Cellblock Token Economy PDF 1976 A maximum Security Correctional Institution

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 1976, % 253-275 NUMBER 3 (FALL) 1976 THE CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY: TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES IN A MAXIMUM SECURITY CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTION FOR ADULT...

JOURNAL OF THE CELLBLOCK REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES SECURITY CORRECTIONAL MALE MICHAEL A. MILAN REHABILITATION RESEARCH Two experiments were conducted procedures in a maximum security (2) to determine to what extent lives of inmate participants. that the combination of praise binations of praise and noncontingent mon institutional activities. more effective than praise indicated that the high levels phases of Experiment 1 could ship in the form of increased to engage in recreational in detail. DESCRIPTORS: token economy, prison inmates, adults A beginning has been made in the use of the principles and technology of applied behavior analysis with adult and juvenile offenders in in- stitutional settings. The CASE (Contingencies Applicable to Special Education) projects con- ducted at the National Training School for Boys in Washington, D.C., aimed to increase the aca- demic skill of youths and to prepare as many as possible either to return to school or pass the 'This research was supported by the U.S. Depart- ment of Labor, Manpower Administration, under Contract 21-01-73-38. Organizations undertaking such projects are encouraged to express judgement freely. Therefore, points of view or opin- ions stated in this report do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of the Department of Labor or other federal agencies mentioned herein. Portions of these data were presented of the Southeastern Psychological Association in 1971 and 1972. The authors express their apprecia- tion to Larry F. Wood, Robert L. Williams, Jerry J. Rogers, and Lee F. Hampton for their sistance in this research, and to Charles Petko for his aid in the preparation of this report. Reprints may be obtained from Michael A. Milan, Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, gia 30303, of John M. McKee, Rehabilitation Re- search Foundation, Montgomery, Alabama 36109. 254 MICHAEL A. habit patterns, such as planning and performing consistently, and interpersonal skills that would make their presence and performance important to other members of their military unit. In follow-up, the performance of 46 men re- leased from the Walter Reed project was com- pared to that of 48 comparable soldiers who received either routine disciplinary action or general psychiatric treatment. Of the the Walter Reed group, seven had completed their tour and 25 were functioning in a unit (69.5 % "success"), while 14 had either been ad- ministratively discharged from duty, were AWOL, or were in a stockade (30.5 % "fail- ure"). Of the comparison group, one had com- pleted his tour and 12 were on active duty (28.39% "success"), while 33 were administra- tively discharged or in a stockade (71.7% "fail- ure") (Colman and Baker, 1969). The early work of the Experimental Man- power Laboratory for Corrections (EMLC), oper- ated by the Rehabilitation Research Founda- tion and located at Draper Correctional Center in Elmore, Alabama, developed and imple- mented efficient and effective methods of en- couraging adult offenders to excel in remedial academic instruction and vocational skill train- ing (Clements and McKee, 1968). Contingency management procedures generated increases in both the quantity and quality of academic- work performed in the classroom. Overall progress in the program was substantial: offenders enrolled in the projects averaged gains of 1.4 grades per 208 hr of programmed instruction. High school equivalencies were earned by 95 % of those who qualified for and took the GED, and nine former students entered college after leav- ing prison (McKee and Clements, 1971). Studies such as these are only the beginning of a behavioral analysis of the problems confront- ing the criminal justice system. The scope of problems to which this approach has been ap- plied is circumscribed, and the evaluative re- search that has been conducted, although promis- ing, is certainly not conclusive. The work done suggests, however, that this approach has the CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY and energies to what most would consider rather perfunctory matters. Although this apparent overemphasis may reflect some administrators' biases regarding the primary functions of their institutions, it is more likely for most a natural outcome of a realistic appraisal of basic operat- ing requirements, the widespread reliance on in- mate labor for the performance of necessary work assignments, and the lack of an effective motivational system that encourages inmate workers to complete the tasks expected of them. The decision to deal with activities important for the operation of the institution was based on three assumptions. First, it was reasoned rectional administrators probably will not have either the time or the inclination to attention to the difficult problems involved in preparing the offender for return to the com- munity until they can meet the basic require- ments of institutional management. Second, it appeared probable that a conceptual framework that enabled administrators to deal effectively with what they considered to be practical prob- lems would be acceptable for use in the design and operation of offender rehabilitation pro- grams. Third, it was concluded that the objective of the experiment was in no way harmful to prospective inmate participants and would in- stead prove to be in their best interest. Not only did the proposed behavior modification regimen de-emphasize the use of aversive control proce- dures and, consequently, attack what appears to be a major factor underlying the generally de- bilitating effect of imprisonment (Milan and McKee, 1974), but it also offered the inmates an incentive to practise and strengthen general em- ployability skills, such as attending to directions, following instructions, accepting constructive criticism, and working toward task completion, that would benefit them when they returned to the community. EXPERIMENT I The objectives of this experiment plore the feasibility of extending the 256 MICHAEL treated as a routine administrative matter. How- ever, all participants could, as a total of five did, petition to discontinue their participation in the project by submitting a standard request for a cellblock transfer to the institution's classifica- tion officer. The classification officer evaluated these petitions and, if he found them reasonable and appropriate, approved the transfer. If the inmate still desired to discontinue his participa- tion in the cellblock token economy after the transfer was approved and space was located in another cellblock, the transfer was accomplished. The decision to discontinue participation in the project in no way altered the inmate's projected release date or diminished the general quality of his life within the institution relative to the pe- riod before his enrollment in the project. The average daily census during the course days of the project was 22 inmates, with the 56 inmates residing on the token economy cellblock for an average of 99 days. The mean age of the 56 inmates at the time of their inclusion in the project was 23.6 yr, with a range of 16 to 54 yr; 42 (75 %) were 25 yr of age or younger. Thirty-one (55%) were white and 25 (45 %) were black. Their mean grade level, as indexed by the Tests of Adult Basic Education, was 7.4 grades, with a range of 2.9 to 12.3 grades. Their mean IQ, as measured by either the Otis Test of General Ability or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, was 88.3, with a range of 64 to 112. Of the 56 inmates, 19 (34%) were sentenced from counties with popu- lations greater than 250,000; seven (13%) from counties with populations between 100,000 and 250,000; 12 (21%) from counties with popula- tions between 50,000 and 100,000; 14 (26%) from counties with populations between 25,000 and 50,000; and four (7%) from counties with populations less than 25,000. Seventeen (30%) of the inmates had been pre- viously incarcerated as adult felons, during which time they served an average of 15.0 months, with a range of 15 days to 120 months. The average length of the sentences that they were serving was 54.6 months, with a range of CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY study halls, recreational areas, and staff offices. It was adequately lighted and ventilated, and provided sufficient floor space both to house the inmates and to operate the project. All support (food, clothing, medical, etc.), general security, and custody related services (supervision of tele- phone, mail, and visiting privileges, etc.) were provided by Draper staff. All inmates and proj- ect staff members were subject to and followed the general rules, regulations, policies, and pro- cedures established by the Alabama Board of Corrections. All staff members who participated in this project had a background in applied behavior analysis. Before and during the operation of the Cellblock Token Economy, 40 correctional offi- cers received training and supervised practicum experience in applied behavior analysis (Smith, Hart, and Milan, 1972). The ages of the officers, who were representative of the correctional staff in general, ranged from 23 to 67 yr, with a mean of 49.7 yr. Their reported grade levels ranged from the seventh grade to 1 yr of college, with a mean of 11 grades. Their tested grade levels, as determined by the Tests of Adult Basic Educa- tion, ranged from 3.2 to 10.9 grades, with a mean of 6.7 grades. Approximately 90% of the officers had lived one-half or more of their lives in Alabama; 659% of these in Elmore County (the location of the correctional institution), and 35% in bordering counties that, like Elmore County, were predominantly agrarian communi- ties. Two of the officers were black, and none was an ex-offender. There were three sequential training cycles. The first was completed before the cellblock token economy project was begun, and officers who were assigned to the cellblock were drawn from those who had completed that first cycle of training. Additional training in the specifics of the tasks they were to perform was provided through detailed instructions and modelling ex- pected behavior. Of the four research staff mem- bers assigned to the cellblock, two had high school diplomas and on-the-job training in ap- plied behavior analysis, and two had baccalaure- 258 MICHAEL A. represent those times during which inmates cally left the cellblock to work or to in vocational training. Backup Reinforcers and