MIDTERMS_CHEM PDF

PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY PERIODS & GROUPS Periods - horizontal rows - there are 7 periods in the periodic table - arranged in increasing atomic number Family/Group - vertical rows - elements in a gro...

PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY PERIODS & GROUPS Periods - horizontal rows - there are 7 periods in the periodic table - arranged in increasing atomic number Family/Group - vertical rows - elements in a group have similar chemical properties Group A (occupying the s and p – block) are called representative elements; whereas Group B elements (occupying the d-block) are called transition metal groups. GROUPS OF ELEMENTS Group VIIIA/0 : Inert gases Group IA : Alkali Metals Group IIA : Alkaline earth metals Group VIA : Chalcogens Group VIIA : Halogens Group IB : Coinage Metals Group IIB : Volatile Metals  Transition elements – those elements in which a d-orbital is filled partially, starting at Group IIIB and ending at Group IIB. Lanthanides and Actinides – inner transition metals Metallic elements are protein precipitants, the major exception being the alkali metals. Being protein precipitants, metals especially heavy metals are toxic. Amphoteric – equally acidic and basic BRIDGE ELEMENTS Diagonals/Bridge elements – 1st member of the family can be quite unlike to the other members. It more closely resembles the second member of the adjacent group to the right. IONIZATION ENERGY Ionization Potential – measure of the energy required to remove an electron by overcoming the attractive forces of the nucleus. Metals - ↓ IP , readily form cations Non- metals - ↑IP ELECTRONEGATIVITY Electronegativity – Attraction of the nucleus for an electron. Metals - ↓ electronegativity, thus electropositive Nonmetals - ↑ electronegativity especially halogens - attract additional electrons to form anions GROUP VIIIA/ 0 ELEMENTS NOBLE GASES GROUP VIIIA/ 0 ELEMENTS Radon is recovered from the natural decay products of radium. The inert gases are monoatomic, colorless, and odourless. Inert gases, except helium, follows the octet rule. HELIUM 2nd most lightest gas (low density and solubility) It is chemically inert. It does not support combustion Toxicity (inhalation): Donald duck-like sound/ Chipmunk-like sound Use: – Carrier/diluent for medically important gases – Component of artificial gas/air (80 parts He, 20 parts O2) Container: Brown NEON Aka:“New” No pharmaceutical use Used in advertising ARGON Aka:“Lazy” Most abundant and most widely distributed among all noble gases. Substitute of nitrogen in providing inert atmosphere. It is used to prevent the blackening of light bulbs. KRYPTON Aka:“Hidden” Least abundant among noble gases Have inhalational anesthetic activity. XENON Aka:“Stranger” Investigational with inhalatory anesthetic activity. Both Kr and Xe has fairly high lipid solubility Xenon is virtually equal with ethylene in terms of anesthetic activity. RADON Aka:“Niton” Synthetic noble gas Used in the treatment of cervical cancer Recovered from the natural decay products of Radium (given off by radium salts)  GROUP IA ELEMENTS A L K A L I M E TA L S GROUP IA ELEMENTS Comprises the most reactive of all the metallic elements (never found in nature in pure form). ↑ activity with increasing atomic number (Cs>K>Na) Hydroxides give alkaline solutions (alkalinity increases with increasing atomic number). Degree of solvation decreases with increasing atomic number. Have low melting points. Stable chemically; does not form complexes. GROUP IA ELEMENTS Alkali metal salts of inorganic acids (ex. NaCl, KCl, KBr) are ionic, usually colorless and soluble in water. Aqueous solutions of the alkali metal salts are neutral to basic. Most distinguishing properties of the salts and their solutions are due to the anion present. (e.g. color) Only lithium and sodium salts are regularly hydrated in crystalline form. (ex. Li2B4O7.3H2O (Lithium borate)) HYDROGEN Aka: ________________ air Lightest element Isotopes: – Protium – most abundant – Deuterium – heavy hydrogen – Tritium – radioactive LITHIUM Aka:“Earth” Lightest of all metals Pharmacological action: – Depressant – Diuretic Non-Pharmacological action: – Heat-exchanger in aircons LITHIUM Free metal forms are less reactive with water. Burning it forms the normal oxide (Li2O) Li2CO3 and Li3PO4 are slightly water soluble. LiCl is soluble to organic solvents Li has no physiological role and is toxic. LITHIUM Important compounds: – Lithium bromide – depressant – Lithium carbonate (Lithase®) DOC for ___________ SODIUM Aka:“Natrium” Most abundant extracellular cation Used with caution in the treatment of cardiac and renal condition in which edema is a problem. Cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of organic medicaments. Na compounds are widely used in pharmacy and medicine (ex. NaCl); sodium salts are selected more frequently due to economic basis. SODIUM IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: Sodium acetate (CH3COONa) – Diuretic – Urinary and systemic alkalizer – Antacid Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) – Aka:“Baking Soda” Side effects: – Systemic antacid a. Systemic Alkalosis – Carbonating agent b. Rebound Hyperacidity c. Edema SODIUM Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4) – Aka:“Fleet Enema” – Uses: (a) Cathartic; (b) Source of phosphate ion Sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) – water-soluble antioxidant (preservative) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) – Aka: Soda ash (anhydrous form); Trona (dihydrate form); Washing soda, soda crystals or sal soda (decahydrate form). – Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Source of carbonate ion; (c) Carbonating agent SODIUM Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Aka: rock salt, table salt, soler salt – Uses: Electrolyte replenisher (to prevent or treat dehydration) – Examples: NSS (0.9% NaCl) Ringer’s Solution – NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 Lactated Ringer’s Solution (Hartmann’s Solution) – NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Sodium lactate Tonicity adjusting agent Condiment Preservative SODIUM Sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7) – Uses: Alkalinizer Buffer (resists changes in pH) Diuretic Expectorant Anticoagulant Sequestering Agent in Benedict’s Solution Sodium fluoride (NaF) – Uses:Anticariogenic (2% solution) SODIUM Sodium iodide (NaI) – Uses: (a) Expectorant; (b) Antifungal; (c) Iodine solubilizer Sodium lactate – Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Diuretic Sodium nitrite (NaNO2) – Treatment of cyanide poisoning – Antioxidant – Used to preserve the red color or meat Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) – Aka:“Chile Salt Peter” – Use/s: Meat preservative;Vasodilator SODIUM Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) – Aka:“Glauber’s salt” – a decahydrate – Use: Cathartic Sodium tartrate (Na2C4H4O6) – Use: Primary