts made from papyrus reeds. it was soon discovered that the mud left behind after the annual flooding of The mud walls were reinforced the Nile could be made into bricks which could be used for building. using plants (wicker) Bricks were made by mixing mud and straw and leaving them to dry in the sun. Egyptian houses were set on the Nile for ease of transportation and main source of water for drinking and agriculture. They were either one or two stories high. The second story being a more private one. Wood was not widely used as a building material because trees were scarce. Mud, clay, rock and reed were mostly used. The concept of Batter wall ِ ُُْ ‫س ُك ْم ۚ أَف َ َاَل‬ “ََ ‫ِْ ُُو‬ ِ ُ ‫" َو ِفي أَنف‬ The human body naturally leans slightly to maintain balance, especially when in motion, like on a moving train. This inclination helps to counteract forces that could cause instability. When you’re standing on a moving train, external forces from the train’s acceleration or deceleration can make you unstable. Leaning slightly forward or backward, while holding onto a pole, shifts your center of gravity to better counter these forces, allowing you to remain upright and balanced. Houses were plain, had a flat roof that could be used as another living space. They were mainly constructed out of mud bricks. Because they had a cooling effect for the heat and humid Egyptian weather. Their architecture was strongly related to the weather and to the status of the owners of the home. Ancient mud houses in Egypt were made by first mixing a compound of mud and straw. The mixture could then be formed into bricks that were allowed to bake and dry under the hot Egyptian sun. While the mud might be plentiful, it was not particularly sturdy. In a very short amount of time, usually just a few years, an ancient Egyptian house constructed of mud brick would begin to deteriorate and crumble. A home that is warm in winter and cool in summer – clay bricks are well noted for their remarkable thermal insulation properties A mud brick construction is built with great attention to the thickness and mass of the wall thus giving it high thermal qualities. This type of wall slows the penetration of heat during the day and retrocedes it usefully during the night Construction There were no foundations generally. The walls were generally 40 cm thick and wooden beams were let into walls for reinforcement. The windows were high and squared to let the heat out Thermal mass Thermal mass is the ability of a material to absorb and store heat energy. Thermal mass is particularly beneficial where there is a big difference between day and night outdoor temperatures. During winter During summer Openings dimensions Mud brick walls do not allow for large openings or windows. When these openings are only for ventilation, they are usually of very small size, (length:15 cm, height: 20 cm). The maximum dimensions generally reported for doors are: (width:100 to 127 cm – height: 210 to 300cm ). Features of Egyptian architecture Columns The shape of columns was influence by the use of plant. Ancient Egyptian columns have an inverted bell capital derived from the Papyrus flower or the bud capital derived from the lotus bud. Features of Egyptian architecture Columns The original reed structures were supported by a framework of trunks or bundles of papyrus reeds and so stone versions were used (for the most part) in the temples. In most cases, the open forms are preferred along the main axis of the complex while buds are found in the more peripheral areas such as the outer courts. Other columns were based on the palm and the lotus. Features of Egyptian architecture Columns Lotus Papyrus & Palm – for “ fertility” ‫‪Features of Egyptian architecture‬‬ ‫‪Columns‬‬ ‫األعمدة النخيلية‬ ‫زهرة اللوتس‬ ‫األعمدة الحتحورية‬ ‫‪Features of Egyptian architecture‬‬ ‫‪Columns‬‬ ‫أعمدة البردي‬ ‫األعمدة المركبة‬ ‫الزهرة المقلوبة‬ Features of Egyptian architecture Columns Features of Egyptian architecture Columns Features of Egyptian architecture Corniche The top of buildings facades was made of papyrus and reeds which was developed to corniches. Features of Egyptian architecture Corniche Features of Egyptian architecture Batter wall The walls of ancient Egyptian buildings were sloped on the outside while remaining vertical on the inside. The inclination of the walls from base to top of the facade (the influence of using mud) Philae temple Features of Egyptian architecture Hieroglyphics Those huge windowless walls were suitable for their relief sculptures known as Hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics are carving ornaments, pictures and writing on huge areas of walls The old kingdom Evolution of pyramids Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Pit graves The earliest method of burial in ancient Egypt was in shallow pits in the desert of the Nile’s west bank. The desert sand dried the bodies and preserved them. The body is placed on the left hand side in the flexed position in a hole in the sand with some associated grave goods. The hole is then covered over with sand. Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Pit graves At the end, to ensure the preservation of their burials, they built a bench-like structure over graves to create the first burial structure called a Mastsba.  Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs A mastaba is a table or bench like structure, usually made from mud-brick with a flat wooden roof and slopping walls. Internally, mastaba consists of three main parts: 1.Burial chamber : below the ground (30 feet) and housed and protected the body and spirit. 2.Serdab: A second hidden chamber. Contains statues of the deceased members of the family. was used to store anything that may have been considered essential for the comfort of the deceased in the afterlife. 3.Outer chamber or Chapel (with the false door) : above the ground and was accessible to visitors who would perform rites. For placing the offerings to the Ka. Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs False door : to establish connection between world of dead and living. The design on the door allowed the spirit to move freely between tomb and the chapel.  