Exchange Procedures The backup reinforcers were items and activi- ties that could be dispensed and monitored token economy cellblock. They consisted cess to various reinforcing event areas television viewing room, and poolroom), as time in the institution at large (areas than the token economy cellblock) and, means of this procedure, access to a of potential backup reinforcers (e.g., and acquaintances who were in the institution but not residing on the token economy weekend movies, club meetings, and recreational activities available in the remainder stitution). In addition, small commodities, as cigarettes, soft drinks, snacks, etc., could be purchased in a token economy canteen by the project. Finally, Sears' logs were available for examination from token economy canteen, and inmates wishing special items not regularly carried by could order them if they appeared in the two catalogs. If an inmate wished to enter a reinforcing event area, he first wrote a check for amount and deposited it in a collection the door. An additional check was required beginning of each successive clock hour from 5:30 p.m. to 6:30 p.m., etc.). Inmates could leave and re-enter the reinforcing area any number of times during each hour, the only requirement being that written a check for that clock hour and it in the appropriate box. Time spent mainder of the institution during the token economy was in operation was recorded time cards that inmates punched on a as they left from and returned to the These times were then totalled and paid the end of each day. A staff member made odic rounds of the cellblock throughout to collect all checks near the end of CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY Early each morning a point record was com- pleted and posted. On it was an itemized ac- counting of each resident's earnings and expendi- tures on the previous day and the resultant balance carried forward to the present day. To prevent the long-term accumulation of points and a possible decline in the reinforcing value of each day's potential earnings, the number of points inmates could carry forward from each Sunday to the following Monday was limited to 600, excluding points that were being saved in special order accounts for catalog purchases. Those with overdrawn accounts were not per- mitted to purchase commodities from the token economy canteen, to enter the various reinforcing event areas on the token economy cellblock, or to leave the cellblock routinely for the remainder of the institution during the hours the token economy was in operation. These restrictions were lifted when a posted point record indicated that they had overcome their point deficits and that their accounts were no longer overdrawn. Inmates with overdrawn accounts were, how- ever, permitted unlimited access to the two dor- mitories of the token economy cellblock, to the hallways and lavatory, and to a "free room" con- taining wooden tables and chairs. In addition, they could leave the cellblock at no cost to ob- tain meals, to tend to health needs and legal mat- ters, to conduct institutional business, to mail letters, and to place telephone calls and receive visitors as further regulated by general institu- tional policies. Finally, all inmates were allowed to leave the cellblock at no cost either to per- form their institutional job or participate in vo- cational training and, if they wished, exercise outside at the noon-time break during the week- day hours when operation of the token economy was suspended. Target Behaviors and Token Award Procedures The target behaviors were termed "morning activities" and consisted of (1) arising at a de- termined hour, (2) making the bed, (3) cleaning the area in the general proximity of the bed, and (4) maintaining a neat and well-groomed 260 MICHAEL Point Values of Representative Target Behaviors Morning activities Arising on time Bed made Living area neat and clean Personal appearance Educational activitiesa Student performance Tutor performance Assigned maintenance tasksb Sweep main hall (back half) Empty trash cans in recreation room Mop front steps and landing Dust and arrange furniture in television room Backup Reinforcers Activities available on the Access to television room Access to pool room Access to lounge Canteen items availablee Cup of coffee Can of soft drink Ham and cheese sandwich Pack of cigarettes Leisure time away from token economy cellblock aStudents were paid on a performance- demic material were based on an empirically tests were passed. bAlthough only four are presented all residents had the potential of earning could volunteer for supplementary maintenance CAlthough only four are listed here, Top bunk. An inmate sleeping in a top bunk was scored as having cleaned his living area if both the top of and the floor below the adjacent dresser were free of dust (to the touch) and trash (bits of paper, burnt matches, cigarette butts, etc.) and if these areas and the inmate's bunk were free of personal articles (clothing, towels, shoes, etc.). Bottom bunk. An inmate with a bottom bunk was credited with having cleaned his living area if the floor beneath the bunk was free of trash and if that area and the inmate's bunk were free of personal articles (shoes were permitted below the bed if lined up beginning at the wall). CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY 5:30 a.m. weekdays and at 7:30 am. weekends and holidays. Beginning then and for the follow- ing 2 hr, a staff member continuously circulated through the two dormitories as the inmates arose and performed the morning activities. As he moved through the dormitories, the staff member greeted each inmate in an informal and friendly manner, rated each inmate's perform- ance of the four morning activities, and provided feedback concerning whether or not the perform- ances met the established criteria. When an inmate's performance of an activity did not meet the criteria, the inmate was praised for those portions of his performance that did meet criterion, informed of deficiencies, and given the opportunity to correct his performance. If, for example, an evaluation of an inmate's per- sonal appearance revealed it was acceptable ex- cept for untied shoe laces, the staff member would typically have said something like: "Your personal appearance is generally acceptable. Your shave looks good and your clothes are fine, but you haven't tied your You know you are expected to do that too. I'll be around again in a few minutes to check if you want." When an inmate's performance of a morning activity met the established criteria, either when first examined or after a deficiency had been noted and corrected, the inmate was so informed and praised for his good performance. At this same time during those conditions of the token economy under which points were awarded con- tingent on the satisfactory performance of morn- ing activities, the inmate was also instructed to add the number of points his performance repre- sented to the point balance of his checking ac- count. This latter procedure constituted the token reinforcement operation. The staff member then recorded the activities completed and, when appropriate, the points earned on a master data sheet. This sheet was then used to determine the percentage of morn- ing activities completed and, during the token reinforcement conditions of the token economy, the number of points earned for the completion 262 MICHAEL A. complete each activity each day and that their performance would be recorded. During this condition, a correctional officer toured the token economy cellblock on weekdays between 5:30 and 7:30 a.m. and openly recorded the activities completed by each inmate. During this and all subsequent conditions, in- mates were informed whether or not their per- formance of the morning activities met the scor- ing criteria. If an activity met its performance criterion, the officer acknowledged this and praised the performance. If an activity did not, the officer informed inmates of their deficiencies and offered them the opportunity to correct their performance. At the same time, the officer re- frained from employing the various coercive techniques typically employed to motivate per- formance in correctional institutions. 2. Officer Commands. Throughout the Base- line, condition, the correctional officer assigned to the token economy cellblock during the morn- ing shift insisted that he could improve the in- mates' performance of the morning activities if only he were given the opportunity to do so. During this condition, the officer supplemented the procedures of the Baselinel condition with whatever tactics he deemed necessary and ap- propriate to motivate inmate performance. As he saw fit, he stood by and provided direct super- vision and harassment as inmates completed the activities, assigned extra work on the cellblock to those who failed to complete activities, or threatened to write formal disciplinary reports on the inmates with the lowest levels of perform- ance. No disciplinary reports were written for nonperformance of the morning activities, how- ever, for the officer had previously entered into an agreement, which was enforced throughout the experiment, that disciplinary reports would not be written for minor infractions such as these because they frequently resulted in an inmate's transfer to another cellblock within the institu- tion or to another institution within the system. This restriction precluded the possibility that the officer would use the Officer Commands condition to "select-out" the inmates he consid- CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY 6. 90 Points Contingent. During this condi- tion, the number of points awarded for each completed activity was increased by 50% (to 90 points), thereby raising the potential number of points that could be earned for the four morn- ing activities by 120 points from 240 to 360 points. 7. 60 Points Contingent2. The procedures were identical to those followed during the 60 Points Contingent, condition. 8. 60 Points Noncontingent2. The procedures were identical to those followed during the 60 Points Noncontingent, condition. 9. Zero Points. This condition was similar to the Baseline conditions in that no points were awarded for completion of the morning activi- ties. It differed from the Baseline conditions in that the token economy remained in operation, other behaviors continued to earn tokens, and access to the back-up reinforcers was contingent on the exchange of tokens. To maintain token availability at approximately the same level as the preceding conditions, the 240 points per in- mate that were no longer available for com- pletion of the morning activities were distributed among the remaining target behaviors during this condition alone. 10. 60 Points Noncontingent3. Identical to the 60 Points Noncontingent2 condition. 