standard for Karl-Fischer reagent for _____________________ Sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) – Hypotensive agent Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) – Aka: Hypochlor, Photographer’s hypo – Use/s:Treatment of cyanide poisoning with sodium nitrite POTASSIUM Aka:“Kalium” Most abundant intracellular cation K salts are generally less deliquescent compared to Na salts Pharmacologic action: – Diuretic – Important in muscular contraction Deficiency: Hypokalemia – due to excessive loss of body fluids and electrolytes which causes muscular paralysis. Sources:Avocado, Banana POTASSIUM IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: Potassium acetate (CH3COOK) – Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Diuretic; (c) Urinary and systemic alkalizer Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) – Uses: (a) Sytemic antacid; (b) Carbonating agent; (c) Source of bicarbonate ion Potassium bitartrate (KHC4H4O6) – Aka: Cream of tartar, creamor – Use: Laxative POTASSIUM Potassium bromide (KBr) – Uses: Depressant Used in the preparation of samples for infrared analysis Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) – Aka: Potash, perlash, salt of peter – Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Carbonating agent; (c) Source of carbonate ion Potassium chlorate (KClO) – Uses: (a) oxidizing agent; (b) component in toothpastes, gargles and mouthwash; (c) has deodorant action POTASSIUM Potassium chloride (KCl) – Aka:“Kalium chloratum” – Uses: Electrolyte replenisher (Note: Should be infused slowly. Used in lethal injections and is irritating to the GI tract) Potassium citrate – Uses: (a) Diuretic; (b) Expectorant; (c) Diaphoretic Potassium hydroxide (KOH) – Aka: Caustic potash, lye potash – Use: Saponifying agent used in the preparation of soft or liquid soap. POTASSIUM Potassium iodide (KI) – Aka:“Kalium jodatum” – Uses: Expectorant (due to iodine ion) Used in the treatment of goiter Antifungal and Iodine solubilizer Potassium nitrate (KNO3) – Aka: salt peter, salt prunelle, salitre – Uses: Diuretic and meat preservative POTASSIUM Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) – Aka:“Mineral chameleon” – Uses: Oxidizing agent Antiseptic (0.02%) Treatment for strychnine poisoning Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) – Uses: Cathartic Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC4H4O6) – Aka: Rochelle salt, sal signette – Uses: (a) cathartic; (b) sequestering agent for Fehling’s solution POTASSIUM Potassium thiocyanate (KSCN) – Use: Hypotensive agent Sulfurated potash – Aka: Liver of sulfur, heparis sulfuris – It is a mixture of potassium sulfide, potassium polysulfide and potassium thiosulfate – Used in the preparation of white lotion – Used as a parasiticide and treatment of acne and scabies CESIUM AND RUBIDIUM CESIUM: Catalyst in the polymerization of resin No pharmaceutical significance CsCl – used in density gradient centrifugation RUBIDIUM: Rubidium and its cation are very similar in behaviour to potassium. Rb and Cs has no application in pharmacy and medicine at this time. AMMONIUM Hypothetical alkali metal Conjugate base of ammonia Pharmacologic action: – Diuretic – Buffer – Expectorant (like _______________) – Anti-cariogenic AMMONIUM NH3 coordinated readily with a proton to form the NH4+1 Resembles K Ammonium reacts with bases to liberate NH3 Ammonium salts of bitartrate, chlorplatinate and perchlorate are insoluble in water. Ammonium hydroxide – solution of ammonia in water. It is basic. Solutions of ammonium salts are acidic. (ex. NH4Cl) AMMONIUM Pharmacologic category of ammonium ion: – Acid-base equilibrium of the body – Diuretic – Expectorant – Anticariogenic Ammonia is used as a urinary alkalizer Ammonia is a volatile substance AMMONIUM IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: Ammonium bromide (NH4Br) – Use: Sedative depressant Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3) – Aka: sal volatile, hartshorn, preston salt, baker’s ammonia – Use: Expectorant – stimulate the flow of respiratory secretions. Mild emetics can be used as an expectorant. Antacid Respiratory stimulant AMMONIUM Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) – Aka: Muriate of hartshorn – Use: Expectorant Diuretic Urinary acidifier Aromatic Ammonia Spirit – Aka: spirit of sal volatile, spirit of hartshorn – A mixture of ammonium carbonate and strong ammonia solution – Used as a respiratory stimulant (to revive unconscious patients who have fainted). AMMONIUM HgNH2Cl – Aka: white precipitate – Use: topical anti-infective Ammonium iodide (NH4I) – Uses: Source of iodide Expectorant Antifungal Ammonium acetate (NH4CH3COO) – Aka: Spirit of minderesus – Use: Styptic  GROUP IB ELEMENTS C O I N AG E M E TA L S GROUP IB ELEMENTS Can occur in free metal state These metals are very malleable. The hydroxides and salts of these metals are insoluble in water. Central units of chelates/complexes  COMPARISON OF GROUP IA AND IB METALS Properties Alkali Metals Coinage Metals Occurrence Not free in nature Free in nature and are easily recovered from their compounds by reduction Chemical reactivity Very reactive chemically Not very reactive; can be displaced easily by other metals Properties of oxides and hydroxides Strongly basic Weakly basic except for Ag2O Number of valence electrons Univalent Univalent for Ag, multivalent for Cu and Au Ion formation Simple cation (not in complex In complex anions and complex anions) & not complex cations with cations with ammonia ammonia Oxidation potential Rapidly oxidize in air Copper slowly oxidizes in air but may be oxidized rapidly in finely divided state or when heated with oxygen COPPER Aka:“Cuprum” Only reddish metal Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase 3rd most malleable metal and 3rd best conductor of electricity 2 important alloys: – Brass (Cu and Zn) and Bronze (Cu and Sn) Pharmacologic actions: – Protein precipitant – Enhances the physiological utilization of iron – Toxicity:Wilson’s disease (Antidote: Penicillamine) COPPER Cu is an essential trace element. Cu enhances the physiological utilization of iron. Cu induces emesis. Other external uses of Cu compounds: It occurs in the respiratory pigment, Fungicide hemocyanin and many enzymes. Insecticide Algaecide Astringent Bacteriostatic Pediculocide COPPER IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: Cupric sulfate (CuSO4. 