Evolution of pyramids When the people and burial customs were united, during the period 3000-2700, it became customary for nobles to be interred in a simple tomb called a mastaba. After a while, the flat roof of the surface building was replaced by a pyramid design. What does the word 'pyramid' mean? The word 'pyramid' actually comes from the Greek word 'pyramis' which means 'wheat cake’. The ancient Egyptian word for the pyramids was 'Mer'. Old Kingdom : 3000 – 2160 BC 1st – 6th dynasty The pyramids of ancient Egypt were built over a period of 2,700 years, ranging from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period. The time at which pyramid building reached its acme was that commencing with the 3rd dynasty and ending at roughly the 6th. The Old Kingdom was characterized by revolutionary advancements in architecture. It was known as Known as “the Age of the Pyramids” The architectural design of the pyramids was a reflection of both politics and religious custom Ancient Egyptians believed in an eternal afterlife, and the purpose of the pyramids was to safeguard the Pharaoh's body and all the belongings he would need after death, in order to facilitate his passage into the after-life. Step Pyramid of Djoser Was designed during the third dynasty by the famous architect Imhotep. it is probably the earliest stone building of importance erected in Egypt. The substructure has an intricate system of underground corridors and rooms, its main feature being a central shaft 25 metres deep, at the bottom of which is the sepulchral chamber built of granite from Aswān Step Pyramid of Djoser Step Pyramid of Djoser The Maydum pyramid the pyramid was built for Pharaoh Huni who was the last ruler of the 3rd Dynasty The initial structure was gradually enlarged until it became a gigantic eight-terraced mass of masonry. The entire structure was eventually covered with a smooth facing of limestone; a geometrically true pyramid was the final result. In its ruined condition, it has the appearance of a three- stepped pyramid rising to a height of about 70 meters. The bent pyramid Built by Snefru, of the 4th dynasty. Marks an advance in development toward the strictly pyramidal tomb. The bent pyramid at Dahshur shows us that the ancient Egyptians experimented a lot with the slope of the pyramids.  What Were the Main idea behind using the Pyramid shape? Philosophical reasons:- The idea of pyramid came from basic idea of mountains Humans, in front of mountains, realized how small, how tiny and how irrelevant they are. Many civilizations used to think that Gods and souls of their ancestors reside in mountains, which are more closer to heaven. Another philosophy related to pyramid is the shape it resembles spiritually (The pyramid had sloping sides so that the dead pharaoh could Symbolically climb to the sky and live forever). The pyramid represented the rays of the sun. Pyramidal structure resembles ‘all ways of life’ leading to one goal  What Were the Main idea behind using the Pyramid shape? Architectural reasons:- 1 Pyramids are simple structures where the base is wide and top is narrow. The entire weight of the structure is vastly distributed on the vast base of the pyramid. This gives more strength and durability to the structure over millennia. 2 Due to the slopes on four/three sides, the walls are less prone to erosion and sideward air-thrust- Due to the slopes, the structure gets less air thrust during sandstorm, heavy winds. 3 Rainwater doesn’t get logged on the structure What Were the Main Characteristics of a Pyramid? 1 All Egyptian pyramids were constructed on the west bank of the Nile, where the sun sets. 2 They were situated relatively close to the Nile, to facilitate river transport of stone from the quarries. 3 The early pyramids were built differently from the later ones. The monumental pyramids of the Old Kingdom were built out of stone blocks, while those of the later Middle Kingdom were smaller and were typically made out of mud brick cased in limestone. Granite was also traditionally used for the royal chambers inside the pyramid. What Were the Main Characteristics of a Pyramid? 4 The early structures usually had a core of local limestone, cased in an outer layer of better quality limestone, or occasionally granite. 5 When the pyramid was almost finished, a special block covered in shining metal plated with gold, silver or electrum (a mixture of both) was placed on the top of the pyramid. This capstone would dazzle observers with its reflection of the sun. when first constructed around 2500 BC. The pyramids were paper white and as smooth as glass. The pyramids somewhat stayed in this state until the Arab invasion of Egypt around AD 500. The Arab invaders stripped the pyramid of it’s smooth limestone and built a huge section of Cairo. Many of the Mosques and Palaces of Cairo consist of the Ancient stones of the pyramids  Evolution of pyramids When the people and burial customs were united, during the period 3000-2700, it became customary for nobles to be interred in a simple tomb called a mastaba. After a while, the flat roof of the surface building was replaced by a pyramid design. What does the word 'pyramid' mean? The word 'pyramid' actually comes from the Greek word 'pyramis' which means 'wheat cake’. The ancient Egyptian word for the pyramids was 'Mer'. Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Pit graves The earliest method of burial in ancient Egypt was in shallow pits in the desert of the Nile’s west bank. The desert sand dried the bodies and preserved them. The body is placed on the left hand side in the flexed position in a hole in the sand with some associated grave goods. The hole is then covered over with sand. Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Pit graves At the end, to ensure the preservation of their burials, they built a bench-like structure over graves to create the first burial structure called a Mastsba.  Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs A mastaba is a table or bench like structure, usually made from mud-brick with a flat wooden roof and slopping walls. Internally, mastaba consists of three main parts: 1.Burial chamber : below the ground (30 feet) and housed and protected the body and spirit. 2.Serdab: A second hidden chamber. Contains statues of the deceased members of the family. was used to store anything that may have been considered essential for the comfort of the deceased in the afterlife. 3.Outer chamber or Chapel (with the false door) : above the ground and was accessible to visitors who would perform rites. For placing the offerings to the Ka. Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs Architecture of the afterlife Evolution of pyramids Mastaba tombs False door : to establish connection between world of dead and living. The design on the door allowed the spirit to move freely between tomb and the chapel. Old Kingdom : 3000 – 2160 BC 1st – 6th dynasty The pyramids of ancient Egypt were built over a period of 2,700 years, ranging from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period. The time at which pyramid building reached its acme was that commencing with the 3rd dynasty and ending at roughly the 6th. The Old Kingdom was characterized by revolutionary advancements in architecture. It was known as Known as “the Age of the Pyramids” The architectural design of the pyramids was a reflection of both politics and religious custom Ancient Egyptians believed in an eternal afterlife, and the purpose of the pyramids was to safeguard the Pharaoh's body and all the belongings he would need after death, in order to facilitate his passage into the after-life. Step Pyramid of Djoser Was designed during the third dynasty by the famous architect Imhotep. it is probably the earliest stone building of importance erected in Egypt. The substructure has an intricate system of underground corridors and rooms, its main feature being a central shaft 25 metres deep, at the bottom of which is the sepulchral chamber built of granite from Aswān Step Pyramid of Djoser Step Pyramid of Djoser The Maydum pyramid the pyramid was built for Pharaoh Huni who was the last ruler of the 3rd Dynasty The initial structure was gradually enlarged until it became a gigantic eight-terraced mass of masonry. The entire structure was eventually covered with a smooth facing of limestone; a geometrically true pyramid was the final result. In its ruined condition, it has the appearance of a three- stepped pyramid rising to a height of about 70 meters. The bent pyramid Built by Snefru, of the 4th dynasty. Marks an advance in development toward the strictly pyramidal tomb. The bent pyramid at Dahshur shows us that the ancient Egyptians experimented a lot with the slope of the pyramids.  