11. 60 Points Contingent3. Identical to the 60 Points Contingent2 condition. 12. Announce Baseline3. The procedures fol- lowed during this condition, which began one week before the final return-to-baseline condi- tion of the experiment, were identical to those of the 60 Points Contingent3 condition. This condition differed from the preceding condition in that when it was instated, all inmates were informed of the day the token economy would end, and a notice to that effect was placed on the cellblock bulletin board. The one-week warning allowed residents of the cellblock to expend the points they had accumulated. 13. Baselines. Procedures were identical to those in effect during the Baseline, and Baseline2 conditions. 264 OFFICER BASE BASELINE1 COMMANDS LINE2 100,q 80 1. 60D 40m Jif a w 20. k w 0 A. 10 20 30 2 E 0 z I.- 19 a w LA. Fig. 1. Per cent of formance of the morning activities, the percentage of morning activities meeting was 63.79%. The mean percentage of morning activities meeting the performance criteria CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY Commands condition had no demonstrable effect upon the inmates' performance of the four morn- ing activities. The mean percentage of morning activities completed during the 35 days of the 60 Points Noncontingent, condition rose to 74.7%. Ex- amination of the data suggests, however, that the improvement in performance after the token economy was introduced was transitory, and that performance during the latter half of the condi- tion was lower than during the first half and comparable to that of pretoken economy Base- line periods. The mean percentage of morning activities meeting the performance criteria dur- ing the first half of this period (82.0%) was markedly higher than during the second half (66.9%), while the mean percentage of activities completed during the second half was not dif- ferent from that of the pretoken economy Base- lines. It appears, then, that introduction of the token economy per se facilitated performance of the four morning activities, but that this im- provement was short-lived, with the level of per- formance gradually returning to that observed before the token economy's introduction. During the 28 days of the 60 Points Contin- genti condition, a mean of 86.0o% of the morn- ing activities met criteria. This was higher than that observed during the 60 Points Noncontin- genti condition. Moreover, performance of the activities improved over the course of this condi- tion, with the mean percentage completed during the second half (93.3%) higher than that of the first half (78.6%). The 90 Points Contingent condition sought to assess the effect of a mod- erate (509%) increase in token reward on the performance of the to-be-reinforced behavior. During the 16 days of this condition, the mean percentage of activities scored as completed was 89.6%, not different from the terminal level of performance under the 60 Points Contingent, condition. A mean of 93.6% of the morning activities was completed during the 19 days of the 60 Points Contingent2 condition. This was not dif- ferent from either the level of performance ob- 266 MICHAEL A. satisfactorily. As would be predicted, this level of performance was higher than that observed dur- ing the preceding 60 Points Noncontingents con- dition but not different from that of the preced- ing 60 Points Contingent2 condition or from the terminal level of performance of the 60 Points Contingent, condition. Performance of the four morning activities during the one-week An- nounce Baseline3 condition averaged 93.7%. The percentage of morning activities com- pleted during the Baseline3 condition was lower (81.3%) than during the preceding 60 Points Contingent3 condition. Contrary to that which would be predicted, performance during this condition was superior to that observed during the pretoken economy Baseline periods. How- ever, Figure 1 reveals a steady decline in per- formance over the course of this condition, with the percentage of activities completed during the second half of the condition (76.5%), only slightly higher than the percentage of activities completed during the pretoken economy Base- line periods and under the 60 Points Noncontin- gent conditions. A comparison of those conditions in which token award was contingent on performance of the morning activities with those in which tokens were either unavailable or awarded on a non- contingent basis reveals striking differences in response variability as well as in over-all re- sponse levels. It appears that introduction of token reinforcement procedures not only raised the general level of performance but also re- duced day-to-day variations in response prob- ability, and that subsequent manipulations in the contingencies of reinforcement controlled re- sponse variability in much the same manner as they did mean levels of performance. Individual Performance Records The group data discussed above revealed the manner in which the various contingencies sub- jected to experimental examination influenced the averaged performance of the token economy cellblock population. As would be expected, however, a review of the inmates' individual rec- 120 V^ z 0 30 DAYS 60 60 POINTS NONCONTINGENT, Fig. 2. Individual cumulative records the first 10 conditions and first portion tions) and lowest when token award was either absent (the Baseline, Officer Commands, and Zero Points conditions) or unrelated pletion of the morning activities (the Noncontingent conditions), although J.C.'s per- formance faltered only slightly under conditions. Including even this minor variance from the expected, the various contingencies plored were clearly related to similar response probability for each resident of the token economy cellblock. Although consistency of performance and magnitude of change dif- fered from inmate to inmate, direction from contingency to contingency was replicated for each inmate. DIscuSSION This experiment examined the effectiveness various token economy procedures in motivating 268 MICHAEL A. token reinforcement in conjunction with praise was a considerably more effective motivator of inmate performance than was praise alone. Similarly, it should not be concluded that the superiority of token reinforcement to the proce- dure employed by the correctional officer during the Officer Commands condition demonstrates that the token economy is a more effective moti- vator of inmate performance than are the aver- sive control procedures typically employed within the correctional institution, for the cor- rectional officer was prohibited from employing the full range of negative sanctions that he could normally bring to bear to ensure the per- formance of these four activities. The aversive control procedures that have been developed and refined over the years are probably as effective or more effective than the token procedures em- ployed here in motivating inmate performance. The token economy is, however, a considerably more effective motivator than is the correctional officer's "best effort" range of aversive control procedures that would normally be available to him. Additionally, the consistently high levels of performance and re- duced day-to-day variability generated by con- tingent token reinforcement demonstrate that the token economy is indeed a viable alternative to such aversive control procedures. Finally, the deterioration of performance after the token economy was terminated at the end of the experiment is to be expected. Indeed, it would be surprising if the performance of the inmates had continued unchanged, for the power and importance of the contingent relationship between completion of the morning activities and token reinforcement in maintaining per- formance had been previously demonstrated by the deteriorations of performance observed dur- ing those phases of the token economy in which tokens were either awarded on a noncontingent basis or were not awarded at all. The objective of this experiment was to explore alternatives to existing inmate management procedures, not to develop a regimen wherein the behavior of in- mates was changed in a manner that would per- CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY funds from their family and friends, while others receive only the small amount (50 cents every two weeks) provided by the institution. Those with extensive funds can purchase virtually any- thing they wish, while those with no funds must turn to prison rackets and homosexual prostitu- tion to get whatever money they can. If the in- stitution store were employed as an adjunct to management and rehabilitation programs, the cost of stocking and operating it could be justi- fiably assumed by the Board of Corrections. Such a procedure would serve two equally important functions: first, it would provide the administra- tion with powerful incentives with which to motivate performance of institutional assign- ments and participation in rehabilitative pro- grams. Second, it would ensure that all inmates had the potential of equal access to the items offered in the store and, by so doing, move toward the elimination of the unequal distribu- tion of wealth in the institution and the regres- sive effects of this on the inmate population. EXPERIMENT II The emphasis of Experiment I was on the manner in which various arrangements between inmate activities and potential reinforcers in- fluenced the inmates' performance of those activ- ities. The results clearly demonstrated higher levels of sustained performance under condi- tions in which a contingent relationship existed between behavior and reinforcer than under al- ternative possible arrangements. The data gen- erated in that demonstration do not, however, reveal to what extent, if any, the token economy and the contingencies involved therein altered other aspects of the inmates' day-to-day existence in the institution. The objective was a reasonable parity between what was expected of the inmates (the morning activities and assigned maintenance tasks that the correctional center administration routinely demanded of all inmates, and the re- habilitation-oriented involvement in the leisure- time remedial education program as a student and/or tutor that the project staff sought to 270 MICHAEL A. and his head and eyes oriented towards the book's open pages, he was rated as Student in preference to either Reading/Book or Sitting. Each inmate was rated in only one category, with every inmate on the cellblock census rated dur- ing each administration of the checklist. A copy of the 58-item BOC is available on request. Data Collection Procedures The BOC was administered at 45-min inter- vals, beginning at 5:00 p.m. and terminating at 9:30 p.m. on weekdays, and beginning at 6:30 a.m. and terminating at 9:30 p.m. on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays. Thus, the BOC was ad- ministered seven times each weekday and 21 times each Saturday, Sunday, and holiday. Each administration of the BOC required approxi- mately 5 min. The staff member responsible for the token economy cellblock at the time of the scheduled observation toured the cellblock and rated the activities of all inmates on the cell- block census. The resulting data were supplemented in part by the inmates' recording, by means of time clocks and punch cards as described in Experi- ment I, their departing and returning to the token economy cellblock. These recording proce- dures were an integral part of the token econ- omy. They were, however, begun approximately one month before the token economy was in- troduced and were continued for approximately one month after the token economy was termi- nated. Experimental Conditions This experiment consisted of three data col- lection phases: (1) Baselinel, (2) Token Econ- omy, and (3) Baseline2. The observations re- ported were conducted during the Thursdays and Saturdays of each condition. Baseline,. This condition consisted of observa- tions made during the five consecutive weeks preceding the Officer Commands condition of Experiment I. The general procedures followed CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY categories or to the remaining alternative low- frequency categories, were themselves grouped together in a Miscellaneous category. Eight major categories plus the residual Miscellaneous category emerged from this process. 