5H2O) – Aka: blue vitriol, blue stone – Uses: Component of benedict’s solution, barfoed’s reagent and fehling’s reagent – Antidote for phosphorus poisoning – Increases hematinic activity if added with iron – Ingredient of Bordeaux mixture (used as a fungicide) Copper acetoarsenate ([Cu3(AsO3)2. Cu(C2H3O2)2]) – Aka: Paris green – Use: Insecticide SILVER Aka:“Argentum”, Shining bright It has an oligodynamic action Ag has the ability to precipitate proteins (ex. silver nitrate) Toxicity:Argyria (esp. from soluble silver salts) Antidote: NSS (Normal Saline Solution) SILVER Most Ag+1 are insoluble or slightly soluble in water. Ag compounds are light sensitive and they must be stored in light- resistant bottles. Ag ion readily reduces to elemental silver. Ag can be used as an astringent, antiseptic, corrosive and protein precipitant. SILVER IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: A. Soluble Compounds Silver nitrate (AgNO3) – Aka: Lapiz infernulariz, lunar caustic, indelible ink, caustic pencil – Uses: Treatment for warts Eye antiseptic for newborn babies of mothers with gonorrhoea (1% solution) Wet dressing for 3rd degree burns (0.5%) Ammoniacal silver nitrate (Ag(NH3)2NO3) – Uses: Dental protective Ingredient for tollen’s reagent (test for the presence of aldehydes) SILVER B. Insoluble Compounds Silver iodide (AgI) – Uses: poisonous and germicide Ag proteinate – Mild Ag proteinate Aka:Argyrol Use:Antiseptic for the eye (10 - 23/25% Ag) – Strong Ag proteinate Aka: Protargol Use: Strong germicide for ears and throat (7.5 - 8.5% Ag) – Colloidal Ag proteinate Aka: Colargol Use: Used as a general germicide (18 - 22% Ag) GOLD Aka:“Aurum”, shining dawn, king of all metals Most malleable and most ductile Best conductor of electricity Gold toxicity: Gold dermatitis (Antidote: Dimercaprol) Dissolved by: – Aqua regia (3 parts HCl + 1 part of HNO3) – Selenic acid – Bromine water – Chlorine water GOLD Two series of gold compounds exist:Au+1 & Au+3 Au salts are unstable in heat and light; and are mild reducing agents. Au compounds should be dispensed separately since it is a reducing agent. Au+1 undergoes autooxidation to Au+3 Uses of Au compounds:Treatment of SLE and RA GOLD IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: Aurothioglucose (IM) – Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis Gold Na thiomalate (IM) – Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis Auranofin (PO) – Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis *Au 198 – radioactive Au used in the treatment of some malignancies  GROUP IIA ELEMENTS A L K A L I N E E A RT H M E TA L S GROUP IIA ELEMENTS Group IIA is also known as Alkaline earth metals. They are chemically active, does not occur in nature. Oxidation state is +2 Are strong reducing agents (not as strong as Group IA elements) Ca, Sr, Ba react with water to form hydroxides with the evolution of H. GROUP IIA ELEMENTS Chemical activity increases as atomic radius increases. Elements are strictly metallic except for amphoteric beryllium. Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2 are strongly basic. Be(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are insoluble in water. The carbonates, phosphates, sulfates and fluorides are insoluble in water. BERYLLIUM Be is amphoteric Be is a bridge element, resembles Al. Be compounds are extremely toxic. Never employed in medicine as a therapeutic agent because it is the most toxic metal. Use: Found in fluorescent lamps MAGNESIUM Magnesium is the major physiologic ion found in chlorophyll. It is the second most abundant intracellular cation in the cell. Lightest of all structurally important metal. Has a powerful anesthetic effect. A natural calcium channel blocker – important in many cardiovascular diseases MAGNESIUM Some Mg compounds are employed as an antacid. [Examples: Mg(OH)2, MgCO3] Mg(OH)2 and MgSO4 are cathartics. MgSO4 is an anticonvulsant. Concentrated MgSO4 is used as a topical anti- inflammatory agent. MAGNESIUM Natural sources: – As silicates: talc and asbestos – As carbonates: magnesite and dolomite – As sulfates: Keiserite MAGNESIUM Pharmacologic action: – Laxative – Depressant – Natural Ca-channel blocker Antidote for magnesium toxicity: Ca gluconate (IV) MAGNESIUM Important compounds: Magnesium carbonate [MgCO3] – Aka: Magnesia – Uses:Antacid and Laxative Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] – Aka: Milk of magnesia, magnesia magma – Uses:Antacid and laxative Magnesium oxide [MgO] – Aka: Calcined magnesia – Uses:Antacid, laxative and component of __________ MAGNESIUM Magnesium sulfate [MgSO4] – Aka: Epsom salt – Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate – Uses: Cathartic (PO), anticonvulsant (IM), antidote for Ba toxicity Magnesium citrate – Aka: Lemonada purganti, purgative lemon – Use: Laxative MAGNESIUM Hydrated magnesium silicate [2MgO.4SiO2. H2O] – Aka:Talc, soapstone, French chalk – Softest mineral known – Uses: Dusting powder Filtering aid and clarifying agent Adsorbent 27Mg, an artificial radioactive isotope, has been used in research involving photosynthesis. CALCIUM 2nd most abundant cation in the extracellular fluid. Vitamin D is needed for its maximum absorption. This element is indispensable in life and is the cation of hydroxyapatite, the major constituent of bones and teeth. CALCIUM Ca is a reactive metal whose cation is stable. Ca salts undergo metathesis with borates, carbonates, citrates, oxalates, phosphates, sulfates and tartrates to yield insoluble compounds. Ca is the cation of choice to carry therapeutically active anions (ex. Ca aminosalicylates and Ca cyclobarbital) CALCIUM Therapeutic categories represented by official calcium compounds are as antacid, electrolyte replenisher and calcium supplementation. Artificial 45Ca isotope has been employed in studies involving mineral metabolism. CALCIUM Pharmacologic action: – Blood coagulation factor – Important in muscular contraction – Important in the release of neurotransmitters – Primary element of bones and teeth (for bone mineralization) Deficiency state: – Osteoporosis – Osteomalacia – Rickets – Hypocalcemia CALCIUM Important compounds: Calcium bromide [CaBr2] – Use: Sedative/depressant Calcium carbonate [CaCO3] – Aka: Precipitated chalk, prepared chalk – Uses:Antacid, ingredient of toothpastes and dentifrices Calcium chloride [CaCl2] – Aka: Muriate of lime – Use: Calcium replenisher CALCIUM Calcium gluconate – Use: Ca supplement and replenisher – Treatment of choice of hypocalcemia (CaCl2 is irritating to the veins and GIT) Calcium hypochlorite (CaClO) – Aka: Chlorinated lime, chloride of lime – Use: Disinfectant, bleaching agent Calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] – Aka: Bone ash – Use: Source of Ca and P  CALCIUM Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] – Aka: Slaked lime, hydrated lime, milk of lime – Uses:Antacid, saponifying agent Calcium oxide [CaO] – Aka: lime, quicklime, calx – Uses: Component of Bordeaux mixture (algicide/fungicide) and as insecticide. Calcium sulfate [CaSO4] – Aka: Plaster of paris (as hemihydrate), gypsum (as dihydrate) – Uses: Rodenticide, used in preparation of surgical casts and dental impressions. STRONTIUM Seldom used therapeutically Used in the manufacture of flares Important compound: Strontium chloride [SrCl2] – Used as a desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)  BARIUM The most active in Group IIA Also known as “Heavy” Its cation is stable All barium compounds that are soluble in water are poisonous. Toxicity: Baritosis