MLVGA-Module-1 PDF - General Chemistry Past Paper

PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh...

PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Sublimation MATTER (Ex: Naphthalene balls) Solid to gas Deposition Gas to solid Mass + volume (Ex: Dry ice / cardice) Recombination / Plasma to gas SOLID LIQUID GAS Deionization Ionization Gas to plasma Indefinite – Shape assumes container shape MATTER CLASSIFICATION Definite Indefinite – Non- compressible 1. Pure Substance compressible Volume Element – simplest form of substance Definite Compound – 2 or more chemicals united (separated via chemical means) 2. Mixture – 2 or more substance wherein Molecular Motion Gliding Constant individual substance identifies are retained Vibration (Ex. Water Falls) Random (separated via physical means. Alcohol + Water via distillation) Homogenous – 1 phase; solution PLASMA / IONIZED GAS Heterogenous – 2 phases; suspension, colloid (ex: milk) 4th state of matter Most abundant state of matter in the CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DEPENDENCE TO THE universe AMOUNT OF MATTER PRESENT Has p+ and e-, thus, greatly affected by magnetic field 1. Extrinsic Property Ex: Ionized Ne light, aurora, stars, sun Dependent Length, mass / weight, volume, pressure, NOTES: IFA Strength: S > L > G > P entropy, enthalpy, electrical resistance Enthalpy (Heat / reaction energy): P > G > L > S 2. Intrinsic Property PHASE CHANGE Independent Density / specific gravity (Ex. Water = 1 g/mL or cc), viscosity (resistance to flow), velocity (m/sec), temperature, color FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAWS 1. Law of Conservation of Mass or Matter Antoine Lavoiser Mass / matter is always constant (neither created nor destroyed) 2. Law of Definite or Constant Proportions (Proust’s Law) Joseph Proust Melting / Fusion / Liquefaction / Thawing Solid to liquid Chemical compounds always contain the Freezing Liquid to solid exact proportion of element in fixed ratio Evaporation Liquid to gas (by mass) Condensation Gas to liquid 1 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Ex. H2O →2H + O, C6H12O6 = CH2O ATOMS 3. Law of Multiple Proportion 1. Protons John Dalton (+) subatomic particle When 2 elements form more than 1 Atomic no. (basis of electronic compound, it can be expressed in a fixed configuration) whole number (by mass) Discovered by Ernes(t) Rutherford; t = + Ex: CO → 28g/mole, CO2 → 44g/mole 2. Electrons C = 12 g/mol; O = 16 g/mol (-) subatomic particle 4. Law of Combining Weights p+ in uncharged state Proportions by weight when chemical Negligible weight (1,836 times lighter than reaction takes place can be expressed in p +) small integral unit Discovered by: Ex: MgO → 40g/mole (100%) o JJ Thompson – Cathode ray tube: Mg = 24g/mole (60%); O = 16g/mole (40%) e- m/2 ratio o RA MIlikan – Oil drop experiment: ATOMIC STRUCTURE meas`ure accurate charge and mass of e- ATOMIC CONTRIBUTIONS MODEL 3. Neutrons Democritus Atomos “Indivisible” Matter is made up of No charge atoms (basic unit) Atomic mass (Nucleon) = p+ + n0 Postulates: Discovered by James Chadwick ‣ Elements are Mnemonic: Jimmy (James) Neutron composed of indivisible, indestructible atoms NOTES: ‣ Atoms are alike for a Mass number = # of protons + # of neutrons given element Atomic number = # of protons (isotopes) Proton in uncharged state = # of electron John Dalton Billiard Bell ‣ Atoms are different (proton – charge) elements that differ in Charge = # of proton = # of electron size, mass, and other properties (isobars) ‣ Compounds are 4. Electrochemistry formed from more than 2 atoms of different Particle separation based on e- elements ‣ Atoms combine in Ex: Capillary electrophoresis – separation simple numerical ratios of compounds based on electrophoretic to form compounds mobility Plum pudding / JJ Thompson raisin bread e- in (+) framework Eugene Goldstein – discovered anode rays Ernest Rutherford Nuclear (Gold ANODE CATHODE Atom is mostly empty; Charge (+) Electrode (-) Electrode foil/a-scattering (+) particles in nucleus Undergoes Oxidation Reduction Discovered experiment) protons (+) AN OX ELECT OUT RED CAT ELECT IN Niel Bohr Planetary Most used Modern atomic model Mnemonic OXidation happens in REDuction happens ANode where in CAThode where Quantum / Estimates the ELECTrons get OUT ELECTrons get IN Erwin Mechanical / probability of finding Schrodinger e- cloud an e- in a certain position (ex. at e- cloud/orbital) 2 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh NOTES: FORCES OF ATTRACTION VILEORA – valence increase, lose electrons, oxidation, reducing agent Intermolecular FA / Van der Waals / Electrostatic VDGEROA – valence decrease, gain electrons, reduction, oxidizing agent Between molecule; weak and short-lived Created by “molecule’s polarizability”; 5. Reducing Agents / Antioxidants exerted when 2 uncharged atoms (n0) approach very closely Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Dipole (D) – polar Sulfates: FeSO4, BaSO4 Induced dipole (DI) – non-polar Metabisulfate (Na2S2O5) Keesom Debye London Thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) H-bonding Orientation Induction Dispersion