1. Not Present on Cellblock: number of in- mates residing on the token economy cellblock who were not physically present at the times of the observations. It was derived by subtracting the number of entries during each administration from the cellblock census at the time of the rat- ing. 2. Noninteractive: a combination of the spe- cific categories that indexed inmates as present on the token economy cellblock but not engaged in any discernible or significant activity. Repre- sented here are such BOC categories as Asleep, Sitting, and Walking. 3. Recreation/Entertainment: this groups to- gether activities such as Games and Puzzles! Group, Listening to Radio/Music, and Watching Television/Education; News. 4. Conversation: primary activity of an in- mate talking to or listening to another inmate or a staff member. It excludes such activities as talking with other inmates in the course of a pool game (which would be rated Games and Puzzles/Group) and listening to a teacher lec- ture in the remedial education classroom (which would be rated Student). 5. Reading: a combination of more specific categories, such as Reading/Book, Reading/Let- ter, and Reading/Magazine, indexing the reading of specific types of materials. 6. Eating/Grooming: this category groups such related BOC activities as Drinking and Eat- ing, Grooming, and Urinating/Defecating. 7. Housekeeping: inmate activities involved in both the cleaning and general upkeep of areas around bunks (Maintenance/House) and in the performance of the assigned maintenance tasks necessary for the upkeep of the cellblock in gen- eral (Maintenance/Unit). 8. Education: all forms of inmate participa- tion in the remedial education program as either a student or a tutor of students. 272 MICHAEL Noninteractive categories exhibited a similar pat- tern. All were relatively low during the Baselinel period, increased somewhat under the Token Economy condition, and then declined during Baseline2. Excepting the Conversation category, each was lower during Baseline2 than during Baseline,. The percentages of inmates observed either Reading or Housekeeping decreased both during the token economy and after it termi- nated. The percentage of inmate activities in the Miscellaneous category decreased after the token economy was introduced and then in- creased only slightly after it ended. Table 3 Per cent of ratings of inmate activities on the behav- ior observation checklist falling within nine summary categories under the three conditions of Experiment II. Summary Token Category Baseline, Economy Baseline2 Not present on cellblock 33.3 32.7 Non-Interactive 24.8 31.5 Recreation/ Entertainment 17.8 13.5 Conversation 4.5 6.0 Reading 4.2 3.3 Eating/Grooming 3.8 4.0 Housekeeping 3.6 3.0 Education 0.0 2.7 Miscellaneous 8.0 3.3 DISCUSSION The results of this comparison of the day-to- day activities of token economy participants during the token economy with those both be- fore its implementation and after it terminated indicate that the improvements in behavior ob- served in Experiment I were achieved without curtailing the leisure-time recreational activities of the inmates involved. The Baseline data sug- gested that the opportunity to spend leisure time in the remainder of the institution was a poten- tially powerful backup reinforcer for the token economy, and this opportunity was included as such when the token economy was implemented. However, the contingencies employed do not ap- CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY ties. Although the target behaviors of ment I were members of the Housekeeping gory, this experiment reveals that the procedures involved in the token economy did not participants to spend a disproportionate of time involved in these routine institutional activities. Indeed, if the token economy effect on the amount of time inmates forming these tasks, it appears that lower it, for the percentage of inmates engaged in housekeeping activities was during the token economy than preceding the other hand, the token economy did inmates to devote some of their leisure the rehabilitation-oriented remedial program, for the percentage of inmates participating in the education program was higher during the token economy than before or following it. It certainly claimed that the cellblock token economy couraged regimentation or institutionalization at the expense of the inmates' participation rehabilitation-oriented endeavors. Indeed, data presented here suggest the opposite. GENERAL DISCUSSION This research demonstrates the applicability of token reinforcement procedures to sentative population of imprisoned adult felons. Moreover, it also demonstrates that token forcement procedures may be successfully ployed within the correctional institution out subjecting the inmate to increased or deprivation. However, as the criminal system becomes more research-oriented quest for effective methods of offender tation, it increases the possibility tion poorly conceived and poorly executed perimental projects. Such research may potential of not only harming the offender also outraging the public to such a subsequent research endeavors and the benefit they offer the offender are blocked. criminal justice system must take decisive to guard against this possibility, and 274 MICHAEL the offenders-and then to give weight to these when questions concerning the operation of its project are debated, will probably devise more efficient and effective procedures than it would otherwise be capable of developing. Finally, the criminal justice system must avoid the coerced participation of offenders in experi- mental projects that seek to research as yet un- examined practices or unvalidated procedures. It is especially difficult, however, to specify the defining characteristics of "voluntary participa- tion" within the context of the operational poli- cies of a correctional institution, for it is quite likely that an inmate's participation in an ex- perimental project-or, for that matter, in any project-is easily influenced by the promise, be it explicit, implicit, or inferred, that his decision to participate will favorably influence the time of his release from the institution (e.g., positive decision by the parole board, the award of addi- tional "good time", etc.). It appears, therefore, that the voluntary na- ture of an experimental program within a cor- rectional institution is best guaranteed when it is made explicit that the refusal to participate, participation itself, and the decision to termi- nate participation in no way influence an in- mate's date of release from the institution. This is not to imply that demonstrable changes in be- havior occurring within the program should not be considered when decisions are made concern- ing inmates' eligibility for release. however, the voluntary nature of the program may be guaranteed only by taking care to en- sure that comparable changes in the behavior of nonparticipants are given equal consideration when decisions concerning their status are made. The program reported here incorporated the safeguards outlined above. Early in the operation of the cellblock token economy, a five-member review panel composed of prominent psycholo- gists and sociologists visited on-site at Draper Correctional Center and reported their findings to the project's funding agency. In addition, the project was reported on and discussed at a num- ber of professional meetings. Many of the sug- CELLBLOCK ism, drug addiction, and sexual deviancy has been repeatedly demonstrated in the medical and mental health fields (e.g., Rachman and Teasdale, 1969), and these findings undoubtedly would be replicated by careful experimental re- search in the criminal justice field. Such a dem- onstration would certainly justify a move on the part of the criminal justice system to make aver- sion therapy available to those who requested it. Most would agree, however, that any form of coerced participation in such a program would be both unethical and unjust. Conversely, the nature of some other strategies will demand that they be incorporated within the criminal justice system as standard operating procedures, and, as such, be applied equally with all those with whom the system has contact. The heavy reliance of corrections on punishment and aversive control procedures in its dealings with the inmate population probably contributes to both the unrest in correctional institutions and to the dyssocializing influence a period of imprison- ment appears to have on the offender. The pres- ent research indicates that it is both more effec- APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 1976, % 253-275 NUMBER 3 (FALL) 1976 TOKEN ECONOMY: TOKEN IN A MAXIMUM INSTITUTION FOR ADULT FELONS' AND JOHN M. MCKEE FOUNDATION, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA (1) to explore the application of token reinforcement correctional institution for adult male felons and the reinforcement procedures disrupted the day-to-day In Experiment 1, an expanded reversal design revealed and token reinforcement was more effective than the com- token award or direct commands on four com- The latter two combinations were not found to be any alone. Experiment 2, which also employed a reversal design, of performance observed during the token reinforcement be