What Were the Main idea behind using the Pyramid shape? Philosophical reasons:- The idea of pyramid came from basic idea of mountains Humans, in front of mountains, realized how small, how tiny and how irrelevant they are. Many civilizations used to think that Gods and souls of their ancestors reside in mountains, which are more closer to heaven. Another philosophy related to pyramid is the shape it resembles spiritually (The pyramid had sloping sides so that the dead pharaoh could Symbolically climb to the sky and live forever). The pyramid represented the rays of the sun. Pyramidal structure resembles ‘all ways of life’ leading to one goal  What Were the Main idea behind using the Pyramid shape? Architectural reasons:- 1 Pyramids are simple structures where the base is wide and top is narrow. The entire weight of the structure is vastly distributed on the vast base of the pyramid. This gives more strength and durability to the structure over millennia. 2 Due to the slopes on four/three sides, the walls are less prone to erosion and sideward air-thrust- Due to the slopes, the structure gets less air thrust during sandstorm, heavy winds. 3 Rainwater doesn’t get logged on the structure What Were the Main Characteristics of a Pyramid? 1 All Egyptian pyramids were constructed on the west bank of the Nile, where the sun sets. 2 They were situated relatively close to the Nile, to facilitate river transport of stone from the quarries. 3 The early pyramids were built differently from the later ones. The monumental pyramids of the Old Kingdom were built out of stone blocks, while those of the later Middle Kingdom were smaller and were typically made out of mud brick cased in limestone. Granite was also traditionally used for the royal chambers inside the pyramid. What Were the Main Characteristics of a Pyramid? 4 The early structures usually had a core of local limestone, cased in an outer layer of better quality limestone, or occasionally granite. 5 When the pyramid was almost finished, a special block covered in shining metal plated with gold, silver or electrum (a mixture of both) was placed on the top of the pyramid. This capstone would dazzle observers with its reflection of the sun. when first constructed around 2500 BC. The pyramids were paper white and as smooth as glass. The pyramids somewhat stayed in this state until the Arab invasion of Egypt around AD 500. The Arab invaders stripped the pyramid of it’s smooth limestone and built a huge section of Cairo. Many of the Mosques and Palaces of Cairo consist of the Ancient stones of the pyramids  What Were the Main idea behind using the Pyramid shape? Architectural reasons:- 1 Pyramids are simple structures where the base is wide, and top is narrow. The entire weight of the structure is vastly distributed on the vast base of the pyramid. This gives more strength and durability to the structure over millennia. 2 Due to the slopes on four/three sides, the walls are less prone to erosion and sideward air-thrust- Due to the slopes, the structure gets less air thrust during sandstorm, heavy winds. 3 Rainwater doesn’t get logged on the structure What Were the Main Characteristics of a Pyramid? 1 All Egyptian pyramids were constructed on the west bank of the Nile, where the sun sets. 2 They were situated relatively close to the Nile, to facilitate river transport of stone from the quarries. 3 monumental pyramids of the Old Kingdom were built out of stone blocks Granite was also traditionally used for the royal chambers inside the pyramid. What Were the Main Characteristics of a Pyramid? 4 The early structures usually had a core of local limestone, cased in an outer layer of better-quality limestone, or occasionally granite. 5 When the pyramid was almost finished, a special block covered in shining metal plated with gold, silver or electrum (a mixture of both) was placed on the top of the pyramid. This capstone would dazzle observers with its reflection of the sun. when first constructed around 2500 BC. The pyramids were paper white and as smooth as glass. The pyramids somewhat stayed in this state until the Arab invasion of Egypt around AD 500. The Arab invaders stripped the pyramid of it’s smooth limestone and built a huge section of Cairo. Many of the Mosques and Palaces of Cairo consist of the Ancient stones of the pyramids Architectural Analysis of the Great Pyramid The Old Kingdom of Egypt existed from the 3rd through the 6th Dynasties (2686 BC - 2182 BC). A period of political stability and economic prosperity, it is characterized by revolutionary advancements in royal funerary architecture. Building projects which focused on building tombs for their kings. These tombs were built in the form of great pyramids, and for this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as “the Age of the Pyramids.” The Great Pyramid The Pyramid of Khafre The Pyramid of Menkaure IMPORTANCE OF THE SITE AND LOCATION The Great Pyramid lies in the center of gravity of the continents. It also lies in the exact center of all the land area of the world, dividing the earth's land mass into approximately equal quarters. The north-south axis (31 degrees east of Greenwich) is the longest land meridian, and the east-west axis (30 degrees north) is the longest land parallel on the globe. There is obviously only one place that these longest land-lines of the terrestrial earth can cross, and it is at the Great Pyramid! PLANNING AND SURVEYING The builder of this pyramid was very wise to choose this site because most of the stones could be cut right on the spot and in the nearby quarry. The ancient Egyptians flattened the surface of the Giza plateau in such a way that between the ground level separating a pyramid of the other, there is only one centimeter in error. The pyramids are aligned to the north-south axis as well as in relation to each other. The three pyramids each perfectly centered. The angle of inclination is also the same from bottom to top. CHOICE OF THE LOCATION Quarries in Ancient Egypt Quarries for many different types of stones lie along the Nile. Most stones were transported on barges down the Nile. Granite for the King's Chamber in Khufu's pyramid was brought over more than 900km from Aswan. White limestone for the outer casing from Tura, a few kilometers south of Giza. Transporting stones on the Nile it was very important to choose a place as close as possible to harbor of the Nile channel and to the quarries on the Giza plateau. Transporting heavy loads on the Nile with special barges CHOICE OF THE GROUND The pyramid builders carefully chose the building ground for the pyramids. fitting the outer packing and casing stones over these sloping shoulders led at some stage to the exterior slipping off. Major problems had developed earlier at other building Other