Hypophosphite (NaHPO4) (D-D) (D-ID) (ID-ID) Phosphates (PO4) Strongest IFA > > Weakest IFA Aldehydes H + S, O, N, X Aromatics Water – Water – Oxalic Acid (electronegative water benzene (Benzene – atoms) benzene) Ascorbic Acid 6. Isotopes Intramolecular FA Same p+ / atomic no. / element Within molecule Differ in atomic mass Glycosidic – ether bond S-O-S Non-isotopes: 19F, 127I, 31P Peptide bond – amide bond AA – peptide Main isotopes: – AA bond o +1: 1H, 12C, 14N, 32S, 35Cl o +2: 16O, 79Br COVALENT Nonmetal + nonmetal Sharing of e- 7. Isobars (Glycosidic and peptide bond) IONIC Same atomic mass Transfer of e- Metal + nonmetal (NaCl) Differ in elements 8. Isotones Valence Shell e- Pair Repulsion (VESPR) Theory Same neutrons Predicts the geometry of the molecule as Differ in elements well as any bonded and unbonded electron pair 9. Isomers sp, 180° LINEAR Same molecular formula Ex: CO2, alkynes, HCN sp2, 120° Differ in structure TRIGONAL PLANAR Ex: Alkenes, formaldehyde sp3, 109.5° TETRAHEDRAL / BENT CHEMICAL BONDS Ex: Alkanes, CCl4, H2O, methane TRIGONAL 107° BIPYRAMIDAL 1. Molecule – aggregate of 2 or more atoms in OCTAHEDRAL Exemption to the octet rule definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds 2. Ions – with net (+) or (-) charge 3. Empirical Formula – simplest whole number ratio (might be same with MF); Ex: CH2O vs. C6H12O6 3 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Valence Bond Theory Nonmetals: F > Cl > Br > I (based on electronegativity) NOTES: Co + MgCl2 → NR Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu NaBr + Cl2 → NaCl + Br NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1. Covalent Compounds CO: Carbon monoxide States that bonds are formed by sharing of SiO2: Silicon dioxide electron from overlapping atomic orbitals N2O: Dinitrogen monoxide (covalent) CCl4: Carbon tetrachloride Sigma (S = spherical) – stronger bond formed, headways overlap 2. Ionic Compounds Pi (P = dumbbell) – weaker bond formed, sideways overlap Ex: Pb(NO3)4 Classical: Plumbic nitrate Molecular Orbital Theory Stock: Lead (IV) nitrate MONOATOMIC IONS 1. Monovalent +1 = Grp 1 (H, Li, Na, K ‫ ׀‬Ag) +2 = Grp 2 (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba ‫ ׀‬Zn, Cd) -2 = Grp 6A (Oxide, Sulfide) -1 = Grp 7A (Fluoride, Chloride, Bromide, Iodide) States that bonds are formed from 2. Multivalent (w/ variable charges) interaction of atomic orbitals from +1, +2 = Hg, Cu molecular orbitals +1, +3 = Au Bonding – lower energy (stable) +2, +3 = Fe, Co, Ni Antibonding – higher energy (unstable) +2, +4 = Sn, Pb REACTION TYPES +3, +5 = Bi, Sb, As Synthesis / Combination/ POLYATOMIC IONS A + B → AB Direct Union Decomposition / Analysis AB → A + B OXYGEN CONTAINING POLYATOMIC ANIONS (OXYANIONS) Single Displacement AB + X → AX + B OXYANIONS SALT OXYACID (Aq) AB + CD → AC + BD ClO- Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid (HClO) ClO2- Chlorite Chlorous acid (HClO2) Double Displacement / Neutralization ClO3- Chlorate Chloric acid (HClO3) Metathesis / Exchange (Acid + Base → Salt + Water) ClO4- Perchlorate Perchloric acid (HClO4) NO2- Nitrite Nitrous acid (HNO2) Precipitation NO3- Nitrate Nitric acid (HNO3) SO32- Sulfite Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) SO42- Sulfate Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) REACTIVITY SERIES PO43- Phosphate Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) HYDROGEN CONTAINING POLYATOMIC ANIONS Metals: Li > K > Ba > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Mn > Zn > ANION SALT HCO3- Bicarbonate (Hydrogen carbonate) Cr > Fe > Cd > Co > Ni > Sn > Pb > H2 > Cu > Ag > Hg HSO3- Bisulfite > Pt > Au HSO4- Bisulfate 4 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh HPO4-2 Biphosphate NOTES: H2PO4-1 Dihydrogen phosphate Magic Number: 1223343 454564567 567 677 Mnemonic: Si susi pumasok sa pinto NOTES: Si daddy pumasok sa door O-containing polyatomic anions (Oxyanions) Pumasok si father daddy (2x) –ate: common form Pumasok father daddy father –ite: -1 O to –ate form 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 hypo…ite -1 O to –ite form 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6 6f14 7d10 7f14 per…ate +1 O to –ate form H-containing polyatomic anions Monohydrogen / bi: with 1H+ ions Dihydrogen: with 2H+ ions MOLE RELATIONSHIPS Avogadro’s Number: 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 atoms/ molecules Ex: Calculate the no. of NaOH atoms using Avogadro’s no. (mass = 20g, MW = 40g/mol) QUANTUM NUMBERS (FINGERPRINTS) Principal Quantum Number (n = 1 to 7) MOLARITY / FORMALITY MOLALITY (m) NORMALITY (N) PrinSIZEpal (M) Main energy level; size of orbital (electron cloud), distance of e- from nucleus Ex. O2 = 1s2 2s2 2p4 (n=2) Factor (f) Azimuthal / Angular Momentum (ℓ = 0 to 3) Acid (H): HCl = 1, H2SO4 = 2 ASHAPEmuthal Base (OH): Al(OH)3 = 3 Angular momentum & shape of orbital; Salt (M): Al2O3 = Al: 3x2 = 6; Na2SO4 = 2 subshell o ℓ = 0 ─ s: sharp (spherical shape) ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION o ℓ = 1 ─ p: principle (dumbbell Aufbau Principle shape) o ℓ = 2 ─ d: diffuse (clover leaf) o ℓ = 3 ─ f: fundamental Ex: O2 = ℓ = 1 Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ = -ℓ, 0, +ℓ) MagSPACE / magORIENT Orientation of orbital in space Ex. O2 = mℓ = -1, 0, +1 Atoms may be built by progressive filling of energy of main energy sub level (i.e., levels of lower energy levels are occupied first) s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14 5 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Magnetic Spin (ms = + ½, - ½) ‣ Effusion – passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening Magnetic moment / Rotation Diffusion rate of liquid or gas is directly Fick’s 1st Law proportional to the conc. gradient Incomplete; clockwise = ms = +½ (from high to low conc) Complete; counterclockwise = ms = -½ Henry’s Law of Decrease T, increase P (sealed container), more CO2 is dissolved in Gas Solubility water NOTES: Magnetism Types: Diagmagnetism – no unpaired e- Paramagnetism – at least 1 unpaired e- TEMPERATURE °C = (°F – 32) / 1.8 QUANTUM THEORIES °F = (°C x 1.8) + 32 1. Pauli’s Exclusion Theory K = °C + 273.15 o Absolute temperature No 2 e- will have same set of quantum o 0K = absolute zero (lowest number (“exclusive”) possible temperature) 2. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Theory SOLUTION Impossible to predict/ accurately determine the particle’s velocity (position Solute + solvent & momentum) COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 3. Hund’s Rule Dependent on the amount of solute in the Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing solution up Ex: vapor pressure lowering, boiling point Most stable arrangement of e- in subshells elevation (ebullition), freezing point is the one with greatest no. of parallel depression, osmotic pressure spins THERMODYNAMICS GAS LAWS Study of energy conversion or GAS LAWS CONSTANT FORMULA transformation in the universe Boyle’s T (in K); inverse 𝑃1𝑉1 = 𝑃2𝑉2 Charles P (in atm); DP PARTS OF THE UNIVERSE Gay Lussac’s V (in L) 1. System Combined gas Open System (Non-conservative) – allows R = 0.08205 exchange of energy and matter Ideal gas (Universal gas T = 0°C / 273K P = 1 atm / 760 mmHg Closed System (Conservative) – allows (STP) constant) N = 1 mol exchange of energy but not matter V = 22.4 L Avogadro’s Isolated System (Adiabitic Walls) – does not allow exchange of both energy and Total pressure in a mixture (non- Dalton’s interacting gases) is equal to the sum matter of the partial pressures of each gas ‣ Rate of effusion (diffusion) and speed 2. Surrounding – everything outside the system gas are inversely proportional to the square root of their density providing PATH DEPENDENCE the temperature and pressure are Graham’s same for 2 gases 1. State Function ‣ Diffusion – gradual mixing of molecules of one gas w/ the molecules Independent (depends only on initial and of another gas by virtue of their kinetic properties final states of system) 6 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Ex: Enthalpy (H), Internal energy (U), Gibb’s Free Energy (ΔG) Gibb’s Free Energy (G), Entropy (S) Thermodynamic state function that 2. Non-state Function combines enthalpy and entropy ΔG = ΔH ‒ TΔS Dependent o ΔG < 0 (-) → spontaneous Ex: Work and heat o ΔG > 0 (+) → nonspontaneous LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS o ΔG = 0 → equilibrium (no more work to be done) Zeroth Law CHEMICAL KINETICS If two systems are in thermal equilibrium respectively with a third system, they must Study of reaction rates and mechanisms be in thermal equilibrium with each other Reaction Rate (M/s) 1st Law: Law of Conservation of Energy Change in concentration of a reactant or Energy is neither created nor destroyed product concentration with time but can be transformed from one form to aA + bB → cC + dD another Rate Law Hess’ Law (ΔH) Expresses relationship of the rate of Enthalpy (heat/reaction energy): change in reaction to the rate constant (K) and independent of reactions/steps that concentration of reactants raised to some occurred; only the initial & finals steps power would be the basis aA + bB → cC + dD +ΔH: Endothermic; COLD (absorbed heat) –ΔH: Exothermic; HOT (released heat) REACTION RATE THEORIES 2nd Law: Law of Entropy (S) 1. Collision Theory “No way but UP” Rate of chemical reaction is proportional For an isolated system, total entropy can to the number of collisions per time never decrease over time Requirements for effective collision: Entropy (ΔS) – measure of system’s ✓ Proper orientation thermal energy per unit temp; ✓ Activation energy (Ea) – minimum disorderliness of randomness amount of energy required to o ΔS = (+) → spontaneous; increase initiate chemical reaction (irreversible) – real case 2. Transition Theory o ΔS = (-) → nonspontaneous; constant (reversible) – ideal case Rate depends on activation energy (in a steady state/ equilibrium) required to form intermediate / transition o ΔH → does not predict state (where new bonds are formed and spontaneity old bonds are broken) 3rd Law of Thermodynamics Formation of intermediate complex If an object reaches absolute zero FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE (DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL temperature (0 K = -273.15 = -459.67°) Entropy of