attained without subjecting participants to undue hard- deprivation of either social intercourse or the opportunity and entertainment activities. Client safeguards are discussed contingent versus noncontingent, daily activities, high school equivalency examination (Cohen and Filipczak, 1971; Cohen, Filipczak, and Bis, 1967). To meet these objectives, the CASE team established a 24-hr learning environment based on the principles of applied behavior analysis. Academic skills and IQs increased, as measured by standardized tests, and positive attitudinal changes were also observed. Moreover, once re- leased the youths stayed out of trouble and out of institutions for longer periods of time than the national average. The eventual recidivism figure was not, however, different from that of com- their own parable releasees (Filipczak and Cohen, Noted 1). Similarly, a ward was opened at Walter Reed Army Hospital, Washington, D.C., to treat sol- at the meetings diers diagnosed as having character or behav- ior disorders (Boren and Colman, 1970; Colman and Boren, 1969). The treatment program was valuable as- based on the assumption that these men had failed in the military, and previously in civilian life, because of deficits in their behavioral reper- Atlanta, Geor- toire. The program's objective was to teach sol- diers the education and recreation skills, personal 253 MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE potential of being as productive when applied to the behavior of clients of the criminal justice system as it has been in the mental health, health-related, and educational professions. It is particularly unfortunate, therefore, that the Task Force on Corrections of the National Ad- visory Commission on Criminal Justice Stan- dards and Goals (1973) suggests otherwise: soldiers in Most techniques of behavior modification have been generated either in the mental hospital or for educational use. Although their application to the correctional situa- tion is not necessarily inappropriate, suffi- cient attention has not been given to the nature, scheduling, and limits of the rein- forcement repertory available in the cor- rectional apparatus. Thus, the use of tokens for behavior reinforcement in a reformatory may not be a suitable application of an approach that works in mental hospitals, where the problems of manipulation for secondary gains are not so prominent (p. 516). Comments such as these reflect the reluctance of members of the criminal justice community to acknowledge that programs derived from a con- ceptual model that has proven effective with school children, mental patients, and delinquent youths might also prove to be effective with adult felons. In light of this reluctance, the ob- jective of the present research was to assess the applicability of applied behavior analysis proce- dures to a representative population of impris- oned adult male felons. This initial effort concentrated on activities important to the operation of the institution. Meeting the day-to-day requirements inherent in the operation of a large institution, such as preparing meals and ensuring that the funda- mentals of personal hygiene are observed, is a practical concern of high priority to virtually all correctional administrators. It frequently ap- pears, however, that administrators overempha- size this aspect of institution management, de- voting a disproportionate amount of their time 255 plied behavior analysis procedures to the day-to- day activities of adult male felons, and to probe the potential contribution of such procedures to management and rehabilitation programming ef- forts within a maximum security correctional in- stitution. This investigation focused on the effects of token reinforcement procedures on the per- formance of activities important for the orderly and hygienic operation of all large institutions, and sought to determine the manner in which various arrangements between behaviors and token awards influenced the inmates' perform- ance of those activities. that cor- METHOD turn their Participants Fifty-six inmates incarcerated at Draper Cor- rectional Center, Elmore, Alabama, a maximum security state institution whose all-male popula- tion consisted primarily of younger offenders serving sentences for their first or second felony conviction, participated. The only general con- straint governing consideration for participation was that inmates be eligible for either parole or unconditional release within 90 days of the proj- ect's termination date. The initial token econ- omy cellblock population of 33 inmates was drawn at random from those who had volun- teered for this study and a related Manpower De- velopment and Training (MDT) Project. A sec- ond random drawing determined which of the initial 33 residents of the token economy cell- block would fill the 20 positions open in the MDT Project. The remaining 13 participants who resided on the token economy cellblock but were not enrolled in the MDT Project continued to perform their routine institutional work as- signments. The 23 inmates who later joined the token economy cellblock population as replacements for those who left the project were, within the guidelines of the general constraint mentioned above, selected at random from the general pop- were to ex- ulation of the institution. The transfer of these use of ap- inmates to the token economy cellblock was A. MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE 12 to 300 months. The offenses for which they were serving sentences are listed in Table 1. The distribution of offenses in the token economy cellblock population reflected that of the insti- tutional population in general. Many inmates had been convicted of multiple offenses. Crimes against property were the most common offenses, with relatively smaller numbers of inmates serv- ing sentences for crimes against persons or for statutory or "victimless" crimes. Setting The inmates were housed and the project con- ducted in the second (top) floor of one of Draper Correctional Center's six two-story wings. The area was a remodelled dormitory subdivided into various rooms used as dormitories, classrooms, of the 420 Table 1 Offenses committed by residents of token economy cellblock. Offenses Numbera Per Cent = Crimes against property 55 69.6 Grand larceny 27 34.2 Burglary 17 21.5 Second-degree burglary 6 7.6 Buying, receiving, or con- cealing stolen property 4 5.1 Attempted burglary 1 1.3 Crimes against person 13 16.5 Robbery 8 10.1 Assault with intent to murder 2 2.5 Child molestation 1 1.3 First-degree manslaughter 1 1.3 Second-degree murder 1 1.3 Statutory or victimless crimes 11 14.0 Escape 2 2.5 Possession of marijuana 2 2.5 Forgery 1 1.3 Perjury 1 1.3 Possession of barbiturates 1 1.3 Possession of LSD 1 1.3 Sale of marijuana 1 1.3 Violation of probation 1 1.3 Violation of state narcotics 1 1.3 law aThe total number of offenses is greater than the number of residents of the token economy cellblock because 18 of the residents were serving sentences for two or more offenses. 257 ate degrees with formal course work in applied behavior analysis; two were black and a third had previously served time within the institution as a convicted murderer. The project was di- rected by a Ph.D. psychologist and consultation was provided by a second Ph.D. psychologist. Conflicts between the correctional and research staffs were resolved by the project director unless they involved the general policies and procedures of the institution. In such cases, conflicts were resolved jointly by the project director and the warden of the institution. Typically, a correctional officer supervised the cellblock during each weekday morning and early afternoon while the research staff assumed responsibility for its operation the remainder of the weekday and evening, as well as the entire day on weekends and holidays. However, a re- search staff member frequently worked with and observed the correctional officer as he supervised the cellblock, and a correctional officer occa- sionally assisted a research staff member with the operation of the cellblock. Hereafter, the term "staff member" is applied interchangeably to members of the correctional and research staffs; whether the term refers specifically to a correctional officer or a member of the research staff is usually, but not always, dictated by the time of day and the day of the week under con- sideration. The Tokens Tokens consisted of "points" that were ac- quired and expended through a simulated check- book banking system. Each inmate was provided with an individualized book of standard checks. The use of the simulated banking system and the individualized accounts precluded the exchange of tokens among inmates, thereby reducing the ease with which the backup reinforcers could be acquired without engaging in the target behav- iors. The token reinforcement system was in ef- fect for approximately 7 hr each weekday (from 5:30 to 7:30 a.m., and from 4:30 to 9:30 p.m.) and for 16 hr during weekends and holidays (5:30 a.m. to 9:30 p.m.). The hours of exclusion MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE typi- to prepare the deposit boxes for the next hour's participate expenditures, and to check for unauthorized ac- cess to the reinforcing event areas on the cell- block and unauthorized departures from the cell- block to the remainder of the institution. The token economy canteen was open one- on the half hour every evening and one additional half of ac- hour in the late morning on weekends and holi- (a lounge, days. To obtain items from the canteen, inmates as well wrote checks in the exact amount of the to-be- other purchased commodity and exchanged the check by with the storekeeper for that item. In order to wide variety purchase items from the Sears' and Penney's cat- relatives alogs, an inmate deposited the point cost of the desired item in a special order account. The can- cellblock, teen then ordered the item from the catalog sales department of the company. Inmates were pro- of the in- hibited from withdrawing points from the spe- such cial order account or from changing their order. Three response-cost (fine) procedures were operated employed to reduce unauthorized access to the and Penney's cata- back-up reinforcers of the token economy. The the objective of the first was to discourage inmates from purchasing more back-up reinforcers than the canteen they were entitled to by their earning. To ac- either of complish this, an inmate who had overdrawn his account was charged interest, at the rate of 10 % of the overdrawn amount, each day his account the required remained overdrawn. The second procedure dealt box at specifically with reducing unauthorized access to at the the reinforcing event areas on the cellblock. An (e.g., inmate who entered a reinforcing event area without first placing the required check in the event deposit box was fined the hourly cost of the area clock and given the choice of either then depositing the they had required check and staying on, or leaving. The deposited third procedure was instituted to discourage un- in the re- authorized access to the potential back-up rein- hours the forcers available in the remainder of the institu- on tion. An inmate who left the cellblock without time clock punching out on the timeclock was considered cellblock. to have been off the facility since the staff last for at had evidence he was present (usually the time of peri- the previous routine check) and was charged for the day the time between then and his return to the cell- each hour, block. 