Antidote for Ba poisoning is Epsom salt. BARIUM Important compounds: Barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2] – Used as a carbon dioxide absorbent Barium sulfate [BaSO4] – A radiopaque agent employed as a contrast medium in diagnostic procedures (for GIT imaging) RADIUM Discovered by Marie Curie A radioactive element used for cancer chemotherapy and for diagnostic purposes  GROUP IIB ELEMENTS VO L AT I L E M E TA L S GROUP IIB ELEMENTS Members of this group are zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg). They are called volatile metals because members of this group have low boiling points. The common oxidation states among these metals is +2. GROUP IIB ELEMENTS They are less active than Group IIA elements and tend to form covalent compounds. Basicity increases with an increase in ionic radius, with mercuric oxide as the most basic and zinc oxide being soluble in alkali (this property of dissolving in basic solution always decreases in the groups with increasing atomic number. The chlorides are hydrolyzed with decreasing ease in the order Zn > Cd > Hg. GROUP IIB ELEMENTS Cadmium and zinc form complex ions easily but cadmium has a stronger tendency than Zn. Mercury does not readily enter into complex formations. Hg can be +1 (mercurous) and +2 (mercuric) Solubility is quite similar to Group IIA elements. ZINC Is an essential trace element Present in all living organism, it is thus widely distributed in food. Metal present in insulin and is a component of carbonic anhydrase. Zn is used in the treatment of various external conditions in the body (antiperspirant, astringent, protectant and antiseptic). ZINC Zn compounds that are soluble in water may be poisonous (ex. ZnO, also known as zincite). Treatment is baking soda. Other uses: – Container of batteries – Protective coating for galvanized iron Deficiency: Parakeratosis (treatment: NaHCO3) ZINC Important compounds: Zinc chloride [ZnCl2] – Aka: Burnett’s disinfectant fluid – Uses: disinfectant/antiseptic/precipitating germicide and dentin desensitizer (D/A: but is corrosive) Zinc oxide [ZnO] – Aka: Zinc white, Lassar’s paste – Uses:Antiseptic, astringent and topical protectant Zinc-eugenol cement – dental protective ZINC Zinc sulfide [ZnS] – Aka: white sulfide – Active ingredient in white lotion – Uses: parasiticide, topical protectant and antiseptic Zinc sulfate [ZnSO4.7H2O] – Aka: white vitriol – Uses: Emetic, astringent and pharmaceutical necessity in the preparation of white lotion – Strong ZnSO4 (also known as zincosite) is an emetic (agent used to induce vomiting). CADMIUM Soluble cadmium compounds are employed as astringents, which are agents which cause shrinking or firming of tissues. Used in the manufacture of stink bombs Cadmium poisoning is called Itai-itai (ouch-ouch) disease, which can be contracted from drinking water contaminated with cadmium. – Antidote: BAL (British Anti-Lewisite)/Dimercaprol CADMIUM Important compounds: Cadmium sulfate [CdSO4] – Use: Is a topical astringent and a cure for eye infections (ophthalmic antiseptic). Cadmium sulfide [CdS] – Aka: greenockite, yellow sulfide – Use:Treats seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff) Cadmium chloride [CdCl2] – Use: emetic, treatment of Tinea infections MERCURY Aka: Hydrargyrum, Messenger of the gods, Quicksilver It is a true metal and the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. Mercury and its compounds are extremely toxic (Hg spills are treated with S) MERCURY Antidotes for mercury poisoning are sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate, NF and egg albumin. The white of one egg (egg albumin) should be given for every 250 mg of mercuric chloride ingested. Emesis should be induced thereafter. Poisoning: Minamata disease Antidote for poisoning: EDTA MERCURY Pharmacologic action: – Diuretic – Antiseptic – Treatment of syphilis – Cathartic – Parasiticidal/Fungicide Industrial use: – Thermometer, amalgams (dental cement)  MERCURY Important compounds: Mercurous chloride [Hg2Cl2] – Aka: Calomel – Use: Cathartic and local antiseptic Mercuric chloride [HgCl2] – Aka: Corrosive sublimate – Use: Disinfectant Mercurous iodide [HgI] – Use: treatment of syphilis Mercuric iodide [HgI2] – Use: treatment of indolent ulcers MERCURY Potassium mercuric iodide [K2HgI4] – Use:Antiseptic and component of Mayer’s reagent Mercuric oxide [HgO] – Aka: yellow precipitate – Use: Ophthalmic antiseptic Ammoniated mercury [Cl2H6HgN2] – Use: treats impetigo, psoriasis and other minor skin conditions.  GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS B O RO N FA M I LY GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS +3 oxidation state appears in all of the elements in the family. With increasing atomic number, the +3 oxidation state becomes more electrovalent in character. They readily oxidize when heated in air but are stable at ordinary temperatures. GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS The oxides are readily reduced back to the free metal and the metals react readily with sulfur and the halogens. The hydroxides tend to show amphoteric properties with the exceptions of the top and bottom elements of the group. Members of this family give rise to double salts, the alum. BORON Boron is a metalloid Boron is toxic by ingestion and by absorption through the skin. Boron is a bridge element resembling Silicon. Boric acid and the borates are feebly bacteriostatic. Oxyacids of boron: (1) boric acid [H3BO3] and (2) metaboric acid [HBO2] BORON Boric acids is used as a topical anti-infective and solution for eyewash. Sodium borate is a bacteriostatic. It is an ingredient in eye washes and mouthwashes. Borate buffers are used in collyria Borate buffers are easily precipitated by common metals. BORON Important compounds: Boric acid [H3BO3] – Aka: sal sativum, sal sedativum – Toxicity: Lobster appearance – Uses: Buffer (ophthalmic solutions – 2%) – weak acid Antiseptic (topical anti-infective) Tonicity adjusting agent – along with NaCl Eyewash (2.5 – 4.5%) BORON Na2B4O7. 10H2O – Aka: Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell’s solution – Use: Antiseptic Eyewash Wet dressing for wounds A frequent ingredient of cold creams, eyewashes and mouthwashes ALUMINUM The most abundant of the metals The 3rd most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Insoluble aluminum compounds [e.g. Al(OH)3] are used as gastric antacids. Soluble aluminum salts, due to their astringent property, are antiperspirant, and used in deodorants. ALUMINUM Pharmacologic uses: – Astringent – Thin aluminum foils for burn patients Elemental Al, in paste form, is topically a protective agent. Protectives – merely provide a physical barrier against abrasions and harsh substances that may come in contact with the treated area. ALUMINUM Important compounds: Aluminum chloride [AlCl3. 6H2O] – Uses: Astringent, antiseptic and antiperspirant/deodorant Alum (Tawas) – General formula: M+3 (M+1) (SO4)2. 12H2O – AlNH4(SO4)2. 