Document Summary - Translation Studies PDF

**Chapter 2\ Here are some of the questions you might raise, in a critical spirit.** **as you read (based on Gile 1995):** 1. Are the author\'s objectives clear? 2. Is the methodology explained clearly enough? 3. Are the facts accurate, as far as you can tell? (Facts about dates and also...

**Chapter 2\ Here are some of the questions you might raise, in a critical spirit.** **as you read (based on Gile 1995):** 1. Are the author\'s objectives clear? 2. Is the methodology explained clearly enough? 3. Are the facts accurate, as far as you can tell? (Facts about dates and also bibliographical information) 4. Is the argumentation logical, relevant? 5. Are the conclusions justified by the evidence? 6. Does the presentation seem careful, or careless? 7. Does the author seem to be trustworthy? 8. Is the author actually saying something important? **2.6 Keep Complete Bibliographic Records**\ When starting to read and gather information, it is crucial to keep bibliographic records from the beginning. Although it may feel burdensome at first, it becomes easier with practice. The main reason for maintaining these records is to avoid the frustration of losing sources later. Establishing good habits and organizing records in their final format is beneficial in the long term. **References are cited works in your writing, listed at the end, while a bibliography consists of relevant works in a field and can be an independent compilation. You will create a bibliography during research, but your writing will contain references.\ **\ **The references at the end of your text have two purposes:** - to provide the sources for the work of others which you cite and/ or refer to in your text - to enable readers of your text to identify and locate works which you cite and/or refer to in your text."\ \ Standard formats can be found in the Chicago Manual of Style or the MLA Handbook. **The Harvard System**, often used in Translation Studies, organizes references alphabetically by authors\' names at the end of the text. **The Harvard System has a number of different formats, depend- ing on the type of reference:** **1. Reference to a book** Here the sequence is: 1. Author\'s surname, initials. 2. (Year of publication). 3. Title in italics. 4. Edition (if not the first). 5. Place of publication: 6. Publisher. Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies. Theories and Applications. London/ New York: Routledge.\ \ **2. Reference to a contribution in a book** Here the sequence is: 1. Surname of contributing author, initials. 2. (Year of publication). 3. Title of contribution followed by In: (italicized) 4. Author or editor of publication. (initials, surname) followed by ed. or eds. if relevant. 5. Title of book in italics. 6. Edition (if not the first) or volume number if appropriate. 7. Place of publication: 8. Publisher. 9. Page numbers of contribution. Kuhiwczak, P. (1999). Translation and Language Games in the Balkans. In: G. Anderman and M. Rogers, eds. Word, Text, Translation. Liber Amicorum for Peter Newmark. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 217-224. **3. Reference to an article in a journal** Here the sequence is: 1\. Author\'s surname, initials. 2\. (Year of publication). 3\. Title of article. 4\. Title of journal (italicized). 5\. Volume number 6\. Part number (in brackets). 7\. Page numbers of contribution. Steiner, E. (1998). A Register-Based Translation Evaluation: An Advertisement as a Case in Point. Target, 10 (2), 291-318. **Chapter 3** **Theoretical models of translation\ **Any research uses a theoretical model of the object being studied.\ (Either explicitly or implicitly)\ If we are studying translation or translating process, we need a preliminary model to orient ourselves. (Initial frame work). A model represents some aspect of reality. **Definition of Model?\ **A model is a construction that represents reality. Not all models represent things straightforwardly; some are abstract. (theoretical models).\ \ **Theoretical Models** Theoretical models represent objects in an abstract way. Based on assumptions about how something is structured, or how it might be related to other phenomena. Highly idealized and simplified. Models simplify reality, acting as conceptual tools. **How to use models in research** In research, you may: Use a ready-made model Adapt a model to your purposes. Develop your own version. Propose a new model. **Types of Models in Translation Studies** Three basic types of models: 1\. Comparative Models 2\. Process Models 3\. Causal Models Each of.these. has several associated theories and van ants. **Comparative Models** 1\. comparative: Earliest model: static and product-oriented. This model simply lines up the translation side by side with the source text. Comparative models align the translation with the source text. **Shifts in Translation** Comparative models help study shifts (differences between ST and TT). Analyze differences systematically: Are shifts random or systematic? Are they universal The goal of all research based on a comparative model is thus to discover correlations between the two sides of the relation. **Process Models\ **Process models see translation as a dynamic activity over time. Unlike comparative models, they focus on the process, not the final product. **Psycholinguistic Model** The psycholinguistic model simplifies the translation process to: Input → Black Box → Output. The "Black Box" represents the mind of the translator, a complex area difficult to observe directly. **How Process Models Help Research** Process models allow researchers to understand the sequence and timing of translation steps. **Causal Models\ **Unlike process models, causal models seek to answer why certain decisions are made during translation. Focus on the relationship between cause and effect in translation.