259 personal appearance. Typical payoff and cost values of representative target behaviors and backup reinforcers are presented in Table 2. These values were subject to change to answer experimental questions or to maintain balance in the token reinforcement system. Changes in payoff values, which typically involved experi- mental operations, were announced the day be- fore they took effect, while changes in cost val- ues, which were typically undertaken to maintain balance within the token economy, were an- nounced three to five days before they were in- troduced. The scoring of the four morning activities was on an all-or-none basis. Each inmate was briefed on the scoring criteria when he entered the proj- ect, and the criteria themselves were posted on a bulletin board. The criterion for arising at the appointed hour had to be met and scored be- tween 5:30 and 7 a.m. weekdays or between 5:30 and 9 a.m. weekends and holidays. The cutoff time for the remaining three morning activities was extended one-half hour, to 7:30 a.m. weekdays and 9:30 a.m. weekends and holi- days. Within these time constraints, the scoring criteria for the four morning activities were: 1. Arising at the appointed hour. An inmate was scored as arising on time when he was ob- served not in physical contact with any part of his or any other bed. 2. Bed made. An inmate was credited with having made his bed if the bottom sheet, top sheet and first blanket (when present) were tightly tucked all around under the mattress; if the second blanket (when present) was folded and placed at the foot of the bed and on top of the top sheet or the first blanket, and if the pil- low was smoothed, flattened, and placed at the head of the bed on top of the top sheet or the first blanket. 3. Clean living area. Different criteria were established for inmates assigned to top and bot- tom bunks. If a bunk bed was occupied by only one inmate, that inmate was scored on the basis of the requirements for the occupants of both the top and bottom bunks. A. MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE rable 2 Target Behaviors and Backup Reinforcers Points Awarded 60 60 60 60 two per min (estimated) two per min (estimated) 60 60 120 120 Points Charged token economy cellblock 60 per hr 60 per hr 60 per hr 50 150 300 450 one per min rather than time-contingent basis. Point values for units of aca- derived estimated study time per unit and awarded when unit here, there was a sufficient number of maintenance tasks to ensure that 120 points by completing their assignments. Additionally, residents tasks to increase their daily point earnings. a large variety of items was available in the token economy canteen. 4. Neat and well-groomed personal appear- ance. An inmate was credited with presenting a neat and well-groomed personal appearance if he were clean-shaven (either after a visual in- spection or, if the visual inspection was incon- clusive and permission had been asked of and given by the inmate, to the touch), if his hair was combed, if his t-shirt and/or shirt was tucked into his pants, if his pants were zipped and/or buttoned, if his belt (when present) was buckled, and if his shoelaces (when present) were laced and tied. The lights in each of the two dormitories of the token economy cellblock were turned on at 261 of morning activities by each inmate that day. The data reported thus represented the inmate's final level of performance, either when the per- formance of activities met the criteria when first examined or after deficiencies had been noticed and inmates had been afforded the opportunity to make corrections. When such a procedure is employed, it is critical that special care be taken to ensure that the resultant data reflect the direct effect of the contingencies explored, rather than correlated changes in staff behavior. In this in- stance, for example, it was possible that the staff might provide more corrective feedback and en- couragement to inmates to improve their per- formance under conditions in which the award of points was contingent on successful comple- tion of morning activities than during the com- parison conditions. To minimize this possibility, the staff members who collected the data in ques- tion were well-practiced in the formalized rou- tine described above, and adhered to it strictly throughout all experimental conditions. shoe laces yet. Experimental Conditions again The experiment consisted of 13 experimental conditions: (1) Baselinei, (2) Officer Commands, (3) Baselines, (4) 60 Points Noncontingenti, (5) 60 Points Contingent,, (6) 90 Points Con- tingent, (7) 60 Points Contingent2, (8) 60 Points Noncontingent2, (9) Zero Points, (10) 60 Points Noncontingent3, (11) 60 Points Contingent3, (12) Announce Baseline3, and (13) Baseline3. Data collection was restricted to weekdays dur- ing the first three experimental conditions. It was expanded to include weekends when the token economy was introduced in the fourth ex- perimental condition and continued daily for the remainder of the 420 days of the project. 1. Baseline,. This and the following two con- ditions preceded implementation of the token economy. In preparation for this condition, the scoring criteria for the four morning activities were explained to each inmate and posted on the token economy cellblock bulletin board. The in- mates were informed that they were expected to MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE ered troublesome or not deserving of inclusion in the project. This condition cannot, therefore, be interpreted as a test of the control proce- dures practised in the remainder of the institu- tion. Moreover, the officer employed the tactics that were available to him in an unsystematic and unquantifiable manner. Despite these two limitations, the condition was deemed worthy of examination, for it represents the officer's "best efforts" in motivating the inmates' performance of the morning activities. 3. Baselinef. Identical to the Baseline, condi- tion. 4. 60 Points Noncontingenti. This condition was employed (1) to determine the effects of general changes in the operation of the token economy cellblock that occurred when the token economy was introduced (limited access to the backup reinforcers; the availability of commodi- ties, such as cigarettes and snacks, not previously available, etc.) on the performance of the morn- ing activities and (2) to separate these from the specific effect of the contingent relationship be- tween the performance of these activities and the award of points, which was explored in the fol- lowing conditions. Throughout this condition, 60 points were awarded on a noncontingent basis (i.e., independent of whether or not performance met the established criteria) for each of the four morning activities. The operation of the project was expanded to include weekends and holidays as well as weekdays. Points were awarded from the first day of this condition. Beginning on the second day, inmates were required to exchange points in order to partake of the backup rein- forcers of the token economy. 5. 60 Points Contingent,. During this condi- tion, 60 points were awarded on a contingent basis (i.e., only when performance met the estab- lished criteria) for each of the four morning activities either when first rated or after defi- ciencies had been noted and inmates afforded the opportunity to improve their performance. Un- less the contrary is indicated, these general pro- cedures were followed throughout the remainder of the token economy. 263 RESULTS Reliability of Measurement To obtain estimates of interobserver agree- ment on the performance of the four morning activities, the staff member on duty was accom- panied by a second staff member as he rated and recorded inmates' performance. Each staff mem- ber independently scored each inmate's perform- ance before the staff member in charge informed the inmate of the quality of his performance. There was a total of 28 of these sessions, occur- ring on weekday mornings distributed evenly throughout the experiment. The percentage of agreement for each day was calculated by divid- ing the number of agreements on the occurrence of the target behaviors by the number of agree- ments plus the number of disagreements and multiplying by 100. Agreements on the non- occurrence of the target behaviors were disre- garded. The percentages of agreement ranged from 54% to 100%. The average agreement for arising at the appointed time was 95.7%; for bed made, 95.2%; for cleaning the living area, 94.9%; and for presenting a neat and well- groomed appearance, 95.0%. The overall agree- ment averaged 95.2%. Findings The following analysis of the effects of the experimental conditions deals primarily with data summarizing the daily performance of the four morning activities and then secondarily with one or more of the activities alone when those data deviate from the summarized data to a sufficient degree to so warrant. The daily per- centage of the four morning activities completed by all inmates of the token economy cellblock throughout the 420 days of the experiment are presented in Figure 1. The mean percentage of morning activities that met the performance criterion during the 11 days of the Baselinel condition was 66.4%. During the nine days of the Officer Commands condition, when the correctional officer on duty exerted his "best efforts" to motivate the per- MICHAEL A. MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE 60 POINTS 60 POINTS 60 POINTS 90 POINTS 60 POINTS NONCON- NONCONT INGENT CONTINGENT1 CONTINGENT CONTINGENT2 TINGENT2 I~~f IN 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 120 130 140 SUCCESSIVE DAYS morning activities completed under the 13 conditions of Experiment I. mean the five-day Baseline2 condition was 68.6%. The criteria data from these first three experimental condi- tions reveal that correctional officer's aversive during control-oriented "best efforts" during the Officer 265 served during the 90 Points Contingent condi- tion or the terminal level of performance under the 60 Points Contingenti condition. It must be