12H2O – NH4 salt – AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O – K salt – Use:Astringent and antiperspirant/deodorant ALUMINUM Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] – Aka:Amphojel, Cremalin gel – Use:Antacid, Protectant – Disadvantage: (1) Constipation, (2) Phosphate deficiency Aluminum phosphate [AlPO4] – Aka: Phosphagel – Use:Antacid, astringent, demulcent – Advantage: Does not interfere with phosphate absorption ALUMINUM Aluminum carbonate [Al2(CO3)3] – Use: treatment of phosphatic calculi Aluminum oxide [Al2O3] – Aka:Alumina – Use: treatment of silicosis ALUMINUM Aluminum silicates: A. Kaolin [Al2Si2O5(OH)4] – Aka: China clay, native hydrated aluminum silicate – Use: adsorbent in diarrhea and demulcent providing some soothing relief on abraded mucous membranes. B. Bentonite [BaTiSi3O9] – Aka: soap clay, mineral soap, native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate – Use: Suspending agent in pharmaceutical preparations ALUMINUM C. Pumice – Of volcanic origin – Use: dental abrasive GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM They have no pharmaceutical use except as radioactive isotopes used as diagnostic aids. Thallium is among the most toxic and is absorbed in the intestine and through the skin from ointments and creams. Toxicity is similar to Arsenic (As). GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM Tl (I) is similar to K, Tl (III) is similar to Al (III) and Au (III). In is similar to Al and Ga.  GROUP IIIB ELEMENTS LANTHANIDES AND AC T I N I D E S G RO U P GROUP IIIB ELEMENTS Members: Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La), Actinium (Ac) and the lanthanide or actinide series. The elements in this group have oxidation numbers of +3 or +2, having physical properties that are typical of metals. Sc,Y and La exhibit +3 oxidation state. GROUP IIIB ELEMENTS Group IIIB elements increases its metallic character with increasing atomic number. Basicity of rare earth metals decreases with increasing atomic number. All of the Lanthanide elements occur in mixtures, which are hard to separate due to their similarity in chemical properties whereas all the actinide elements beyond uranium prepared synthetically may only exist as radioactive isotopes, which are usually not very stable.  GROUP IVA ELEMENTS C A R B O N FA M I LY GROUP IVA ELEMENTS The elements in this group may exhibit +2 and +4 oxidation states. They are usually non-metallic in character (C & Si). Both elements are capable of catenation. Metallic properties appear with Si and Ge and become predominant in Sn and Pb. GROUP IVA ELEMENTS The oxides of carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are acidic. Whereas, those of the other members (Ge, Sn, and Pb) of the group are amphoteric. Silicon may form complex insoluble aluminosilicates.  CARBON It is widely distributed in nature. The free state of C appears in various forms like coke, lampblack or charcoal. It exists in two allotropic forms: – Amorphous (e.g. coal, charcoal and anthracite) – Crystalline (e.g. diamond and graphite) CARBON Important compounds: Activated charcoal – Used to treat emergency poisoning prior to emesis – In its finely powdered form is used as an adsorbent in the treatment of diarrhea – Component of ____________________  CARBON Carbon monoxide [CO] – 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia then death – Treatment: (1) 100% O2, (2) Artificial air (80% He & 20% oxygen) and (3) hyperbaric oxygen Carbon dioxide [CO2] – Aka: carbonic acid gas – Use: potent and effective respiratory stimulant, used in the treatment of CO poisoning – Dry ice (Solid CO2) – a refrigerant; used in the treatment of acne, angiomas, corn and calluses – Container: Gray metallic cylinder CARBON CO2 – used as a respiratory stimulant. It is a by- product of fermentation. Carbonates and bicarbonates are used as gastric antacids. KHCO3 – used as a source of electrolytes Bismuth subcarbonate – astringent and protective (NH4)2CO3 – reflex stimulant and expectorant SILICON Is the second most abundant element in earth. It does not occur free in nature but as silicon dioxide (SiO2) or silica, which is inert. SiO2 occurs in nature in both crystalline and amorphous form (ex. quartz, sand, opal or siliceous earths).  SILICON Siliceous earths, also known as diatomaceous earth, infusorial earth, Fuller’s earth, Kieselguhr or Celite, is an excellent inert, non-absorbent filter aid – used as non-absorbent filtering aid and mild abrasive. Amorphous silica – used as gas absorbents, dessicants, carriers, fillers and abrasives. SILICON Silicosis (Si toxicity) – a lung condition resembling chronic tuberculosis, developing after long exposure (7 years or more) to “respirable dust” of silicon (silica particles 5 micrometer or less). – Treatment:Aluminum oxide (Alumina - Al2O3) – Breathing aluminum dust or aluminum oxide dust are regular intervals prevents development of silicosis.  SILICON Silicon form silicic acids, e.g.: – Metasilicic acid (H2SiO3) – Orthosilicic acid (H4SiO4) – Disilicic acid (H6Si2O7) SILICON Silicates – a compound of Si and an anion Silicates are insoluble in water or acids except for alkali salts. Silicates can be attacked by HF to form the gaseous SiF4.  SILICON Important compounds: Silicon dioxide [SiO2] – Aka: Purified siliceous earth or silica – Use:Absorbent Talc [2MgO. 4SiO2. H2O] – Aka: Hydrated magnesium silicate, French chalk – It is the softest mineral known – Uses: dusting powder as a protective and lubricant and as a filtering aid (due to its inertness) – Talc must not be used in broken skin, wounds and surgical incisions – impairs wound healing. SILICON Bentonite – Aka: soap clay, mineral soap, native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate – Use: Suspending agent, emulsifier for oil, a base for plasters and ointments Kaolin – Aka: china clay, native hydrated aluminum silicate – Uses: Clarifying agent, intestinal absorbent and protective, dusting powders  SILICON Attapulgite [Mg5Si8O20(OH)2. 8H2O] – Aka: Polymagma, Quintess – Use: Absorbent for diarrhea (as adsorptive in anti-diarrheal products) Simethicone – Polymeric dimethyl siloxane – Use: Anti-flatulent in gastric bloating and in postoperative gaseous distention in the GI tract. Pumice – Porous rock of volcanic origin – Use: dental abrasive SILICON Glass – Made from a vitreous silicate material prepared by fusing a base (e.g. Na2CO3 and CaCO3) with pure silica then by cooling, to produce a vitreous mass. – Glasses has the tendency to affect the integrity of the product. – Solutions may become alkali upon long exposure to glass.  SILICON Glass Additives: 1. MnO2 – hides the blue-green color of ion present in silica. 2. Borates – reduces coefficient of expansion. It also makes the glass alkali and heat resistant. 