pyramids that were built on sand, like the sites, because the strength of the ground was pyramid of Meidum, collapsed over time. overestimated when erecting a pyramid. The Khufu-pyramid lies on the best ground existing on the Giza plateau. It lies on top of a rock core which reaches to a depth of 7.9m depth. The Giza plateau is very stable ground, mostly bedrock which consist of limestone from the so called Mokattam formation. A disadvantage is, that digging shafts and chambers in this kind of hard stone is much more difficult. MATERIALS USED The limestone used in constructing the Pyramids was coarse and has a brownish-yellow color, which was not appreciated much at that time, and hence it was used only in building the inner supporting core of the pyramid. The Pyramid’s core was covered with high quality white Tura limestone. It was also used for lining the passages and chambers. This cover was later stolen to use in other buildings. Reddish-pink granite extracted from Aswan was used in the construction of the central chamber holding the pharaonic sarcophagus. This type of granite was chosen because of its ability to support the weight of the construction. Basalt was used for the paving stones, still visible, in the Pyramid Temple of Khufu. Diorite, an extremely hard, greenish brown stone, was mainly used for statues. Orange = Limestone quarries on the Giza plateau. Dashed line = harbor facilities Obtaining a Pyramid shape A pyramid is a simple shape. It is determined by its base and height. when building a pyramid structure as large as the pyramid of Khufu there were a lot of obstacles to overcome. The base chosen for Khufu's pyramid is square and right-angled. The height was determined in advance, so the sides of the pyramid nearly form an equilateral triangle and the pyramid is exactly aligned to the four-cardinal point. Several additional factors had to be measured and calculated throughout the building process: 1- The angle of the lateral surfaces, 2- The ridge and the position of the corners. 3- Matters of stability also had to be taken in consideration. Possible mistakes while building a pyramid Center Right-angles Edges/corners Angle of inclination Stability Smoothness Alignment Egyptian units of measurement The ancient Egyptians used cubits, palms and fingers as units for measuring. The cubit was divided into 7 palms and a palm into 4 fingers which resulted in 28 fingers for one cubit 1 cubit = 52.4cm (Meh Nesut) = 7 palm = 28 fingers 1 palm = 7.48cm (Shesep or Shep) 1 finger = 1.87cm (Yeba or Zebo) The hieroglyph of a finger is also used for the number 10'000 Because the hieroglyph for 100 (Khet or Chet) is a rolled up rope some archaeologists think, that measuring ropes of 100 cubits were used (= 52.24m) Hieroglyph which signifies measuring rope.The Egyptians used ropes and rods for measuring Determining the Right angle Measuring cords For measuring great distances, ropes were certainly used. Measuring ropes of 100 cubits (52.5 meters) were used The Egyptians didn't know the theory explaining the Pythagorean theorem, but they knew from experience, that they could form right angles by using a so-called primitive Pythagorean triple. The angle of inclination and the seked The outer stones were already beveled to the right angle (52°) in the Tura quarries. This was done with hammer and chisel and controlled with a special wooden gauge. The corner stones had to support and absorb the enormous weight of the pyramid that pressed down and side wards, so they had a special shape and were very massive The angle of inclination and the seked The Egyptians were using a so called seked to determinate angles. With this method not the actual angle is calculated, but the horizontal displacement of a wall. For the angle of inclination of the sides of Khufu's pyramid the seked is 5½ palms. With other words, if the wall is 1 cubit high the upper edge is offset by 5½ palms (= 22 fingers) which gives an angle of inclination of 51.84° Precise North-South alignment The Great Pyramid's north-south axis is nearly aligned to true north, the deviation is only 2' 28''. The accuracy with which the pyramids are oriented north is simply stunning Precise North-South alignment The pyramidion is precisely aligned north to south, when both lines are cut at the same distance to the corner of the pyramidion. To achieve this, the pyramidion is moved slightly over a period of days, until both segments are exactly the same length. It is easier to make those measurements during the winter months, when the sun is lower in the horizon THE GIZA NECROPOLIS A pyramid was never an isolated structure but always an integral part of a funerary complex. A necropolis is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek meaning "city of the dead“ Typically, this complex consisted of the pyramid itself and an adjacent mortuary temple, both of which were connected by causeway to another temple or pavilion, located close by the Nile, to which it was linked by a narrow waterway. The Necropolis includes three pyramid complexes as well as several cemeteries, a workers’ village, an industrial complex, and a massive sculpture known as the Great Sphinx. THE GIZA NECROPOLIS BURRIAL CHAMBER Deep inside each pyramid was the King's Chamber, which contained the mummified body of the dead Pharaoh, placed inside a precious sarcophagus. Dummy passages were dug to prevent the later desecration of the tomb, and the theft of valuables. THE GREAT PYRAMID ARCHITECTURE From the main entrance of the pyramid there is a long narrow corridor with low roof that descends for more than 100m which takes you to a chamber, located about 24m below ground level, which is an unfinished burial chamber with very little fresh air inside. THE GREAT PYRAMID ARCHITECTURE THE GREAT PYRAMID ARCHITECTURE THE GREAT PYRAMID ARCHITECTURE THE KING’S CHAMBER The purpose of the relieving chambers probably was to absorb the enormous pressure on the King's chamber and to redirect it into the surrounding stones. The King's chamber is a hollow space in the middle of a massive structure of stone. The chamber itself is a hard granite nucleus surrounded by softer limestone. One cubic meter of limestone weights 2.6 tons (density 2600 - 2900 kg/m³), so each square meter of the roof is weighted down with 254.8 tons! Ancient Egyptian Temples To the Egyptians, beauty in a temple referred to the visual and functional harmony of the human activities that were always going on within it. The endless offering ceremonies, the prayers and chanting, were shaped by the form of the building and by the carving and painting within it. The architecture of Egyptian temples was also strongly influenced by tradition and by symbolism. The ancient Egyptians believed that temples were the homes of the gods and goddesses. Every temple was dedicated to a god or goddess and he or she was worshipped there by the temple priests and the pharaoh. Cult Temples and Mortuary Temples Cult temples, known as “mansions of the gods” Cult temples were dedicated to the worship of the gods of Egypt— Amun, Ptah, Horus, Osiris, etc. Were designed to accommodate their images. Cult temples accommodated the images of deities (gods), the recipients of the daily cult. it was the home of the deity and, in that respect, functioned in pretty much the same way as any noble household. The god had to be fed, and so there were kitchens and dining rooms. There were also robing rooms along with plenty of closet space and vaults full of jewelry. Funerary temples were the shrines (graves) for the funerary cults of dead kings Mortuary temples, known as “mansions of millions of years” the object of worship was the deified pharaoh  Temples Were built in the same forms as palaces, with three increasingly restricted areas. Main Architectural characteristics of Temples 1 The entire temple was surrounded by windowless walls. Within the temple, light and shadow were important 2 features. Walls openings. Caps between columns Clearstory windows 3 Walls must be blank or incised with low relief carvings. 