concluded, therefore, that in this instance the 50% increase in token reward explored in the 90 Points Contingent condition did not facilitate performance. This, however, might be the result of a ceiling effect, for performance levels were already markedly high when the condition was introduced. During the 28 days of the 60 Points Noncon- tingent2 condition, a mean of 78.1o% of the morning activities were completed. This was not different from the terminal level of performance under the 60 Points Noncontingenti, but was lower than both the terminal level of perform- ance during the 60 Points Contingent, condition and the level of performance under the 60 Points Contingent2 condition. These data indicate that the response-contingent award of tokens precipi- tated a clear improvement in performance with approximately 90% or more of the morning activities completed each day, a higher level of performance than under any other condition. The Zero Points condition allows a compari- son of the effects of the noncontingent award of tokens and the absence of token award. During the 12 days of this condition, a mean of 65.0% of the morning activities was completed, not different from the level of performance under the 60 Points Noncontingent2 condition. A mean of 67.4% of the activities was completed during the 12 days of the 60 Points Noncontingent3 condition. This level of performance was not different from the levels of performance ob- served under either the Zero Points condition or the 60 Points Noncontingent2 condition, indi- cating that the use of noncontingent "incentives" is no more effective in motivating performance than is contingent praise in the absence of any such incentives which, in turn, is markedly less effective than contingent token reinforcement. The 60 Points Contingents condition was in effect for the remainder of the token economy. During the 177 days of this condition, a mean of 94.1% of the morning activities was performed MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE ords revealed considerable variation in perform- ance levels. Some inmates performed at con- sistently high levels throughout the various experimental conditions, while others performed at only moderate levels. Cumulative records of one of the highest performers (J.C.) and one of the lowest performers (J.D.) for the four morn- ing activities throughout the first third of the experiment are shown in Figure 2. The performances of J.C. and J.D. approxi- mate an "envelope" that roughly contains the performances of the remaining inmates of the token economy cellblock. J.D. appears to have had the higher level of performance of the two during the three pretoken economy phases. The performance of J.C. increased radically after the token economy was introduced, however, while the performance of J.D. continued relatively un- changed during the 60 Points Noncontingenti condition. J.D.'s performance then improved markedly during the 60 Points Contingenti con- dition and continued at a moderately high level during the 90 Points Contingent and 60 Points Contingent2 conditions, while J.C.'s performance continued relatively unchanged. J.D.'s perform- ance showed only some disruption during the 60 Points Noncontingent2 condition and con- tinued at a low level throughout the Zero Points and 60 Points Noncontingent3 conditions. Al- though the performance of both improved dur- ing the 60 Points Contingent3 condition, the performance of J.C. was somewhat more con- sistent than that of J.D. As would be predicted, however, the similari- ties in the patterns of J.C.'s and J.D.'s perform- ances in response to the contingencies examined are striking, with the various contingencies ex- amined affecting the performance of both in the same manner, albeit to differing degrees: the be- havior of neither was affected by the Officer Commands condition, with both showing fairly low levels of performance throughout the three pretoken economy phases. The performance of both was highest during those conditions in which token award was contingent on perform- ance (the 60 and 90 Points Contingent condi- CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY 267 60 POINTS CONTINGENT3 J.C. 60 POINTS 60 POINTS CONTlINGEN J. D. 90 POINTS CONTINGENT POINTS CONTINGENT 1 for two inmates of the completion of the four morning activities under of the eleventh condition of Experiment I. the performance of adult male felons institution- alized in a maximum security correctional insti- to the com- tution. Performance-contingent token reinforce- 60 Points ment was shown to be a considerably more effective motivator of inmate performance than the latter the praise of the Baseline phases, the coercive procedures of the Officer Commands phase, and ex- the noncontingent incentives of the 60 Points shifts in Noncontingent phases which, in turn, did not differ among themselves. It should not be con- cluded, however, that praise alone had no effect, for no attempt was made to evaluate inmate of change performance in the absence of both praise and token reinforcement. It is possible that elimina- tion of praise for performance of the morning activities would have resulted in a drop in per- formance below that observed in the Baseline of conditions of this experiment. It may be con- cluded, however, that performance-contingent MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE mit the correctional officer then to maintain the performance of the morning activities in the ab- sence of token reinforcement. This general ob- jective would be warranted in a comprehensive rehabilitative effort for those activities that can be fostered within the institution and that have meaning for the inmate when he is released and/ or have impact on the probability that the of- fender will succeed in the community to which he returns. This demonstration of the effective- ness of applied behavior analysis procedures with adult felons does, however, indicate that such procedures have the potential of playing a cen- tral role in the design and operation of compre- hensive rehabilitative programs as the criminal justice system expands its offender rehabilitation efforts. The cost of operating the token economy can- teen was computed by totalling the census of the token economy cellblock for all days the can- teen was in operation and dividing the resulting without recourse to the full figure into the total cost of items stocked in the canteen and ordered from catalogs. The average cost of operating the canteen, which was in competition with the institution store, where the Board of Corrections sold (for "real" money) similar items, was 61 cents per man per day. Although the per-man cost for operating the token economy canteen was relatively low, even this could be reduced if potential reinforcers in the institution were incorporated into the token economy. If such things as extra recreation, telephone, and visiting privileges, for example, were added to the reinforcing event menu, it is quite probable that they could effectively compete with the offerings of the canteen. Not only would such extras reduce canteen expendi- tures, they would also increase the reinforcing properties of the tokens and, thereby, the prob- ability that to-be-reinforced activities would be completed. Ideally, however, the institution would abolish the practice of selling goods for profit through its store and instead operate it in the same manner that the token economy canteen was operated. Some inmates receive an abundant supply of 269 foster in the token economy participants) and what the inmates could expect in return (tele- vision viewing, recreation, and other activities available to inmates within the correctional cen- ter, as well as the tangible commodities dis- pensed by the token economy canteen). The pur- pose of Experiment II was to determine whether or not the token economy in Experiment I ex- erted on participants undue hardship in the form of increased deprivation of social intercourse and/or recreational activities. METHOD Response Definitions A checklist consisting of classes of activities in which inmates of the correctional center might engage was constructed to enable a topographi- cal analysis of the daily activities of the partici- pants of the cellblock token economy project. In developing the checklist, research staff, cor- rectional center administrators, and inmates gen- erated lists of activities in which inmates of the institution could engage. These lists were com- bined and the items refined, with closely related or overlapping activities united and unobserv- able or inferred activities operationally defined or deleted. The composite list was then further refined during a tryout period before collection of the data reported. The resultant Behavior Observation Check- list (BOC) consisted of 58 operationally defined classes of activities, such as Eating, Listening to Radio/Sports, Lying Down/Awake, Reading/ Book, Standing, Talking with Others/Religion, Student, etc. In the administration of the BOC, raters were instructed to choose the more inter- active, more informative categories in preference to their less interactive, less informative alterna- tives. For example, if an inmate was lying down, eyes open, and a radio adjacent to his bed was broadcasting a clearly audible baseball game, he was rated as Listening to Radio/Sports instead of Lying Down/Awake. Similarly, if an inmate was observed sitting at a desk in the remedial educa- tion area of the cellblock, a textbook before him, MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE on the token economy cellblock were those de- scribed for the Baselinel condition of Experi- ment I. Token economy. The observations occurred during the five consecutive weeks at the mid- point of the token economy of Experiment I, at which time the 60 Points Contingent3 condi- tion was in effect. Baseline2. This condition consisted of the five consecutive weeks following termination of the token economy of Experiment I. The BOC was administered seven times each Thursday and 21 times each Saturday during each week of the three five-week periods, result- ing in a total of 140 administrations under each of the three experimental conditions. RESULTS Reliability of Measurement Reliability estimates were obtained in approxi- mately one of every six administrations of the BOC. For each, a second staff member toured the token economy cellblock with the primary observer and independently rated the activities in which the residents of the cellblock were en- gaged. An overall percentage of agreement based on frequency data across all categories was com- puted for each reliability check by dividing the number of agreed-upon observations by the total number of observations made and multiplying the resulting figure by 100. Sixty-nine reliability estimates were