3. K – gives a brown and a light resistant glass 4. Pb (Lead) – increases the refractive index of the glass. GERMANIUM Also known as eka-silicon It is a metalloid It has no application in health sciences. Used in the manufacture of electric conductors. Two series of Ge compounds: – Ge2+ (Germanous) – ex. GeO – Ge4+ (Germanic) – ex. GeO2 – Germanous compounds are unstable; while Germanic compounds have greater stability. TIN Aka: Stannum When bent, Sn has a peculiar sound known as the “Cry of Tin”. Tin unites directly with most non-metals (ex. SnO2) Used in the preparation of tin cans TIN Alloys of Tin: – Pewter (80% Sn, 20% Pb) – Type metal (25% Sn, 50% Pb, 25% Sb) – Gun metal (10% Sn, 90% Cu) – Rose metal (25% Sn, 25% Pb, 50% Bi) – Bronze (20% Sn, 80% Cu) TIN Important compounds: Stannous fluoride [SnF2] – Aka: Fluoristan – Only Sn compound used pharmaceutically. – Used as a dental prophylactic – Anticariogenic at 8% concentration Stannic oxide [SnO2] – Aka: Cassiterite – Have germicidal effect particularly against Staphylococcus infections. LEAD Aka: Plumbum, Plumbum nigrum The most metallic element of the group (Group IVA). Metallic Pb tarnishes rapidly in moist air forming PbO. Pb unites directly with F, Cl, and S. ____ is the best solvent of Pb. LEAD It is no longer used in pharmacy because it is toxic. It is highly toxic in nature as a cumulative poison, is readily absorbed in the intestinal tract and broken skin, and deposited in the bone. Poisoning: Plumbism – Antidote: EDTA, Ca versenate Uses:Astringent, protein precipitant LEAD Common source of Pb poisoning: – Lead pipes – Batteries – Paints Pb is the only Group IVA element that forms stable compounds with oxyacids. LEAD Important compounds: Plumbous acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2] – Aka: Sugar of lead – Use:Astringent Plumbic acetate [Pb2(CH3COO)2] – Aka: Goulard’s extract – Use:Astringent, antiseptic Plumbous oxide [PbO] – Litharge – natural mineral form of PbO  GROUP IVB ELEMENTS T I TA N I U M FA M I LY GROUP IVB ELEMENTS These are transition elements. Hafnium is so similar to zirconium in all respects that whatever applies to one also applies to the other. Trivalent titanium is the most important in this group. TITANIUM Aka:Titan, Sons of earth Use:A powerful reducing agent Titanium forms three oxides: titanium oxide (TiO), titanium trioxide (Ti2O3), titanium dioxide (TiO2), also known as rutile. TITANIUM Important compounds: Titanium dioxide [TiO2] Has a high refractive index Uses: – Opacifying agent in pharmaceutics – Used in the production of white capsules – UV ray protectant – it reflects UV rays to prevent sunburn ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM Unpurified Zirconium ores contain hafnium. Its hydroxide and carbonate are used in lotions or creams for contact dermatitis, antiperspirant and deodorant preparations. Use of Zirconium (Zr) – same as Al but banned due to granuloma formation. ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM Former official compounds: – Zirconium oxide – Zirconium carbonate Both are used as antiperspirant and treatment of athlete’s foot.  GROUP VA ELEMENTS N I T RO G E N FA M I LY GROUP VA ELEMENTS Members of Group VA displays regular gradation from the non-metallic nitrogen to metallic bismuth. Oxidation state of +3 and +5 are common to all members The oxides of N and P are acidic The oxides of As and Sb are amphoteric The common oxide of Bismuth (Bi2O3) is basic NITROGEN Aka: Mephitic air, azote (“without life”) Most abundant gas in air (nitrogen occurs in the atmosphere [78%]) and is combined in nitrates and organic compounds. It is a colorless, tasteless, odorless inert gas It is non-flammable It is produced by fractional distillation of liquid air NITROGEN Therapeutically inactive Elemental nitrogen is employed pharmaceutically as an inert atmosphere in ampules and in other containers of substances that would be adversely affected by air. Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant Container: Black  NITROGEN Important compounds: N2O (nitrous oxide) – Aka: Laughing gas – Used as a general inhalatory anesthetic – Container: blue – S/E: Diffusional hypoxia and megaloblastic anemia NO2 (nitrites) – Use:Vasodilator, and treatment for cyanide poisoning NO3 (nitrates) – Use:As a meat preservative (but carcinogenic) NITROGEN Sodium nitrite (NaNO2) –Use: Antidote for cyanide poisoning and as a vasodilator Nitric acid (HNO3) –Aka:Aqua Fortis –It produces a yellow stain on animal tissues (Xanthoproteic test) –Use: Acidifying agent and used externally to destroy chancres and warts PHOSPHORUS Aka: Light carrier and St. Elmo’s fire Phosphorus has two allotropic forms, white and red. –White phosphorus: poisonous and flammable (distinctive, disagreeable, ozone-like odor) –Red phosphorus: non-poisonous and non- flammable (brown to red amorphous powder) The antidote for white phosphorus poisoning is cupric sulfate (CuSO4). PHOSPHORUS P is essential to plant and animal life. P forms complex with Ca (hydroxyapatite – a complex of basic calcium phosphate) that is used in teeth and bone formation. Phosphates are used as buffer systems in the body. PHOSPHORUS Allotropic modifications of Phosphorus: Scarlet phosphorus – produced by heating PBr3 with Hg at 240 degrees Celsius. Violet phosphorus – heating white P with Na to 200 degrees Celsius Metallic or black phosphorus – heating P with Pb at 530 degrees Celsius. PHOSPHORUS Important compounds: Tribasic phosphates [Ca3(PO4)2, Mg3(PO4)2, AlPO4] are used as gastric antacids. Monobasic alkali phosphate [NaH2PO4] is used as a urinary acidifier and dibasic sodium phosphates [Na2HPO4] is used in saline cathartics and in enemas. Phosphates – are used as buffers, cathartics and antacids – Principle anion in the intracellular fluid. PHOSPHORUS Phosphoric acid – used to form soluble salts of insoluble medicinal bases. Hypophosphorous acid, NF – used as an antioxidant primarily with iodide and ferrous salts. ARSENIC Aka: Lewisite metal It is a component of Salvarsan Arsenic compounds are very poisonous, so they are not employed medicinally. In case of ingestion, if As is still in the GI tract, a freshly prepared mixture of iron (III) and magnesium hydroxide is the antidote. If it is already absorbed, dimercaprol is injected by IM. ARSENIC Former compounds of As that are used medicinally: Potassium arsenite (Fowler’s solution) Arsenic trioxide [As2O3] – Aka:Arsenolite – In doses of 1mg/mL, has been used to treat acute promyelocytic leukemia. – Used as an insecticide – Side effects: Electrocardiographic abnormalities ARSENIC Salvarsan/Arsphenamine/Compound 606 and Neosalvarsan 914 are early arsenic compounds in the treatment of syphilis, a sexually-transmitted infection. ANTIMONY Aka: Stibium Potentially toxic Pharmacologic use: – Expectorant – Emetic – Anti-helminthic Alloys of antimony: – Babbitt metal (80% Sn, 20% Sb) – Anti-friction metal (75% Sn, 12.5% Sb, 12.5% Cu) ANTIMONY Important compound: Antimony potassium tartrate [C8H4K2O12Sb2] –Aka: tartar emetic, brown mixture –Formerly used as an emetic and expectorant –Used in the treatment of schistosomiasis (liver fluke), a