\ Example: If X (in the source text), then Y (in the target text). Here, X is seen as the cause of Y. **Process models** help us map out the translation phases and decision-making.\ **Causal models** explain why translators make certain choices and what effects these choices have. Both models are essential for understanding translation from different perspectives. **Chapter 4\ Kinds of Research** **1. Conceptual and Empirical Research** - **Conceptual research** aims to define and clarify concepts, to interpret or reinterpret ideas, to relate concepts into larger systems, to introduce new concepts or metaphors or frameworks that allow a better understanding of the object of research. Ex: *what translation equivalence is?* **Empirical research,** on the other hand, seeks new data, new information derived from the observation of data and from experimental work; it seeks evidence which supports or disconfirms hypotheses, or generates new ones.\ \ **Subtypes of Empirical Research: Naturalistic vs Experimental** - Naturalistic (or observational) studies are those that investigate a phenomenon or a process as it takes place in real life in its natural setting. The observer tries not to interfere with the process (as far as possible), but simply observes it and notes certain features of it.\ An experimental study, on the other hand, deliberately interferes with the natural order of things in order to isolate a particular feature for study and, as far as possible, eliminate other features that are not relevant to the research\ \ **2. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research** Qualitative research is to describe the quality of something in some enlightening way. Qualitative research can lead to conclusions about what is possible, what can happen, or what can happen at least sometimes; it does not allow conclusions about what is probable, general, or universal. Quantitative research seeks to measure things, to count, and to compare statistically. **Methods** - Case study Vs experimental study Case study material: Case studies focus on limited situations in a natural context. single translation, single translator, single publisher, etc. - **Corpus studies** use a wide range of textual data, containing many instances of whatever is being analyzed. **3. Applied Research\ \ **[The aim] of applied research: is specifically to make (or recommend) some good use of particular research results or conceptual analyses, for instance in meeting some social need. **Chapter 5\ Questions, Hypotheses and Claims** **5.1 Asking Questions\ **Initial research questions often start vague and become more specific as the researcher explores the topic. The reason for reading relevant literature helps refine these questions. **Types of Questions :** Such as \"What does X mean?\" which may lead to conceptual analysis and surveys of existing scholarly thoughts **5.2 Making a Claim\ **As research progresses, researchers develop concepts to address their questions and formulate claims supported by evidence. The claim is the original contribution to the field.\ \ claims should be tested and evaluated, you might start with a claim made by someone else, and proceed by testing it on your own data. **5.3 Four Kinds of Hypotheses** 1. **Interpretive Hypothesis:** Claims about meaning or interpretation that help understand a concept better 2. **Descriptive Hypothesis:** Generalizations about observable features in a specific context; these hypotheses can be either unrestricted (applying universally) or restricted (applying under certain conditions).\ - Phenomenon **X** have observable feature **Y** 3. **Explanatory Hypothesis:** Proposes explanations or causal relationships for observed phenomena. - Phenomenon **X** is (or tends to be) caused or influenced by conditions or factors **ABC**. 4. **Predictive Hypothesis:** Forecasts outcomes based on certain conditions. - That conditions or factors **ABC** will (tend to) cause or influence phenomenon **X**. **5.4 Hypothesis Testing** - Good hypotheses must be justified and tested. **Justification** involves explaining why a hypothesis is reasonable. - The process of testing includes **operationalizing** hypotheses to make them concrete and measurable, the importance of ensuring reliability and transparency in research methods - Hypotheses can be tested on four criteria: these are the **ACID** tests... **Chapter 6\ Relations between Variables** 1- Variables\ 2- Text and Context Variable\ 3-Causal vs. Correlational Relationships - comparing the relation between tail-moving and environmental conditions across dogs and cats helps illustrate how these variables can vary among different groups. **Casual** is a type of study that evaluates whether two variables (one independent, one dependent) have a cause-and-effect relationship. **Correlation relations** - It indicates that two variables are related, but it doesn't imply causation. - The existence of poverty correlates with an abundance of donkeys in many parts of the world, but we cannot claim that the donkeys cause the poverty, nor vice versa. - Text Variables: These are related to the translations themselves or texts assumed to be translations. They include aspects like sentence length, use of slang, lexical density, text type, these variables concern the existence and form of a translation and its linguistic profile - **Context Variables:** encompasses anything in the spatial or temporal environment that could be relevant to the translation. This includes factors like the cultural, social, and historical