perfect, solid, crystalline ✓ Nature of reactants – ↑ reactivity ↑ substance is zero at absolute 0 reaction rate (faster) temperature ✓ Concentration of reactants (except Zero Order) – ↑ concentration ↑ reaction rate 7 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh ✓ Catalyst – ↑ reaction rate; enzymes speed ACIDS AND BASES up the chemical rxn by lowering Ea ✓ Surface Area – ↑ SA ↓ particle size ↑ ACIDS BASES reaction rate ↓ reaction time Taste Sour Bitter ✓ Temperature – ↑ Temp ↑ KE ↑ mobility pH 7 (+) Litmus paper Red Blue of molecules ↑ collision ↑ reaction rate; H2 gas (+) Metals - Arrhenius Equation (T, Ea, RR) (corrode metals) (+) Carbonates / CO2 gas - bicarbonates (effervescence) CHEMICAL EQUILLIBRIUM Soap: Slippery (Saponification) aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD (+) Fat - NaOH – hard soap LAW OF MASS ACTION KOH – soft soap THEORIES ARRHENIUS BRONSTED / WATER LEWIS & LOWRY THEORY Reaction rate is proportional to the Acid (H+) + H2O = H+ p+ donor e- acceptor product of the concentrate of the Base (OH-) + H2O = OH- p+ acceptor e- donor reactants to the power of its coefficient in a balanced equation Lewis Theory Keq = 1: No shift (in equilibrium) Keq > 1: Favors product formation (to the Lewis Acid / Electrophile right/ forward reaction) o (+) ion or metal Keq < 1: Favors reactant formation (to the o e- poor specie left/ backward or reverse reaction) Lewis Base / Nucleophile o (-) ion or nonmetal LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE o e- rich specie Stress reliever PEARSON’S HSAB (HARD-SOFT ACID-BASE) If an external stress is applied to a system CONCEPT at equilibrium, the system adjusts to partially offset the stress as the system Hard-Hard / Soft-Soft reaches a new equilibrium Thermodynamically Stronger interaction CHANGE Hard Acid + Hard Base → Ionic complexes EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM EXTERNAL STRESSORS Soft Acid + Soft Base → Covalent complex SHIFT CONSTANT (Kc) - 25°C Concentration Yes No Hard-Soft / Soft-Hard Pressure & Volume (For Gases only) Thermodynamically weaker interaction ↑ P = shift to side with Acids & bases Hard Soft Yes No Ionic radius Small Large lesser gas moles Oxidation states High Low ↓ V = shift to side with Polarizability Low High greater gas moles Electronegativity High Low Temperature Ions of alkali & Heavy metals: alkaline earth Yes Yes Ag+, Au+, Hg22+/ ↑ T, Endo: Right metals: H+, NH4, Hg2+, Cd2+ ↑ T, Exo: Left Examples Ti4+, Cr3+ Catalyst No No H- (Hydride), I-, OH-, F-, Cl-, CO32-, SCN- CH3COO- 8 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh ACID-BASE FORMULA o Q = Ksp → saturated o Q > Ksp → supersaturated ↓↓ IONIC EQUILIBRIA GENERAL FORMULA For weak acids and bases (pH varies) (with constant) Noyes-Whitney Equation – Dissolution rate is pH = -log[H+] pKa = -log[ka] directly proportional to the solute surface area, pOH = -log[OH-] pKb = -log[kb] solute conc at boundary layer & diffusion pH + pOH = 14 pKa + pKb = 14 coefficient Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1x10-14 Kw = Ka x Kb = 1x10-14 ELECTROCHEMISTRY Common Ion Effect – Addition of a compound having an ion in common with the dissolved 1. Spontaneous substance will result to: Voltaic cells / galvanic cells ✓ Equilibrium shift Redox reaction (Anode – oxidation; ✓ Suppressed ionization of the dissolved Cathode – reduction) substance (WA or WB) Electrons migrate from anode to cathode ✓ pH change 2. Nonspontaneous Henderson-Hasselbalch / Buffer Pair Equation Electrolytic cells: Electric current is applied to remove e- and transfer to another cell (Electroplating) For buffer solutions (WA + CB or WB + CA) PERIODIC TABLE pH = pKa (at half neutralization point) SCIENTIST / LAW CONTRIBUTION / DETAILS Buffer Solution ‣ 1st extensive list of elements (33) Antoine Lavoisier ‣ Metals vs Nonmetals John Wolfgang Has the ability to resist changes in pH upon Dobereiner ‣ Law of Triads addition of small amounts of either acid or ‣ Law of Octaves John Newlands base ‣ Periods Weak acid and its CB (salt of WA) ‣ Father of Modern Periodic Table Dmitri Mendeleev ‣ (Lothar Meyer) Atomic Weak base and its CA (salt of WB) Mass/Weight ‣ Created Modern Periodic Table Van Slyke Henry Moseley ‣ Property varies with increasing atomic number Buffer capacity Bmax (degree or magnitude ‣ Discovered transuranic elements of capability to resist change in pH of the ‣ Uranium actinides below Glenn Seaborg lanthanides (exhibit radioactivity; buffer) unstable proton-to-neutron ratio) ‣ Developed a table of atomic SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT Jacob Berzelius weights and introduced letters to symbolize elements ‣ Every 8th element similar ↑ Ksp = ↑ solubility physicochemical property when Law of Octaves arranged according to increasing Solubility (g/L) – number of grams of solute atomic weight (Ex. H, F, Cl) dissolved in 1L of saturated solution ‣ Elements (Atomic nos. 1-20) with < Octet Rule 8 electron “react” to achieve 8 Molar solubility (mol/L) electrons (stable) Number of moles of solute dissolved in 1L METAL NONMETAL of saturated solution Oxides Basic Acidic Predicting formation of precipitate Good Reducing