4 The entire temple was surrounded by windowless walls. Components of Temples Five Components of Egyptian Temples In front of the pylon were obelisks and statues of the Pharaohs. 1. Pylons the pylon played a critical role in the symbolic architecture of a cult building. Monumental gateways that consists of two tapering towers, each It mirrored the hieroglyph for 'horizon, which was a depiction of two surmounted by a cornice, joined by a less elevated section which hills "between which the sun rose and set. enclosed the entrance between them. The entrance was generally about half the height of the towers. Pylons were often decorated with scenes emphasizing a king's authority since it was the public face of a cult building. Contemporary paintings of pylons show them with long poles flying banners. Temple of Isis, Philae Luxor Temple Horus Temple Components of Temples 2. Outer Court A large open hall, with a rectangular plan with decorated walls showing scenes of the Pharaoh and the gods. It had a transitional purpose, serving as an interface between the outside world and the sanctified regions deeper within the temple. People were only allowed to enter the Outer Courtyard on festival days. Sometimes there was a second pylon leading to the Hypostyle hall deeper in. Within the court was often located a great altar for the offerings. Horus Temple in Edfu Components of Temples 3. Hypostyle Hall A large colonnaded hall entirely roofed except for the central aisle which was lit by windows. Scenes of religious rituals were carved into the walls. The capital of the massive column often in the shape of the papyrus flower. Components of Temples 3. Hypostyle Hall Structural system Components of Temples Stone clerestory that illuminated the hypostyle hall of Karnak by taking the light above the lateral aisles Components of Temples Components of Temples 4. Sanctuary The innermost chamber was the Sanctuary, the most important and sacred place in the Temple. the last room where the statue of the god was kept. Only priests could access it. The sanctuary was very dark. It contained a large shrine. The walls of the sanctuary were usually decorated with paintings and sculptures depicting ritual activities, along with other very intimate interactions between the king and the Great God. Components of Temples 5. Avenue of sphinx Avenue of Sphinx, Temple of Karnak. Components of Temples 6. Sacred Lake Most temple precincts included a sacred lake. The priests used water from the sacred lake to perform rituals in the temple They were generally rectangular, lined with stone, and had steps leading down to the water. Karnak Sacred Lake The Sacred Lake at Dendera PLAN OF A TYPICAL EGYPTIAN TEMPLE 1. Pylon. 2. Court. Temples were built with three increasingly restricted areas 3. Hypostyle hall. 4. Sanctuary. 5. Enclosure wall. 6. Colossal statues of the Pharaoh. 7. Obelisks. 8. Avenue of sphinxes. Architectural Features of Egyptian Temples Layout Buildings are planned along a central axis. complex plan - courts, halls and chambers with the sanctuary deep inside the temple. Roof Creating a visible narrowing of space. Flat stone roof - columns closely packed to support roof. A priest moving from the front rooms of the temple to the heavy stone slabs side by side inner most sanctuary would find that the floor level rose and Facade the ceiling level lowered. All columns are concealed inside the external walls The light diminishes as we approach the shrine accentuate the feeling of privacy. Section Raised flooring and lowered roofs deeper inside the temple, with the sanctuary having the highest ground level and the lowest roof. Architectural Features of Egyptian Temples Main Architectural characteristics of Temples 1 The entire temple was surrounded by windowless walls. Within the temple, light and shadow were important 2 features. Walls openings. Caps between columns Clearstory windows 3 Walls must be blank or incised with low relief carvings. 4 The entire temple was surrounded by windowless walls. El Karnak Temple INTRODUCTION TO GREEK ARCHITECTURE Greek architecture refers to the architecture of the Greek- speaking peoples who whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland and the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Greek colonies in Ionia (coastal Asia Minor), and Magna Graecia (Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily). (900-27 BCE.) Greek architecture influenced Roman architecture and architects in profound ways. Geography plays a critical role in shaping civilizations, and this is particularly true of ancient Greece. GEOGRAPHY Greece is surrounded on three sides by the sea. The mainland and islands of Greece are rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges(kept villages separated) with few substantial forests The Aegean and Mediterranean sea provided many natural harbors that were means of communication and trades with other countries. Most of Greek mainland was rocky and barren and therefore bad for agriculture. The mountainous nature of the country separated the inhabitants into groups or clans and was thus responsible for that rivalry which characterized the old Greek states. GEOGRAPHY The Greek peninsula has two distinctive geographic features that influenced the development of Greek society. First Second Greece has easy access to water. The Greece's mountainous terrain led land contains countless scattered to the development of the polis islands, deep harbors, and a network (city-state). of small rivers. The polis became the structure by which people organized themselves. Athens and Sparta are two good examples of city-states that contrasted greatly with each other. GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY HELPED SHAPE EARLY GREEK CIVILIATION Mountains cover much of Greece, so contact with other villages was difficult. These groups set up independent city-states. The Greek word for city-state is polis. People created their own governments and ways of life. People settled in the flat areas along the coast and in river valleys. Because travel was so difficult inland (from isolation), Greeks turned to the seas on all sides. They became skilled shipbuilders and sailors. The sea became a source of food as well as a way of trading with other communities. They also exchanged ideas with other cultures CLIMATE The climate in Greece is typical of the Mediterranean climate: mild and rainy winters, relatively warm and dry summers