context in which the translation is produced and received - **To summarize, the variables can be grouped as follows:** - **Source-text variables:** These include aspects like style, format, structure, semantics, text type. They form the linguistic context in which the translation is done and affect its form. - **Target-language variables**: These involve language-specific structural and rhetorical constraints and comparable non-translated texts in the target language. - Task variables: These cover production factors such as the purpose and type of the translation, deadlines. - **Translator variables:** These include the translator's professional experience towards the task, gender, and whether they are translating into or out of their mother tongue. - **Socio-cultural variables:** These encompass norms, cultural values, ideologies, and the state of the languages involved. - **Reception variables:** These involve the client's reactions, critics' and quality assessments. By examining the relationships between these variables, we can explore how context influences translations and vice versa. **Chapter 7\ Selecting and Analyzing Data** Terminological research also uses data available in term banks and glossaries. as well as texts in special fields. Research on translation problems or translation strategies also fuses textual data: occurrences of particular problems in source texts, plus occurrences of the proposed solutions in the target texts. **7.3 Categorization** ====================== **8.1 Write Early and Often** Start writing early and continuously. Use your preliminary plan to take notes and think critically. Writing helps clarify your thoughts, acting as a tool for deeper understanding. It's more effective than simply summarizing others' work. Engage critically with sources, making them interact with each other and contributing your own insights. **8.2 Documentation in Text** Document all sources unless they are common knowledge or your original ideas. In Translation Studies, use the name-date system, integrating references into the text, not in footnotes. Place references before periods, and use \"cf.\" for comparisons. Quote only when necessary, preferring paraphrases. Ensure your reference list includes all cited works. **8.3 Think of the Reader: KISS (Keep It Short and Simple)** Writing is communication. Consider how readers will engage with your work, and aim to capture their interest from the start. Present your ideas logically, using clear transitions between sections. Avoid overly complex sentences, favor active voice, and focus on verbs rather than nouns. Place familiar information before new details to help readers follow your argument. **8.4 Show Logical Structure** **Organize your writing into a clear structure. For example:** 1. State the problem.\ 2.Review relevant literature.\ 3. Propose and evaluate a solution. **Empirical reports typically follow this format:** 1. Introduction\ 2.Literature review\ 3.Methodology\ 4. Data analysis\ 5. Discussion\ 6. Conclusion **8.6 Substantiate or Withdraw** A strong academic claim is backed by evidence and logic. Formulate your main argument clearly, providing a warrant that links your evidence to your claim. Be specific, testable, and significant. Anticipate reader objections and qualify your claims with hedges (e.g., \"possibly,\" \"seems\"). Define terms carefully, avoid oversimplifying, and consider counterexamples. **8.7 Starting and Finishing** Draft introductions early but revise them later. Start by grabbing attention, providing context, and stating your problem and aim. Conclusions should restate your key findings, explain their significance, assess your work critically, and suggest future research. **8.8 Feedback and Revision** Writing is a process requiring multiple drafts. Seek feedback and be prepared to discard or revise large portions. In revisions, ensure clarity, logical flow, and correct terminology. Proofread thoroughly for errors and layout consistency. **Chapter 9\ PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH ORAL\ ** PURPOSE OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS\ Present your work in different contexts: 1\. Seminar to classmates. 2\. Research progress presentation. 3\. Conference presentation. 4\. Job interviews. 5\. Examination process (e.g., viva). 6\. Invited lectures. **IMPORTANCE OF PREPARATION** Good presentations take time to prepare. Mark Twain: "It takes 3 weeks to prepare a good ad-lib speech." Allow time for ideas to evolve; creativity can\'t be rushed. **CONTENT PLANNING** Only present when you have results worth sharing. Content should fit the time limit. Never exceed the allotted time. **TIME MANAGEMENT FOR PRESENTATIONS** Example durations: Conference paper: 20 minutes. Research progress: 30 minutes. Invited lecture: 45 minutes. Q&A session follows each presentation. **PRESENTATION STRUCTURE** Presentations should have three sections: 1\. Introduction: Background, research question. 2\. Middle: Data and ideas from research. 3\. Conclusion: Summarize findings. **EXAMPLE STRUCTURE FOR DOCTORAL RESEARCH** 1. Research question: Factors influencing translations. 2. Focus on a specific text or factor. 