type of helminthic infestation that is endemic in eastern Philippines. BISMUTH Aka: Beautiful meadow Pharmacologic uses: – Astringent – Antiseptic – Internal protective for ulcer Side effects: Dark stools and blue-black gums Antidote: BAL/ Dimercaprol BISMUTH Soluble compounds of bismuth are toxic. Dimercaprol, given intramuscularly, is the effective antidote. Bismuth compounds causes black stools because of Bismuth (III) sulfide. Bismuth compounds are used to remove warts. Bismuth is formerly an adjunct to As to treat amoebiasis in a form of Glycobiarsol. BISMUTH Important compounds: Bismuth subgallate, subcarbonate and subnitrate – used as an astringent, mild germicide, antacid and protective (due to its adherent properties). Colloidal bismuth subcitrate is prescribed clinically in the treatment of peptic ulcer. BISMUTH Milk of Bismuth –Aka: Bismuth cream –A mixture of Bi subnitrate and Bi hydroxide –Primary use: Antacid Internal protective especially for gastric-ulcer patients Inhibits the growth of H. pylori  GROUP VB ELEMENTS TA N TA L U M FA M I LY / VA N A D I U M S U B G RO U P GROUP VB ELEMENTS Members of this group are Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta). The acidity of the oxides decreases with progressing atomic number, while the basicity of the hydroxides decreases with increasing oxidation state. Niobium – is also known as Columbium TANTALUM Tantalum is unaffected by body fluids, therefore inert in our body. It is used in sheet form for use in surgical repair of bones (muscle tissues will attach to tantalum as though it was a bone), nerve and tissues.  GROUP VIA ELEMENTS OX Y G E N FA M I LY GROUP VIA ELEMENTS Group VIA is also known as chalcogens Oxygen is non-metallic in character, whereas polonium is metallic, and is naturally radioactive Sulfur occurs as a free element in the earth’s crust and in combined form as metal sulfides and sulfates. OXYGEN Aka: empyreal air, dephlogisticated air,“yne” Most abundant element Use: treatment of hypoxia/asphyxia and for the relief of cyanosis It can cause edema if used uninterrupted for 1 to 2 days without adjusting the dose. Container: Green OXYGEN It is very reactive, combining directly with all elements except Hg, Ag, Au, and members of the platinum family. In free form, it constitutes about 1/5 of air by weight. Oxygen, USP – therapeutic gas for the treatment of hypoxia Ozone (O3) – allotropic form of oxygen, is a powerful oxidizing agent OXYGEN Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is commonly used at 3% and 6% concentrations. The strength of H2O2 depends on the volume of active oxygen (nascent oxygen) it yields. 3% H2O2 – is a mild, fast-acting, oxidizing germicide which destroys pathogenic bacteria 6% H2O2 – common bleaching agent (hair) SULFUR Aka: Shubari, brimstone, enemy of copper Uses: – In the preparation of scabicidal and keratolytic ointments – Stimulant cathartic – Depilatory agent – Fumigant – Anti-dandruff Rhombic sulfur – stable form of sulfur at room temperature Prepared through Frasch process SULFUR Elemental sulfur has a fungicidal action 2 forms of sulfur: –Precipitated sulfur (milk of sulfur) Used in the preparation of keratolytic ointments/lotions Used as a scabicide –Sublimed sulfur (flower of sulfur) Used as a cathartic SULFUR Important compounds: Sulfur ointments and lotions – for dermatological applications as keratolytics (an agent that dissolves or breaks the outer layer of skin). White lotion, USP – used as an astringent and protective. Prepared by adding sulfurated potash solution to zinc sulfate solution. SULFUR Cadmium sulfide and selenium sulfide - used for the topical treatment of seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff) Sulfur dioxide, USP – used as antioxidants and preservatives Sulfur metabisulfite, NF – used as an antioxidant SELENIUM Aka: Selena, moon An essential trace element In large doses, selenium is toxic Promotes the absorption of Vitamin E Used as an anti-oxidant Slowly absorbed through the skin SELENIUM Important compounds: Selemethionine (75Se) injection, USP aids in diagnosing pancreatic tumors and growths Selenium sulfide, USP – at 2.5% suspension treats seborrheic dermatitis. Note: Must not come in contact with the eyes and mouth as it damages the sensitive membranes. SELENIUM Prolonged contact with the skin results in contact dermatitis (skin changes resembling eczema).  GROUP VIB ELEMENTS C H RO M I U M S U B G RO U P GROUP VIB ELEMENTS These are all distinctly metallic and forms oxides that are acidic (for those of high molecular weight) Molybdenum and tungsten are definitely acidic whereas uranium is both acid- and base-forming. CHROMIUM An essential trace element Used as a glucose tolerance factor 51Cr – employed as a biological tracer in haematological procedures Deficiency: hyperglycemia Important compound: Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) – used as a powerful oxidizing agent MOLYBDENUM An essential trace element Important compounds: –Ammonium molybdate –Molybdenum oxide + FeSO4 – used as a hematinic URANIUM Discovered by Becquerel Radioactive element used for the manufacture of atomic bombs No pharmaceutical use  GROUP VIIA ELEMENTS H A L O G E N FA M I LY GROUP VIIA ELEMENTS Halogen means “salt” or “sea salt producer”. Due to the reactivity, halogens are never found free in nature. Fluorine is the most electronegative element – Fluorine – strongest oxidizing agent; weakest reducing agent – Iodine – weakest oxidizing agent; strongest reducing agent GROUP VIIA ELEMENTS All halogens unite with hydrogen to form covalent gaseous hydrogen halides. Halogens: – Fluorine (F) – is a pale yellow gas – Chlorine (Cl) – is a greenish yellow gas – Bromine (Br) – a reddish brown liquid – Iodine (I) – a black solid FLUORINE Is the strongest oxidizing agent Most reactive among the electronegative elements. Attacks all metals at room temperature except Au and Pt Essential element present in bones and teeth Poisoning: Fluorosis Manifestation: (a) Mottled enamel; (b) Abnormal bone growth MOTTLED ENAMEL FLUORINE Fluoride, in large doses, treats osteoporosis Important compounds: Sodium fluoride (2%) and Stannous fluoride (8%) – used as dental prophylactic and anticariogenic CCl2F2 (Freon) – used as a refrigerant and aerosol propellant CHLORINE Aka: dephlogisticated muriatic acid Most abundant extracellular anion Used as a water disinfectant Is a very reactive non-metallic element The chlorides of sodium, potassium and calcium are electrolyte replenishers. CHLORINE Important compounds: Hydrochloric acid, NF (HCl) – is a pharmaceutical necessity for neutralizing and stabilizing water Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) – an expectorant and a systemic acidifying agent Sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) or Dakin’s solution – is an effective germicide, viricide and deodorant due to -HOCl. CHLORINE Sodium hypochlorite topical solution - contains 0.025% NaOCl (pH = 8). It has antimicrobial and antiviral properties which make it ideal to treat burn wounds. Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2) – is a good and cheap bleaching powder found in some laundry detergents. BROMINE Described as a dark reddish brown fuming liquid with a suffocating odor. Fumes are highly irritating to mucous membranes. A powerful caustic and germicide If skin comes in contact with bromine, wash immediately with a solution of NaHCO3 and treated with glycerin. BROMINE Bromine containers should be opened only after having been thoroughly cooled. Pharmacologic action: Sedative/depressant Excessive continued dosage of bromine results in bromism. Principal manifestation: (1) skin eruption, (2) psychosis, (3) weakness, and (4) headache Antidote: NaCl and NH4Cl  IODINE Is the most metallic of all halogens (except for Astatine) Weakest oxidizing agent; strongest reducing agent Elemental iodine is toxic (in case of toxicity, corn starch and sodium thiosulfate can be given) Pharmacologic action: – Expectorant – Antifungal Deficiency: Goiter IODINE Iodine preparations: NaI and KI – enhances the solubility of iodine. Povidone-iodine (Betadine®) – has a synthetic polymer, PVP – that reduced the volatility of iodine and decreases skin irritation. Betadine® is also applied as an antiseptic on wounds, in gargles, and mouthwashes for infections of the oral cavity. Iodide – essential for thyroid functioning, also, ion exerts expectorant action IODINE Elemental Iodine preparations: Strong Iodine Solution (aka: Lugol’s solution) Iodine tincture – antiseptic and disinfectant ASTATINE Resembles iodine, but is more metallic Has no pharmaceutical applications –Only metallic halogen –Only synthetic halogen –Only radioactive halogen  GROUP VIIB ELEMENTS THE MANGANESE S U B G RO U P GROUP VIIB ELEMENTS The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in this group is manganese. Metallic in character MANGANESE It is an essential trace element responsible for the activation of enzymes. Co-factor in: –Protein synthesis –Phosphorylation –Fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis Poisoning: Signs and symptoms are Parkinson-like. MANGANESE Official compounds: Manganese chloride (MnCl2) – also known as scacchite Manganese gluconate Manganese sulfate (MnSO4) MANGANESE Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) –Aka: Mineral chameleon –Used as a local anti-infective, astringent, deodorant and cleanser –Used in dilute concentrations of 0.01% – 1% –Dilute permanganate solutions delivered by gastric lavage is an antidote to various alkaloids and toxic substances (susceptible to oxidation) that have been ingested. TECHNETIUM From the Greek word, “technetos” meaning artificial. The 1st element produced artificially. 99Tc is distributed as a diagnostic radiopharmaceutical RHENIUM A very rare element Employed as a catalyst for dehydrogenation (a chemical reaction involving the removal of H from a molecule).  GROUP VIIIB E L E M E N T S T H E F E R RO U S M E TA L S A N D T H E P L AT I N U M M E TA L S ( T R I A D S ) GROUP VIIIB ELEMENTS These elements are metallic and all participate in the formation of coordination complexes. All form colored compounds. The difference between the iron triad and the platinum metals is the ability of the former group to form a simple cation. In contrast, platinum metals seem to prefer higher oxidation states. GROUP VIIIB ELEMENTS First triad – Fe, Co, Ni (Ferrous metals) Second triad – Ru, Rh, Pd (Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium) Third triad – Os, Ir, Pt (Osmium, Iridium, Platinum) 2nd and 3rd triads – platinum metals (exhibits extreme inertness to chemical reactions) IRON Aka: Ferrum Distributed widely in nature It is an essential trace element. Ferrous ion is a hematinic agent, which increases the hemoglobin content of the blood. When ferric ion is taken → reduced to ferrous ion Iron is an important element in the transportation of oxygen by hemoglobin IRON Hemoglobin and myoglobin – oxygen carriers) Transferrin – transport form of Fe Ferritin – storage form of Fe Iron readily forms soluble complexes with ligands, such as phosphate, citrate, tartrate and amines. IRON Iron (II) Ferrous: –Green in hydrated state; white in anhydrous state –Salts undergo slight hydrolysis & oxidized in solution Iron (III) Ferric: –Yellow to brown in hydrated state –Varies in color in anhydrous state –Compounds have an astringent property IRON Sources: – Hematite/Red oxide - Fe2O3 – Iron stone – FeCO3 – Iron pyrite (Fool’s gold) - FeS2 Fe enhances the absorption of: (a) Copper [Cu], (b) Vitamin C Use: Hematinic Toxicity: GIT distress and cardiac collapse Antidote: Deferoxamine  IRON Important compounds: Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) – Aka: Green vitriol – Use: Hematinic (Side effect: Constipation) Ferrous gluconate (Fergon®) – Less irritating in the GI tract Ferrous fumarate (Toleron®) – More stable than FeSO4 in oxidation Ferrous carbonate (FeCO3) – Aka: Chalybeate pills, ferruginous pills – Use: Hematinic IRON Iron dextran injection – composed of colloidal ferric hydroxide with partially hydrolyzed dextran and iron sorbitex injection – used for patients with poor GI tolerance or poor absorption of iron. Basham’s mixture – Components: Iron + Ammonium acetate – Uses: (1) Astringent and (2) Styptic IRON Ferric ferrocyanide (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3) –Aka: Prussian blue or Berlin blue Ferrous ferricyanide (Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2) –Aka:Turnbull’s blue Note: A study revealed that men with higher ferritin levels (an iron protein storage) were found to be more prone to heart attack. COBALT May catalyze the physiological utilization of iron. Iron + Cobalt medicinal preparations are designed to treat iron-deficiency anemia. Essential in the development of erythrocytes and hemoglobin Component of Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia COBALT Important compounds: Cobaltous chloride (CoCl2) –Aka: Lover’s ink, sympathetic ink –Use: Indicator of the degree of water-saturation of a dessicant. –Anhydrous: Blue; Hydrous:Violet to pink Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12) NICKEL Aka: Old nick’s copper Poisoning: “Nickel itch” (a form of contact dermatitis/irritation caused by fancy jewelry) NiCO3 and NiSO4 – used as a parasiticide OSMIUM Heaviest/densest metal Important compounds: –Osmic acid –Osmic tetroxide –Both are used in staining microorganism for microcospic study in electron microscopes. PLATINUM METALS Palladium –Used as a catalyst in organic reaction and in hydrogenation Platinum –Used as a catalyst in hydrogenation PLATINUM METALS Organic drugs with Platinum: –Cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum) – treatment of prostate cancer –Carboplatin [cis-diammine (1,1- cyclobutanedicarboxylato) platinum(II)] – treatment of cancer, less toxic than cisplatin –Transplatin – not an effective treatment of prostate cancer