and, generally, extended periods of sunshine throughout most of the year. The clear atmosphere, largely resulting from the rocky nature of the country and the absence of forests. The hot sun and sudden showers were probably answerable for the porticoes and colonnades which were such important features. This attractive situation encouraged an open air, communally oriented attitude to life, which assisted the development of Greek democracy. Meeting took place in open air, new indoor meeting places such as assembly hall and council hall (bouleuterion) were designed. MATERIALS USED As in any time or place, the raw materials available and the technologies developed to utilize them largely determined the nature of architecture MATERIALS USED The most freely available building material is stone. Limestone and marble were readily available and easily worked. This material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned Ancient Greek architecture. Deposits of high-quality potter's clay )‫ (طين الخزف‬were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels, but also roof tiles and architectural decoration. Clay is inexpensive and readily available. It is weathered rock that has crumbled to dust. Terracotta (baked clay) used for In the Mediterranean region, most clay has been deposited by roof tiles and architectural glaciers and is known as secondary clay. ornaments. Metals (especially bronze) used for The principle materials of Greek architecture were wood used some decorative details in supports and roof beams. Unbaked brick used for walls especially in private houses. Lime stone and marble used for columns and walls and upper portions in temples and public buildings ANCIENT GREEK CITY DEVELOPMENT Determinants for ancient Greek city development 1. Regional topography 2. Climate 3. Building materials GREEK CITY-STATES = POLIS Polis = city City surrounding a fort Absolutely independent and self-sufficient The city-state became the foundation for Greek civilization and gave the Greeks an identity. A city-state was usually built around a strong fortress on top of a high hill called an Acropolis. The town around the Acropolis was surrounded by walls for protection. The Acropolis overlooked a town, farmlands, and the marketplace in the open space below = Agora Life in the city focused on the marketplace, or Agora. INTRODUCTION TO GREEK ARCHITECTURE Greek architecture is most famous for its stone temples. The Parthenon , Erechtheum, and Temple of Athena Nike, all on the Acropolis at Athens; and the Temple of the Olympian Zeus at the foot of the Acropolis. The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens. It contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance. The word acropolis is from the Greek words (akron, "highest point, extremity") and (polis, "city) Temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions. TYPES OF BUILDINGS The Ancient Greeks did not have royalty, and therefore had no need for palaces. Their architecture was devoted to public buildings. Temple the central market place (agora), with its covered colonnade (stoa) the monumental gateway or processional entrance (propylon) the council building (bouleuterion) the open-air theatre the gymnasium (palaestra) the hippodrome (horse racing) the stadium (athletics) CLIMATE EFFECT ON CITY DEVELOPMENT AND ARCHITECTURE The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. THE AGORA Shopping = Democracy Along with exchanging goods, people exchange ideas. This may have helped democracy develop Agora was a central spot in ancient Greek city-states. The Agora was an “open place of assembly”. The most important function of the Agora was place for daily communications and formal and informal assembly. Helding political and religious assemblies in the Agora THE AGORA THE AGORA THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS CLIMATE EFFECT ON CITY DEVELOPMENT AND ARCHITECTURE Stoa Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms. CLIMATE EFFECT ON CITY DEVELOPMENT AND ARCHITECTURE Theatres Theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. STOA Stoa was an open but protected space. Stoa is a Greek architectural term that describes a covered freestanding walkway or colonnade that was usually designed for public use, also, a long open building, its roof supported by one or more rows of columns parallel to the rear wall. In Athens the famous Stoa Poikile (“Painted Stoa”), c. fifth century B.C.E., housed paintings of famous Greek military exploits including the battle of Marathon. STOA Greek city planners came to prefer the stoa as a device for framing the agora of a city or town. RELIGION AND ARCHITECTURE The Greek religion was in the main a worship of natural phenomena, of which the gods were personifications, and each town or district had its own divinities, ceremonies, and traditions. There are also traces of other primitive forms of religion, such as the worship of ancestors and deified heroes. The priests who carried out the appointed rites, in which both men and women officiated, were not an exclusive class, and often served for a period only, retiring afterwards into private life. GODS AND GODDESSES Ancient civilizations generally had reciprocal relationships with their gods, with each side having responsibilities to the other. To ensure the gods continued to grace the people with good fortune, it was important for people to regularly honor them. Temple-building was an important part of any city construction. Zeus Chief of the gods and supreme ruler Hera Wife of Zeus and goddess of marriage Apollo Son of Zeus and father of AEsculapius. Theg God who punishes, heals, and helps. Hestia Goddess of the hearth Heracles God of strength and power MOUNT OLYMPUS GREEK TEMPLES Greek temples were very standardized in appearance, with similar construction methods and styles across all examples. Stylistic elements included: Pediments Friezes Architraves, columns Cellae Freedom and spiritual values were symbolized in temples. Their religion was based on worship of natural phenomena. GREEK ARCHITECTURE; WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?? 1 its logic and order 2 invention of the classical "orders“ 3 exquisite architectural sculpture 4 It influenced other architectural schools ARCHITECTURE IN SERVICE OF RELIGION 1 Greek construction was of a simple post and lintel or trabeated construction. Trabeated system Having horizontal beams or lintels rather than arches 2 Their ground plans were always very simple, usually rectangular. With a combination of simple ground plans and trabeated construction, they 3 were able to create amazing buildings, Buildings were constructed by skilled craftsmen who were in demand and 4 traveled from one state to the other for construction work. 5 Designs were done on the ground by measuring out the foundation TRABEATED SYSTEM Trabeated (Post and lintel) system A building system where strong horizontal elements (lintel, header, architrave) are held up by strong vertical elements (columns, pillar, post)with large spaces between them. A "fundamental principle" of Ancient Greek architecture, builders continue to use this method to support the weight of the structure above the openings for windows and doors in a bearing wall. GREEK TEMPLES (ARCHITECURE) Throughout history, the ratio for length to width of rectangles of 1.61803 39887 49894 84820 has been considered the most pleasing to the eye. This ratio was named the golden ratio by the Greeks. In the world of mathematics, the numeric value is called "phi", named for the Greek sculptor Phidias. The space between the columns form golden rectangles. There are golden rectangles throughout this structure which is found in Athens, Greece. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The most important Greek building was the temple The temple had the finest building materials and the richest decoration. It was also the most complex of architectural form. It was designed not to hold worshippers, but as symbolic dwelling of the gods The temple is usually rectangular in plan It is lifted on a podium, and in plan has colonnades on all its external sides TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The number of columns is always even to allow the location of the entrance in the center; temples with odd number of columns are uncommon. Temples with 2 columns in front are diastyle, 4-tetrastyle, 6-hexastyle, 8-octastyle and 10-decastyle. Greek temples usually have twice the number of columns in front plus one by the side; A hexastyle temple =six columns in front &thirteen on side ARCHITECTURAL TERMS ARCHITECTURAL TERMS TEMPLES (FROM WOOD TO STONE) The Origin The word “Architecture” comes from the Greek Architecton, which means “master carpenter.” Early Greek architecture therefore employed wood, not stone. These early structures, as well as those of mud-brick, have not survived. TEMPLES (FROM WOOD TO STONE) Petrified Architecture By the 6th century B.C. stone replaced wood in the construction of the important temples. The Designs of the temple elements reflect their origins in wood. The three barred design of the triglyph, which alternates with the square, sculpted metope, was designed to mimic the grooves of a wooden truss’s end. This transformation in material from wood to stone is referred to as Petrification. TEMPLES (FROM WOOD TO STONE) In moving from wood to stone, architects have to the different properties of the building materials. Stone has greater compressive strength (resists crushing) Wood has greater tensile strength (tolerate bending and twisting). TEMPLES (FROM WOOD TO STONE) As a result, the Greeks designed their temples that could have widely-spaced columns, but their superstructures had to be solid, unified masses capable of being held together by multiple columns. This part must be solid. This part can have open space TEMPLES (FROM WOOD TO STONE) Early temples had massive pillars and they loo low and wide. Later Greek temples appear taller and more elegant. GREEK ORDERS GREEK ORDERS GREEK ORDERS GREEK ORDERS GREEK ORDERS Doric Order - The earliest and most basic style. - The Doric column is sturdy, and its capital is plain. - Emphasis on stability and grace (massive and weighty). - The columns are fluted. - Heavy use of entasis, - This style was used in the Greek mainland and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. GREEK ORDERS Doric Order GREEK ORDERS Ionic Order - The Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. - The capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute). - This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands. GREEK ORDERS Ionic Order GREEK ORDERS GREEK ORDERS Corinthian Order - The Corinthian style is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on roman temples. - The capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves. GREEK ORDERS Corinthian Order GREEK ORDERS ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS TEMPLES Classification is based on: 1-The number of columns on the entrance front 2- Type of colonnade surrounding the naos 3- Type Of Portico Classification Greek Temple Typical floor plan incorporated A colonnade of columns (peristyle) on all four sides A front porch (pronaos), A back porch (opisthodomos). TEMPLES Temples are categorized based on their ground plan and the way in which the columns are arranged. 1.Prostyle temple is a temple that has columns only at the front. 2.Amphiprostyle temple has columns at the front and the rear. 3.One of the more unusual plans is the Tholos, a temple with a circular ground plan. 4. Temples with a peripteral arrangement have a single line of columns arranged all around the exterior of the temple building. 5. Dipteral temples simply have a double row of columns surrounding the building. TEMPLES The temples orientation with the entrance towards the east SURROUNDED BY OPEN COLONNADE NAOS ( it refers to the Cella, i.e. the inner chamber of a temple which houses a cult figure) PRONAOS ( is the inner area of the portico of a Greek temple, situated between the portico's colonnade or walls and the entrance to the cella, or shrine) EPINAOS (OPISTHODODMOS) - a room in the rear of the cella of an ancient Greek temple ENTRANCE DOORS on the east and west walls WINDOWS WERE RARE TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE THE PARTHENON It was designed by the architects Ictinos and Callicrates who built it over the remains of an older temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos. THE PARTHENON THE PARTHENON Pronaos THE PARTHENON Cella (Naos) The body and main sanctuary of a Classical temple, the principal room of a temple where the cult statue is housed. THE PARTHENON Opisthodomos THE PARTHENON THE PARTHENON TILT TO FIX PERSPECTIVE (ENTASIS) The shafts of the columns swell slightly outward. This counteracts a feeling of slenderness that results from visual perspective. A swollen column appears more robust and stronger than a straight shaft. TILT TO FIX PERSPECTIVE All the members which are to be above the capitals of the columns, that is, architraves, friezes, should be inclined to the front a twelfth part of their own height. TILT TO FIX PERSPECTIVE TILT TO FIX PERSPECTIVE The facade elements are tilted outward, but the columns are actually tilted inward Vertical columns under the heavy weight of the entablature appear like they are about to tip over toward the viewer. However, an inward tilt to the columns make them look more stable when viewed from below. This gives “the whole building an appearance of greater strength. CURVED FLOORS The stylobate floor of the Parthenon is curved upward. A perfectly flat floor would appear to sag inward. COLUMN SPACING In perspective, the distance between columns normally appear smaller as they proceed toward a vanishing point in the distance. The Parthenon has more robust columns and greater spacing between them at the ends. When viewed from a distance the spacing and size appear equal. Along with proportions, this also makes the structure appear more stable. LOCATION & GEOGRAPHY Ancient Rome begin as a group of villages along the Tiber River (Italy). Around 750 B.C. these villages united to form the city of Rome. The Alps in the north and the Apennines along Italy are the mountain ranges that Romans used the hills for defense. Romans were able to grow a wide variety of crops because of the good climate. GEOGRAPHY The development of civilization is affected by geography. Rome did not spring into being as a power on the