3. Conclusion on methodology and initial results. **DELIVERY TECHNIQUES** Tips for effective delivery: Speak directly to your audience, maintain eye contact. Use rhetorical devices: vary tone, volume, pacing. Be enthusiastic. **AVOIDING MONOTONY** Tips to maintain interest: Vary delivery. Use humor (if appropriate). Pause for audience reflection. **HANDLING NERVES** Preparation reduces nervousness. Use relaxation techniques. Have water handy. **EFFECTIVE USE OF VISUAL AIDS** Visual aids can enhance your presentation by: Helping the audience follow your talk. Adding variety to keep attention. **REHEARSAL** Rehearse to refine both content and delivery. Test timing and identify weak points. Practice in front of colleagues or a mirror. **REHEARSING IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE** If presenting in a foreign language: Speak slowly. Rehearse in front of native speakers. Record yourself to assess performance. **HANDLING THE Q&A SESSION** Stay calm and composed. Admit when you don\'t know the answer. Encourage discussion after the presentation. **CONCLUSION** Practice makes perfect. Oral presentations are vital for your research reputation and career. **FINAL THOUGHTS** Seize every opportunity to hone your presentation skills. Chapter 10 **Assessing Your Research** Evaluation is a crucial part of the research process. Apart from your own self-assessment as you work and write, your report of your research results will be assessed by teachers, by readers, and by present and future colleagues. **10.1 Self-assessment** The following checklist of the kinds of purely methodological issues you might want to assess in your own work. 1\. Research question/aim. Is it clearly stated? Have you explained why this is a good question /an important or interesting aim? 2\. Other relevant research. How well did you relate what you are doing to what others have done? Have you consulted the most relevant sources? 3\. Hypothesis. Are you starting or concluding with a specific hypothesis? Did you make this clear? What kind of hypothesis is it? Why is it interesting/important? Is it well justified? 4.Material. Have you presented your empirical material clearly? Have you explained why you chose it? How relevant is it to your research question? Have you explained how you collected it? 5\. Relation between variables. What kind of relation are you looking for/do you think you have found? Between what variables exactly? Is this clear to the reader? 6\. Theoretical model. Have you explained why you chose a particular theoretical model or approach/ a particular variant of that model? What about other possibilities? Did you explain why you rejected those? Have you adapted the model at all? Why? 7\. Central concept and categories. Are they adequately defined? Justified against alternative concepts, categories and definitions? What kind of categories? What kind of classification? 8\. Counter- evidence. Have you considered any? Have you dealt with borderline cases adequately? Counter arguments? Alternative explanations? 9\. Reliability. Is the analysis reliable? Explicit enough to be replicable? Are the calculations accurate? Classifications consistent? 10\. Validity. Are the conclusions valid? Hypotheses supported or not? Adequate evidence? Logical argument ? Is the evidence relevant to the original research problem? Do the conclusions link up with the introduction and the stated aim? 11\. Follow-up. Now what? Have you made some suggestions? 12\. Implications. So what? Have you considered these, in the conclusions? **Length** Some texts are much too long. The main reasons for excessive length seem to be: 1-Topic too wide- not sufficiently restricted or specific. 2-Irrelevance- mostly in the introductory sections, which are often too long. Writers may start too far away from their actual topic. From too general a level, so that it takes e.g. 25 pages instead of 5 to put the reader in the picture and get to the point. 3-Repetition- any academic writing involves some repetition, with main points introduced. Developed and then summarized. But too much is too much. Reader who are told the same thing many times feel that their intelligence is underestimated. 4-Banalities- Do not waste time and space saying things that your readers will certainly know anyway. Because they are obvious. And do not waste time and space on mere trivialities: what you say should be worth saying! **Methodology** 1-Lack of explicitness- the topic question the aim is too vague , crucial terms are not explicitly defined.Necessary information about the material or method of analysis is missing. 2-Lack of evidence- claims are made with no evidence to back them up, so that they appear to be purely subjective. Conclusions are not justified by the analysis. 3-Lack of a critical attitude- several definitions of terms are listed for instance, but with no critical discussion, no argument to defend why one particular definition has been selected rather than others. 4\) Lack of statistics- in a quantitative study, necessary statistics are not used where they would be appropriate. 5\) Lack of appropriate theory- for instance, the theoretical section sometimes seems to have no connection to the analytical part, so that one wonders what the theoretical bit was actually for. 6\) Lack of criteria for data selection- the choice of data is not sufficiently motivated with respect to the research question. 7\) No implications- the conclusion is merely a summary, there is no awareness of the possible practical or theoretical implications of the work. **Style** 1- Readability is bad: lack of signposts, too much verbosity, sentences too long and complicated. 2-Quotation -- too much direct quotation, rather than paraphrase or discussion. 3-Examples- too many, or too few, or not representative. 4-No personal touch, or personal opinion. **Plagiarism** Plagiarism means taking ideas or passages of texts from other authors without saying where they come from. Etymologically, the word goes back to the idea of kidnapping: taking something without permission, a kind of stealing. To be on the safe side, it is better either to quote properly or paraphrase and report freely in your own words with, of course mention of the source.