obtained throughout the three conditions. The mean percentage of agreement was 90.5 %. Data Reduction For each category, the frequency data gen- erated during each BOC administration were summed across the 140 administrations per- formed during each of the three conditions of the experiment. Closely related categories were then grouped together, and low-frequency activ- ities (not more than one occurrence per 100 in- dividual ratings during any of the three condi- tions), which were unrelated to either the larger 271 9. Miscellaneous: this category consists of low-frequency, residual BOC activities, such as Exercising, Fighting, Horseplaying, Participating in Hobby, and Writting/Letter. Findings A preliminary examination of the data gen- erated by representative inmates as they re- corded, by means of time clocks and punch cards, the times they left and returned to the token economy cellblock indicated that introduc- tion of the token economy had little, if any, im- pact upon either the inmates' movement within the institution or their involvement in leisure- time recreation activities. Although there was some day-to-day variability under each condition of the experiment, those inmates who spent the bulk of their time away from the cellblock dur- ing the Baseline conditions continued to do so during the Token Economy conditions. Similarly, those inmates who only rarely either left the token economy cellblock to participate in recre- ational activities during the Baseline conditions continued to refrain from doing so during the Token Economy conditions. These findings are complemented by the data resulting from the administrations of the BOC as summarized in Table 3, which depicts the percentage of ratings falling within each of the nine summary categories under the three con- ditions of this experiment. The most commonly rated category of the BOC during each of the three experimental conditions was Not Present on Cellblock. On average, one-third of the in- mates were absent from the cellblock during the observations performed under the Baselinei condition, and this figure changed virtually not at all during the Token Economy condition and the following Baseline2 condition. The percent- age of inmates engaged in Recreation/Enter- tainment activities dropped slightly, from ap- proximately 18% to 14%, after the token econ- omy was introduced, and then increased to 31% after the token economy was terminated. The percentages of inmates rated in the Con- versation, Eating/Grooming, Education, and A. MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE pear to have restricted the movement of the in- mates to and from the remainder of the institu- tion, since about the same percentage of inmates were not present on the cellblock during the token economy as during the baseline periods preceding and following it. It may be concluded, then, that the utilization of time away from the cellblock as a backup reinforcer in the token economy did not in any way interfere with the participants' interaction with acquaintances not residing on the token economy cellblock, nor with the opportunity to attend the weekend movies, club meetings, and other recreational activities available in the remainder of the in- stitution. The token economy appears to have occa- sioned a slight increase in the proportion of time participants were not engaged in any important activities or in any discernible interactions. How- ever, this increase is not reflected in a comparable drop in the degree to which participants engaged 33.9 in recreational and entertainment activities, such 20.0 as playing pool and watching television, for par- ticipation in these activities does not appear to 30.6 4.6 have been significantly influenced by introduc- 2.2 tion of the token economy. After the token econ- 2.5 omy was terminated, however, inmate participa- 2.3 0.0 tion in recreational and entertainment activities 3.9 increased to a level nearly twice that observed before the token economy was introduced. This increase is difficult to explain. It might be a re- sult of the introduction of additional recreational equipment throughout the token economy or to changes in the inmates' patterns of behavior dur- ing the token economy. Alternatively, it might reflect the turnover in the cellblock population during the latter stages of the token economy and a consequent shift in the interests of partici- pants. In any case, the Baselinel and Token Econ- omy data are in general agreement and support the general observation that introduction of the token economy did not curtail either the partici- pants' social intercourse or their participation in recreational or entertainment activities. Also of interest is the amount of time inmates devoted to housekeeping and educational activi- 273 Experi- must be made to protect the physical and psycho- cate- logical well-being of the inmate. To ensure the protection of the offender, the force criminal justice system should insist that its pro- amount fessional staff routinely submit their experi- mental projects to the review of their peers had any throughout the professional community. By so spent per- doing, the criminal justice system will further it was to guarantee that these programs are of the highest observed quality and in the best interests of all concerned. lower A formal peer review policy not only ensures it. On that the professionals within the criminal justice encourage system are abreast with the most advanced think- time to ing in the field but also that their experimental education endeavors receive the scrutiny and constructive observed criticism essential to program refinement. Although the combination of a thoroughly either qualified professional staff and a formal policy cannot be of peer review would be expected effectively to en- ensure the offender's safety and well-being, it is desirable that the criminal justice system also in open its experimental programs to public view the and inspection. An informed public contributes to the safeguarding of the offender, for it better ensures the speedy elimination of those projects that either exert an undue hardship upon the offender while under the care of the criminal justice system or have a detrimental effect on his a repre- adjustment once he returns to the community. In addition, the potential contribution of the rein- offender, both to experimentation within the de- criminal justice system and to the safeguarding with- of himself and his fellow offenders, should not hardship be underestimated. The offender, by dint of his justice intimate knowledge of the interworkings of the in its criminal justice system and the inmate subcul- rehabili- ture, can provide the professional staff informa- that it will sanc- tion through advice and counsel that it would ex- otherwise take them years to acquire. The re- have the search staff that includes ex-offenders will un- but doubtedly recognize and take into consideration degree that a number of important variables that it other- potential wise would be slow to identify or would over- The look altogether. Similarly, the research staff that steps makes provisions both to listen to the sugges- every effort tions and complaints of its client population- A. MILAN and JOHN M. McKEE gestions made by the members of the review panel and by peers at professional meetings were incorporated in the project. The project itself was under constant public scrutiny. The Board of Directors of the Rehabilitation Re- search Foundation, which oversaw the project research, consisted of respected professionals and civic leaders. Moreover, throughout its du- ration, the project was visited by a steady stream of concerned citizens, civic groups, college and university classes, and media representatives. The project staff included an ex-offender, and regular group meetings were scheduled with the residents of the token economy cellblock for the express purpose of airing their grievances and soliciting their opinions and suggestions, and these played an important part in the staff deci- sion-making process. Participation in the project was voluntary as defined above: not only did participation in the project not influence an in- mate's date of release from the institution, but an inmate could, as slightly less than 10% of the participants did, petition to eliminate himself from the project by following routine institu- tional procedures, and the decision to terminate participation did not influence either the inmate's date of release or the quality of his life within the institution relative to his condition before enrollment in the project. As the criminal justice system develops both a research orientation and a research capability, it If this is done, will, as the mental health field has, begin identi- fying shortcomings and validating effective strat- egies. Experimental projects are of little value, however, unless the criminal justice system makes use of their findings in its dealings with the offender. Those shortcomings that experi- mental projects reveal should be eliminated from the system. Similarly, strategies and procedures of general applicability and benefit that have been validated in experimental programs should be implemented throughout the system. Clearly, the nature of some strategies will de- mand that they continue to be offered on a vol- untary basis alone. For example, the effectiveness of aversion therapy in the treatment of alcohol- TOKEN ECONOMY 275 American Psychological Association, Honolulu, 1972. REFERENCES Boren, J. J. and Colman, A. D. Some experiments on reinforcement principles within a psychiatric ward for delinquent soldiers. Journal of the IEx- perimental Analysis of Behavior, 1968, 22, 29-38. Clements, C. B. and McKee, J. M. Programmed in- struction for institutionalized offenders: Contin- gency management and performance contracts. Psychological Reports, 1968, 22, 957-964. Cohen, H. L. and Filipczak, J. A new learning en- vironment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971. Cohen, H. L., Filipczak, J., and Bis, J. CASE I: An initial study of contingencies applicable to special education. Silver Spring, Maryland: Educational Facility Press-IBR, 1967. Colman, A. D. and Baker, S. L. Utilization of an operant conditioning model for the treatment of character and behavior disorders in a military set- ting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1969, 125, 101-109. Colman, A. D. and Boren, J. J. An information sys- tem for measuring patient behavior and its use by staff. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2, 207-214. McKee, J. M. and Clements, C. B. A behavioral ap- proach to learning: The Draper model. In H. C. Rickard (Ed.), Behavioral

Cellblock Token Economy PDF 1976 A maximum Security Correctional Institution

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