agents Oxidizing agents formation (Q ion product constant) – Conductor (of ✔ ✘ electricity) computed based on initial concentration: Malleable – o Q < Ksp → unsaturated ✔ Brittle ability to be 9 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh pounded into PERIODIC TRENDS thin sheets Ductile – ability to be drawn into ✔ ✘ wires Metallic luster ✔ ✘(except Iodine) State at RT Solid (except Hg) S, L, G PERIODIC TABLE Elements: 118 Periods (Horizontal Rows): 7 Groups / Family (Vertical Columns): 18 Ionization Energy – energy needed to remove o Grp A: Representative elements outermost electron in neutral atom (s & p block) o Grp B: Transition elements (d Electron Affinity – energy given off when neutral block) atom gains extra electron (making it more negative) o Actinides & Lanthanides: Inner transition elements (f block) Electronegativity New Elements: Ability of an atom to attract electron pair o Nihonium – Nh to itself, forming covalent bond o Moscovium – Mc F: most electronegative (most reactive o Tennessine – Ts oxidizing agent) o Oganesson – Og O2: 2nd most electronegative Valence Valence Atomic Radius – ½ difference between nucleus of 2 GRP A or Elements e- charge atoms H, Li, Na, K, Rb, 1A (Alkali Metals) 1 +1 Cs, Fr, NH4 2A (Alkaline Earth Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, RADIOACTIVITY 2 +2 Metals) Ba, Ra 3A (Boron G.) 3 +3 B, Al, Ga, In, Tl Spontaneous emission of particles / C, Si │Ge, Sn, 4A (Carbon G.) 4 +/- 4 Pb (+2, +4) ionizing radiation due to unstable nuclei of N, P │As, Sb, Bi heavier elements 5A (Nitrogen G.) 5 -3 (+3, +5) Non-SI: Curie (Ci) │1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decay/ 6A (Oxygen G. / Chalcogens) 6 -2 O, S, Se, Te, Po sec 7A (Halogens) 7 -1 F, Cl, Br, I, At o Discovered: Po & Ra 8A (Inert / Noble/ 8 0 He, Ne, Ar, Kr, SI: Becquerel (Bq) | 1Bq = 1 decay/sec Stable Gases) Xe, Rn o Discovered: U REM (Roentgen Equivalent in Man) – unit GRP B Valence Elements of radiation damage 1B (Coinage M.) +1 Cu (+2), Ag, Au (+3) Rad / Gray – unit of amount of exposure 2B (Volatile M.) +2 Zn, Cd, Hg & Hg2 3B (Scandium Sc, Y, Lanthanides (La-Lu), to radiation - Subgrp) Actinides (Ac-Ir) Radioactive Emissions 4B (Titanium - Ti, Zr, Hf o Radioisotopes decay randomly Subgrp) 5B (Vanadium o Beta and gamma can penetrate - V, Nb, Ta Subgrp) body tissue 6B (Chromium - Cr, Mo, W Subgrp) ALPHA BETA GAMMA 7B (Manganese No mass - Mn, Tc, Re, Bh Light Subgrp) Mass Heaviest (4) and charge (1/2000) 1st Triad: Fe, Co, Ni (+2, +3) (0) 8B (Iron Triad) - 2nd Triad (Light): Rh, Ru, Pd Slowest (0.1 Fast (0.9 Fastest 3rd Triad (Heavy): Os, Ir, Pt Velocity speed of speed of (speed of light) light) light) 10 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Penetrating Low Medium High Power Prevented Paper Al Pb by 11 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS FLAME TEST H Hydrogen Li Lithium NON-LUMINOUS UNDER COBALT GROUP IA Na Sodium METALS FLAME GLASS Alkali Metals K Potassium Persistent golden Ammonium Sodium Nil yellow Cesium Potassium Violet Crimson red Cu Copper Lithium Carmine red Purple GROUP 1B Ag Silver Calcium Brick red Light green Coinage Metals Au Gold Strontium Crimson red Purple Be Beryllium Barium Yellowish green Bluish green Mg Magnesium Borate GROUP IIA Ca Calcium Copper Alkaline Earth Metals Sr Strontium Green Thallium Ba Barium Phosphorous Ra Radium Bismuth Zn Zinc Lead GROUP IIB Cd Cadium Arsenic Blue Yellow Volatile Metals Hg Mercury Cobalt B Boron Antimony Al Aluminum Ammonium Colorless GROUP IIIA Ga Gallium Boron / Icosagens Group In Indium Tl Thallium GROUP IIIB Sc Scandium GROUPS OF ANIONS Rare Earth Elements Y Yttrium C Carbon PRECIPITATE FORMED AND VISUAL # MEMBERS GROUP IVA Si Silicon RESULT Carbon Family / Sn Tin w/ 1M AgNO3 + 6M w/ 1M BaCl2 + HNO3 HNO3 Crystallogens Pb Lead AgCl – white Ge Germanium AgBr – cream Ti Titanium GROUP IVB I Cl, Br, I AgI – yellow Zr Zirconium Titanium Hf Hafnium Insoluble in HNO3 N Nitrogen No ppt AgS – black, GROUP VA P Phosphorus soluble in HNO3 Nitrogen Family / As Arsenic NO2-, S-2, II Pnictogens Sb Antimony C2H3O4- NO2 & C2H3O2 Bi Bismuth – no ppt V Vanadium GROUP VB White ppt of Nb Niobium Vanadium SO3, CO3-2, White ppt soluble BaSO4, CaSO4, Ta Tantalum III C2O4-2 in HNO3 BaC2O4 soluble O Oxygen GROUP VIA in HNO3 S Sulfur Chalcogens / Ba3(PO3)2 – Se Selenium Oxygen Family Ag3PO4 – yellow white Po Polonium Ag3AsO4 – brown Ba3(AsO4)2 – Cr Chromium PO3-3, Ag2CrO4 – red white GROUP VIB Mo Molybdenum IV AsO4-3, BaCrO4 – yellow Chromium U Uranium CrO4-2 All ppt soluble in W Tungsten HNO3 All ppt soluble in F Fluorine HNO3 Cl Chlorine GROUP VII V NO3-, ClO- No ppt Br Bromine Halogens White ppt I Iodine VI SO4-2 No ppt soluble in HNO3 At Astatine Mn Manganese GROUP VIIB Tc Technetium Manganese GROUPS OF CATIONS Re Rhenium He Helium Ne Neon GRP I: INSOLUBLE CHLORIDE GROUP GROUP VIIIA/O Pb+2, Hg+2, Ag+2 Form precipitate w/ dilute HCl Ar Argon Noble / Inert Gases Kr Krypton GRP II: ACID-INSOLUBLE SULFIDES Ra Radon Do not react w/ HCl but forms 1st Triad: FeCoNi Hg+, Bi+3, Cu+2, precipitate w/ H2S in dilute mineral GROUP VIIIB 2nd Triad: RuRhoPd Cd+2, As+3, As+5, acid medium 3rd Triad: OsIrPt