Italian peninsula. It began as a tiny village along the Tiber River. It was an excellent location, with seven hills offering a natural defensive barrier. The Tiber River gave these early settlers access to fresh water for drinking and bathing, as well as a waterway for trade, and food to eat. The flatland, on the other side of the Tiber River, was perfect for farmland. The soil was good so crops could be grown easily. The area along the Tiber River, in the seven hills, offered what they needed. They started their city on the top of one hill. They walled around it. As they expanded, they also expanded their wall, until one wall encircled all seven hills. GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE This map reveals the Roman Empire at the time of Trajan's death in 116 AD. Examining the history of the Roman Empire Rome was actually first a Republic and then an Empire, and when Rome reached the height of its prosperity, it became the greatest empire the world has ever known. Roman architects struggled to achieve two overriding aims: 1- to demonstrate the grandeur and power of Rome, 2- also improving the life of their fellow citizens. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Roman architects absorbed a great deal from Etruscan art and design and had huge respect for Greek architecture. They also learned from Egyptian pyramid architecture and stonework. The Romans were above all things a practical people. They brought engineering into the service of architecture. They made the arch and vault the basis of their system of design. They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings. They formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of moderate skill could execute them with good effect. BUILDING MATERIALS Long before concrete made its appearance on the building scene in Rome, the Romans utilized a volcanic stone native to Italy called tufa to construct their buildings. During the empire, the most common stone used for building was travertine because it was more durable and its off-white color made it an acceptable substitute for marble. Marble was used only for facing or decoration, or sometimes in mosaics. Colored marbles and stones like alabaster and granite, were also popular. CONCRETE Roman concrete (opus caementicium) was typically made from Hydraulic cement. a mixture of lime mortar, water, sand and pozzolana, a fine, ochre-colored volcanic earth, which set well even under water. The discovery of slow-drying concrete made with pozzolana sand created a revolution in architectural design. This allowed walls to be constructed of mainly concrete. The result was strong structures that could be formed in any desirable shape. The volcanic sand used in Roman concrete and mortar made their buildings last for so long. CONCRETE The Roman Pantheon, a huge concrete building that has endured for nearly 2,000 years was made entirely out of concrete, without the reinforcing support of structural steel. CONSTRUCTION METHODS Since lintels are heavy, the interior spaces of buildings could only be limited in size. Much of the interior space had to be devoted to supporting heavy loads. Roman architecture differed fundamentally from this tradition because of the discovery of concrete, arches and vaulting. Romans became increasingly concerned with shaping interior space rather than filling it with structural supports. As a result, the inside of Roman buildings were as impressive as their exteriors THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Romans were able to create many impressive building and structures. THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES An Arch is a very strong shape as no single spot holds all the weight. Romans used arches to support the things they built. THE ARCHES The arches were modified greatly by the Romans so that they could carry large amount of weights. It was usually build by stones, brick or concrete THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES THE USE OF ARCHES, VAULTS, AND DOMES ROMAN TOWN PLANNING Cities were the center of Roman life. Need for infrastructure. Water and sewer system. Transport and defense. Public spaces and markets. Linking through paved roads. THE ROMAN ORDERS To meet the demands of Roman taste the Etruscan column was retained with its simple entablature. The Doric and Ionic were adopted in a modified form. A regular system of proportions for all these five orders was gradually evolved. Roman ionic order THE ROMAN ORDERS Monolithic shafts were preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted and when hard and semi- precious stone was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its color. Another radical departure from Greek usage was the mounting of columns on pedestals. The general use of engaged columns as wall-decorations or buttresses. columns continued to be used even when they were no longer structurally necessary. This was to give buildings a traditional and familiar look THE ROMAN ORDERS The Greek anta was developed into the Roman pilaster or flattened wall- column. Every free column, or range of columns perpendicular to the façade, had its corresponding pilaster to support the wall-end of the architrave. THE COLUMNS Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian Orders were slenderer and more ornamented. Columns tended to be left unfluted. The Tuscan column was another adaptation of a traditional idea which was a form of Doric column but with a smaller capital, more slender shaft without flutes, and a molded base. THE COLUMNS The Corinthian order was particularly favored and many Roman buildings THE FORUM THE FORUM The Forum is a rectangular plaza surrounded by several important government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Roman cities were typically focused on the forum. THE FORUM THE FORUM The forum is the civic, religious and economic heart of the city. Major temples were located, as well as other important shrines, the basilica (a law court), and other official meeting places for the town council. AQUEDUCTS AND BRIDGES Aqueducts are massive structures, with single, double, or triple tiers of arches, were designed to carry fresh water to urban centers from sources sometimes many kilometers away. BASILICAS The basilica was adopted by the Christian church but was conceived by the Romans as a place for any large gathering, with the most common use being law courts. They were usually built along one side of the forum, which was enclosed on all sides by colonnades. The basilica’s long hall and roof were supported by columns and piers on all sides. The columns created a central nave flanked on all sides by an aisle. BASILICAS BATHS BATHS THEATRES It is similar to the Greek but it is not located in a mountain but completely built. It has a semi-circular scenery. THEATRES AMPHITHEATRES TRIUMPHAL ARCHES The commemorative arches, or arches of triumph, were a sort of ceremonial architecture invented by the Romans in their passion for the show of power, to commemorate an important event or military campaign. TEMPLES It copied the Greek model. It has only one portico and a main façade. The cella is totally closed. It is built on a podium Instead of having stairs all around, it only has them in the main façade.