Sb+3, Sb+5, Sn+2, Sn+4 Form ppt with (NH4)2S in neutral and ammoniacal solution 12 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh GRP III: BASE INSOLUBLE SULFIDES ‣ Turmeric paper when dipped into a Do not react w/ either HCl or H2S in solution of borate acidified w/ HCl → Fe+2, Fe+3, Al+3, +3 +6 +3 dilute mineral acid medium produce reddish brown/ orange-red Cr , Cr , Ni , +2 +2 +7 Bromine (Br) ‣ Carbon tetrachloride → orange color CO , Mn , Mn , Form ppt with (NH4)2S in neutral and Carbonate Zn+2, ammoniacal solution ‣ In acidic aq. solution → effervescence (CO3-2) GRP IV: SULFATE INSOLUBLE GROUPS ‣ Silver nitrate test → white curdy Do not react w/ either HCl, H2S, or Chloride (Cl) precipitate ppt soluble in ammonia, (NH4)2S insoluble in nitric acid Ba+2, Ca+2, Sr+2 ‣ Silver mirror test Form ppt w/ NH4Cl in neutral / slightly ‣ CaCl2 / Ca(OH)2 (in excess) → no ppt → acidic medium white ppt w/c dissolve on cooling GRP V: SOLUBLE / ALKALI METALS Citrate ‣ Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)/ Do not react with any of the rgts stated (C6H5O2) Denige’s reagent (distinguishing test for citrate & tartrates) Mg – only grp V cation that will yield a Citrates = Carmine Red ppt w/ Na biphosphate Tartrates = Emerald Green Mg+2, Na+, K+, NH4 Na – yellow ppt w/ Co uranyl acetate ‣ NaOH → grayish green slug dissolves in K – white ppt w/ Na bitartrate Chromium excess reagent (turn to yellow upon NH4 – alkalinized vapors turn litmus (Cr) addition of Na Peroxide) paper (red → blue) ‣ NaOH → blue ppt of CO(OH)2 (boiling) → olive green → rose red ‣ Potassium nitrite + acetic acid → yellow Cobalt (Co) RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS AND THEIR USES ppt ‣ α-nitroso-β-naphthol → brown ppt RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL USES soluble in HCl Tc 99m Phytate Liver imaging, potency ‣ Dimethylglyoxime → bright red studies crystalline ppt insoluble in ammonia Nickel (Ni) Kidney imaging, ‣ α-nitroso-β-naphthol → reddish brown Tc 99m Heptagluconate determining renal ppt soluble in HCl function ‣ Fe+ HCl → deposit of red film on iron Tc 99m IDA Hepatobiliary studies Copper (Cu) ‣ Potassium ferrocyanide → green ppt. Tc 99m Etidronate Bone imaging forming a blue solution w/ ammonia Tc 99m Injection Brain scanning ‣ Chlorine water or potassium Tc 99m Pyrophosphate permanganate solution → violet color Cardiac infarct imaging Iodohippurate I 131 Injection ‣ Sulfuric acid + sodium bisulfate (cold) → Iodide (I) Blood plasma volume decolorized I-131-Human Serum Albumin with cardiac output ‣ Sulfuric acid + oxalic acid (hot) → determination decolorized NaI-1125 Localization of ocular Cyanate ‣ Co acetate + acetic acid → azure blue tumors (CNO) crystal Na3PO4 Serum Albumin Thyroid function ‣ Silver test → yellow ppt in nitric acid & Cyanocobalamin 57 Capsule Pernicious anemia Phosphate ammonia (PO4-3) ‣ Ammonium molybdate → yellow ppt. soluble in nitric acid & ammonia COLOR REACTIONS ‣ Flame test → violet or lilac color ‣ Tartaric acid → white ppt of potassium Potassium (K) UNKNOWN TESTS bitartrate (only insoluble compound of ‣ H2SO4 + EtOH → fruity odor of ethyl potassium) Acetate acetate ‣ Ferric chloride → violet color Salicylate (C2H3O2) ‣ FeCl3 TS → brownish red / reddish brown ‣ Acid → white ppt of salicylic acid ppt of basic acetates ‣ HCl → white curdy ppt. insoluble in nitric Silver (Ag) ‣ Ammonium TS → gelatinous ppt. w/c acid but soluble in ammonia Aluminum dissolves in excess of ammonium TS ‣ Flame test → intense golden yellow (Al) ‣ Aluminon rgt → red lake flame Sodium (Na) Ammonium ‣ Acidic Co solution → intense blue ‣ Cobalt uranyl acetate → golden yellow thiocyanide colored complex at interface Co(CNS)4 ppt (NH4SCN) ‣ Fe salts → blood red ferric thiocyanate ‣ Silver mirror test Tartrate ‣ Silver nitrate TS → chocolate brown ‣ Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1) → Arsenates (C4H4O6) soluble in nitric acid emerald green (AsO4) ‣ Ammonium molybdate → yellow ppt Thiosulfate ‣ HCl → white ppt turning yellow; SO2 ‣ H2SO4 + methanol → green bordered (S2O3) Borates flame ‣ Hydrogen sulfide → white ppt (only Zinc (Zn) (BO3-3) ‣ Turmeric paper (curcumin) → orange + white sulfide) sodium hydroxide → olive green ‣ (Fluorescein Test) Resorcinol + sulfuric Saccharin acid + excess NaOH → Fluorescent green liquid 13 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh ABUNDANCE GLASS 1. Element Made from Silica + Na2CO3 1st – O2 (non-metal) USP GLASS TYPES AND TEST LIMITS 2nd – Si (non-metal) GENERAL TYPE OF TYPE GENERAL USE 3rd – Al (most abundant metal) DESCRIPTION TEST Buffered and 2. Air Gas – N2 (Air = N2 + O2 [71:29]) Highly resistant Powdered unbuffered 3. Noble Gas – Ar (least abundant – Kr, Xe) I borosilicate glass aqueous glass 4. Intracellular and Extracellular Ions solutions MAJOR / MOST MINOR / 2ND Buffered ABUNDANT/ MOST aqueous PRINCIPAL / 1° ABUNDANT / 2° solutions with CATION PiSo MiCo Treated soda Water pH N = Cl Added to Quinalizarin Reagent to Decreasing Acidity: HI > HBr > HCl > HF differentiate magnesium and beryllium Ionic property is inversely proportional to Tox: Bromism (skin eruption, psychosis, acidity weakness, HA) – Antidote: NaCl, NH4Cl Pseudohalogens (Halogenoids — resemble Kopperschaar’s Solution halide anions) o Bromine, 10th normal solution o CN o Solution of K bromate and K o CNS bromide FLUORINE (F2) o 0.10N Br solution o Used in the assay of phenol Superhalogen (Linus Pauling) Strongest oxidizing agent IODINE (I2) Most electronegative element Heaviest non-metal Suppressive effect on thyroid (particularly Easily undergoes sublimation, giving off when I2 is deficient) violet vapor Tox: Fluorosis – mottled enamel, abnormal Present in thyroid gland, preparation of T3 bone growth and T4 30 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh o Triiodothyronine (T3) – more Tox: Mn Poisoning = Parkinson-like active symptoms (resting tremors) o Thyroxine (T4) – more abundant Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) Oldest known germicide, expectorant and o Mineral Chameleon antifungal o Oxidizing agent Radioactive isotopes which have a wide o Antiseptic use in diagnosis and therapy o Antimicrobial (0.02%) 1:5000 (0.02%) – iodine concentration TECHNETIUM (Tc) effective to combat many common bacteria in distilled water Eka-manganese, Technetos o Greater antibacterial activity vs Cl First element produced artificially and Br of same strength Used in the preparation of o Same strength as KMnO4 radiopharmaceuticals (99Tc) Def: Goiter Tox: Iodine Poisoning – Antidote: RHENIUM (Re) Cornstarch, Na thiosulfate Very rare element IODINE PREPARATIONS Catalyst for dehydrogenation Iodine Solution 2% I2 in water + NaI Iodine Tincture 2% I2 solution + 50% alcohol + NaI GROUP VIIIA/0: NOBLE / INERT GASES Strong Iodine Solution 5% I2 in water + KI (Lugol’s Solt’n) He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Ra Strong Iodine Tincture 7.5% I2 solution + 88.5% alcohol + KI All Group 0 elements EXCEPT Ra occur in Phenolated Iodine / the atmosphere and are all monoatomic & Antibacterial, irritant Boulton’s Solt’n unreactive I2 complexed with organic complexing agent as solubilizer Valence: 0 Povidone Iodine (Betadine®) HELIUM (He) Iodophors Adv: slow release of I2, stability, reduced irritation, oral tox 2nd lightest gas / air Disadv: staining, idiosyncratic Container: Brown reaction Inhalation of pure He produces a Donald Duck-like sound or a chipmunk-like sound ASTATINE (As2) Pharmacologic Uses: Only metallic, synthetic, and radioactive halogen ✓ Used to prepare artificial air (20% O2 + 80% He) GROUP VIIB: MANGANESE SUBGROUP ✓ Carrier / diluent of medically Mn, Tc, Re, Bh important gases Colored, metallic in color NEON (Ne) MANGANESE (Mn) For advertising purposes (neon lights) Cofactor involved in: ARGON (Ar) ✓ Protein synthesis ✓ Phosphorylation Most abundant noble gas ✓ Fatty acid and cholesterol Nitrogen substitute as inert atmosphere synthesis for pharmaceuticals Necessary for activation of a variety of Container: Dark Green enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase By-product of the fractionalization of Forms a pink ppt w/ S-containing reagent liquid air for possible use as anesthetic Essential trace element 31 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh KRYPTON (Kr) Pharmacologic Use: Hematinic Tox: Hemochromatosis (GIT distress, Least abundant noble gas cardiac collapse) – Antidote: Inhalational anesthetic activity Deferoxamine Ramsay & Travers – isolated Kr from Ar Common Ores of Fe: XENON (Xe) o Hematite (Fe2O3) o Pyrite / Fool’s Gold (native FeS2) Virtually ideal anesthetic inert gas o Iron Stone (FeCO3) sufficiently potent to provide rapid induction and emergence from surgical IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF IRON anesthesia 1. Ferrous Sulfate (FeSO4) Investigational with inhalatory anesthetic Green Vitriol activity Hematinic agent RADON (Ra) Most economical and most satisfactory form of iron preparation Niton (Ramsay) S/E: Constipation, tarry stool Synthetic and radioactive noble gas Treatment of CA (Cervical CA) 2. Ferrous Subsulfate Solution – Monsel’s Solution Rutherford & Soddy – succeeded in 3. Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate liquefying the emanation of Radon Mohr’s Salt Ramsay & Collie – demonstrated the Most important double salt of FeSO4 with characteristic spectrum of Radon alkali sulfate NOTES: Radon, Radium – emit alpha particles in their first 4. Ferric Ammonium Sulfate stage of radioactive decay (treatment of CA) Ferric Alum Indicator used in the precipitation method GROUP VIIIB: IRON TRIAD of analysis SECOND TRIAD THIRD TRIAD 5. Ferrous Gluconate FIRST TRIAD (LIGHT TRIAD) (HEAVY TRIAD) Fergon® Iron (Fe) Ruthenium (Ru) Osmium (Os) Hematinic agent Cobalt (Co) Rhodium (Rh) Iridium (Ir) Nickel (Ni) Palladium (Pd) Platinum (Pt) Less irritating to the GIT 6. Ferrous Fumarate IRON (Fe) Toleron® Hematinic agent Ferrous (+2) – physiologic; green in solt’n More stable than FeSO4 Present in tyrosine hydroxylase which Most tolerable form of Fe catalyzes the RLS in catecholamines Less irritating to the GIT than any other Fe Present in: preparation ✓ Hemoglobin – O2 transport ✓ Transferrin – transport form 7. Ferrous Carbonate ✓ Ferritin – storage form Chalybeate Pills, Ferruginous Pills, Blaud’s ✓ Cytochrome oxidase (Fe and Cu) Pills Enhances the absorption of: Hematinic agent ✓ Vitamin C ✓ Copper (Cu) 8. Ferrous Chloride Most important element in engineering Astringent, styptic Alloys: Detection test of tannins and phenols o Steel – Fe + 35% C Will react with: o Misch Metal – 70% Ce + 30% Fe ✓ Morphine – blue ✓ Benzoic Acid – flesh 32 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh ✓ Resorcinol – violet 3. Cobalt Meta-aluminate Thenard’s Blue 9. Fe + Ammonium Acetate Test for Al ion (causes Shaver’s Disease) Basham’s Mixture Astringent, styptic 4. Cobaltous – used as indicator in silica gel beads and other dehydrating agents 10. Iron Dextran Injection – IM only 11. Iron Oxide – used as pigment NICKEL (Ni) 12. Iron Pyrite – Fool’s Gold 13. Ferric Ferrocyanide – Prussian Blue Old Nick’s Copper 14. Ferrous Ferricyanide – Turnbull’s Blue Found in fossil fuel combustion 15. Cast Iron / Pig Iron – crude metal obtained from Metal in fancy jewelries blast furnace that contains 92 – 94% Fe Specified by Dimethylglyoxime Reagent – 16. White Cast Iron (Cementine) – a solid solution red ppt in ammonia of hard brittle iron carbide formed when molten Ni (+2) – green in solt’n iron is rapidly cooled OSMIUM (Os) 17. Gray Cast Iron (Graphite Scales) – formed when liquid iron is run into sand molds and allowed to Heaviest and densest metal cool Osmic Acid Osmium Tetroxide – used in staining 18. Wrought Iron specimens for electron microscopy Obtained from removing most of the impurities from the cast iron PALLADIUM (Pd) Contains 99.8 – 99.9% of pure Fe Very malleable and ductile, very tough, Catalyst in finely divided steel and possesses a high tensile strength PLATINUM (Pt) 19. Reduced Iron – Ferric oxide + Hydrogen Noble metal – low oxidation and reactivity COBALT (Co) Cisplatin (Cis-diaminedichloroplatinum) o Aka Platinol (+) Permanent magnets, Vit B12 o Platinum complex (Cyanocobalamin, as Co2+) o Antineoplastic agent prepared by Enhances beer’s foam quality – Colt 45 treating K Chloroplatinate + Essential in the development of Ammonia erythrocyte and hemoglobin o Used in the tx of prostate CA Pink in appearance Vogel’s Reaction (Test for Cobaltous ions WATER w/ Ammonium Thiocyanate) – (+) Beautiful blue Universal solvent Def: Megaloblastic and Pernicious Anemia High dielectric constant – Test: Schilling’s Test Water Vapor – best expectorant Natural / Mineral / Well Water IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF COBALT o Not fit for drinking 1. Cobalt Chloride o Contents: Dissolved minerals, Lover’s Ink, Sympathetic Ink atmospheric gases, suspended organic matter Indicator in silica gel beads (desiccator) Hard Water – (+) dissolved minerals (Ca, 2. Cobalt Zincate Mg) Rinmann’s Green Test for Zn ion (causes Metal Fume Fever) WATER TEMPORARY PERMANENT HARDNESS Sulfide and Ca and Mg Salt Bicarbonate Chloride 33 | @blueveetriol | PhLE MODULE 1  PhLE MODULE 1 – PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY TRANS BY MLVGA, RPh Water Softening Boiling (CaCO3 Ion exchange MONOPROTIC DIPROTIC TRIPROTIC Method ppt) + Ca(OH)2 resins ACIDS (BAHN) ACIDS (COCHS) ACIDS (PC) Carbonic Acid HARD WATER (H2CO3) Benzoic Acid Oxalic Acid (+) NaHCO3, Na2SO4, MgSO4 (C6H5CO2H) Alkaline Water (H2C2O4) Phosphoric Acid (appreciable qqty) Acetic Acid Chromic Acid (H3PO4) Saline / Purgative (CH3CO2H / HOAc) (+) NaCl, Na2SO4, MgSO4 (high qtty) (H2CrO4) Citric Acid Water Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen (C6H8O7) Carbonated (+) Ca and Mg carbonates – (+ acid) → (HCl) Sulfide (H2S) Water CO2 (effervescence) Nitric Acid (HNO3) Sulfuric Acid Chalybeate (+) Fe (soln/susp; ferruginous state – (H2SO4) Water (air) → forms ferric oxide/hydroxide Lithia Water (+) Li carbonate/ chloride (+) H2S and → deposit S upon atm Sulfur Water exposure HYDROCHLORIC ACIDS AND SALTS Siliceous Water (+) Soluble alkali silicates Baryta Water (+) Ba(OH)2 salt solution HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCl) POTABLE WATER Muriatic Acid USP Methods: Distillation, reverse (+) Gastric Juice: Chief cells secretes osmosis, ion exchange pepsinogen –(HCl)→ Pepsin Treated water (fit to drink) HCl – secreted by parietal cells Insoluble Matter Removal: coagulation, DILUTED HCl (10% w/v solution) settling, filtration Microorganism (Coliform) Destruction: Used in the treatment of gastric achlorhydria – low Aeration, chlorination, etc. HCl in stomach Palatability Improvement: Aeration, filtration with charcoal SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) WATER FLUORIDATION Dentritic / rock / table / sea / solar salt Na+ replenisher (+) Na fluorosilicate – Anticariogenic property (parts Tonicity adjusting agent, condiment, per billion) preservative PURIFIED WATER (NP) If acid dissociate in water = Na+ + C- Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS) Ingredients of official preparations, tests, o NaCl + KCl + Na citrate + glucose assays (unless specified) o Diarrhea, Dehydration Can be parenteral if stated “water for ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS injection” Normal Saline 0.9% NaCl in water Solution (NSS) STRONG ACIDS AND BASES Ringer’s Solution NaCl + KCl + CaCl2 Lactated Ringer’s /