MIDTERM ORAL ANA LAB PDF

Revised Myology Notes: A Comprehensive Review Functions of Muscles Movement: Produces motion (e.g., walking, running, lifting) Respiration: Aids in breathing (e.g., diaphragm contraction) Visceral Motion: Facilitates internal organ functions (e.g., digestion, peristalsis)...

Revised Myology Notes: A Comprehensive Review Functions of Muscles Movement: Produces motion (e.g., walking, running, lifting) Respiration: Aids in breathing (e.g., diaphragm contraction) Visceral Motion: Facilitates internal organ functions (e.g., digestion, peristalsis) Blood Circulation: Helps pump blood from the heart (e.g., cardiac muscle) Basic Properties of Muscles Excitability: Responds to stimuli (e.g., nerve impulses) Contractility: Shortens and exerts force Extensibility: Can be stretched beyond resting length Elasticity: Returns to original length after contraction or extension Classification of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle: Structure: Striated, multinucleated fibers arranged in parallel bundles Control: Voluntary (consciously controlled) Functions: o Movement (e.g., walking, lifting) o Posture maintenance o Support for soft tissues (e.g., abdominal wall) o Guarding entrances/exits (e.g., swallowing, defecation) Cardiac Muscle: Structure: Striated, branched fibers with a single nucleus Control: Involuntary (not consciously controlled) Function: Pumps blood from the heart Smooth Muscle: Structure: Non-striated, single-nucleus fibers Control: Involuntary Functions: o Contraction of blood vessels o Movement of food through the digestive tract o Pupil dilation/constriction Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle  Epimysium: Outer connective tissue layer surrounding the entire muscle Perimysium: Middle layer dividing muscle into fascicles (bundles) Endomysium: Inner layer surrounding individual muscle fibers Parts of Skeletal Muscle Origin: Fixed attachment (usually proximal end) Insertion: Movable attachment (usually distal end) Belly: Fleshy part of the muscle Muscle Forms Oblique to the Line of Pull: Unipenniform: Fibers on one side of a tendon (e.g., palmar interossei) Bipenniform: Fibers on both sides of a tendon (e.g., rectus femoris) Multipenniform: Fibers arranged in multiple pennate patterns (e.g., deltoid) Circumpenniform: Fibers arranged in a circular pattern (e.g., tibialis anterior) Spiral: Fibers twist around the long axis (e.g., sternocostal fibers of pectoralis major) Cruciate: Fibers cross each other (e.g., masseter) Triangular: Fibers converge to a single point (e.g., temporalis) Parallel to the Line of Pull: Quadrilateral: Rectangular shape (e.g., hyrohyoid) Straplike: Long, narrow shape (e.g., sternohyoid) STRAP WITH TENDINOUS INSERTIONS: Individual fibers run for over shorten segments when there are transverse, tendinous insertions at intervals. (e.g. rectus Abdominous) Fusiform: Spindle-shaped (e.g., biceps brachii) Types of Muscular Actions Prime Movers: Initiate movement Antagonists: Oppose the movement of prime movers Fixators: Stabilize joints Synergists: Assist prime movers Attachments of Skeletal Muscles Tendons: Fibrous tissue connecting muscle to bone Synovial Bursa: Fluid-filled sac reducing friction between tendon and bone Synovial Tendon Sheath: Tunnel-like structure reducing friction Aponeuroses: Broad, flat sheets of connective tissue Fascia: o Superficial fascia: Loose connective tissue  o Deep fascia: Dense connective tissue providing support Naming Muscles Form/Shape: Deltoid (triangular) Location: Brachii (arm) Attachments: Sternocleidomastoid (sternum, clavicle to mastoid) Action: Flexor (flexes a joint) Position: Supraspinatus (above spine of scapula) Direction of Fibers: Rectus (straight) Length: Longus (long) Number of Heads: Biceps (two heads) Common Muscular System Disorders Fibromyalgia: Chronic pain and stiffness Ataxia: Lack of muscle coordination Paralysis: Loss of muscle function Spasm/Cramp: Involuntary muscle contraction Sprain: Ligament injury Strain: Muscle or tendon injury Tendinitis: Inflammation of a tendon Myasthenia Gravis: Muscle weakness Muscular Dystrophy: Degeneration of muscle fibers Hernia: Organ protrusion through muscle wall Myositis: Muscle inflammation Atrophy: Muscle wasting Hypertrophy: Muscle enlargement Snoring: Vibration of the uvula during sleep Tetanus: Muscle stiffness from bacterial infection Polio: Viral infection affecting muscles Plantar Fasciitis: Inflammation in foot arch fascia MUSCLES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND BACK A. SUPERFICIAL BACK MUSCLES (ERECTOR SPINAE GROUP) The erector spinae is a group of muscles on each side of the back that primarily keeps the back straight and the body erect. It divides into three columns: 1. Iliocostalis (lumborum, thoracic, cervicis) o Extends the vertebral column and bends it to one side. 2. Longissimus (thoracis, cervicis, capitis) o Extends the vertebral column and the head, rotates the head to the same side.  3. Spinalis (thoracis, cervicis, capitis) o Extends the vertebral column. B. DEEP BACK MUSCLES Located between the spinous and transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae, responsible for several movements of the vertebral column, including extension, lateral flexion, and rotation. 1. Semispinalis Capitis o Extends the vertebral column and the head, rotates them to the opposite side. 2. Semispinalis Thoracis o Extends the vertebral column and rotates it to the opposite side. 3. Multifidus o Extends the vertebral column and rotates it to the opposite side. 4. Rotatores (cervicis, thoracis, lumborum) o Extends the vertebral column and rotates it to the opposite side. 5. Interspinalis (cervicis, thoracis, lumborum) o Extends the vertebral column. 6. Scalenes (anterior, medius, posterior) o Flex and rotate the neck, assist in inspiration. 7. Intertransversarii (cervicis, thoracis, lumborum) o Abducts the vertebral column. 8. Splenius (capitis, cervicis) o If acting together, they extend the head and neck; if acting singly, they abduct and rotate the head towards the same side. MUSCLES OF THE NECK 2 REGIONS OF THE NECK 1. Anterior angle – Area anterior to the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle and below the inferior border of the mandible. 2. Posterior angle – Area posterior to the SCM muscle and limited posteriorly by the trapezius. STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID (SCM) The prime mover of the lateral muscle group. o Contraction of one (single head) flexes the head and laterally rotates it to the opposite side. o Contraction of both (bilateral heads) flexes the neck. TRAPEZIUS Contracts to rotate and elevate the scapula. o If the cervical portion acts bilaterally, it can extend the head. o Acting singly, it can rotate the head and face to the opposite side. DEEP MUSCLES OF THE NECK A. INFRAHYOID MUSCLES 1. Omohyoid – Depresses the hyoid bone and the larynx. 2. Sternohyoid – Depresses the hyoid bone and the larynx. 3. Sternothyroid – Depresses the larynx. 4. Thyrohyoid – Depresses the hyoid bone. B. SUPRAHYOID MUSCLES 1. Stylohyoid – Elevates the hyoid bone. 2. Digastric (posterior belly) – Raises the hyoid bone. 3. Digastric (anterior belly) – Elevates the hyoid bone. 4. Mylohyoid – Elevates the hyoid bone, base of the tongue, and floor of the mouth. 5. Geniohyoid – Elevates and protracts the hyoid bone. LATERAL MUSCLES OF THE NECK 1. Platysma – Stretches the skin of the neck and depresses the mandible. 2. Splenius Capitis – Bilaterally extends the head; individually, it flexes the head laterally. 3. Levator Scapulae – Elevates and rotates the scapula. 4. Scalenus Posterior – Flexes the neck. 5. Scalenus Medius – Flexes the neck. 6. Scalenus Anterior – Participates in forced inspiration by elevating the ribs and sternum. Respiratory System Overview The Respiratory System is essential for gas exchange in animals and plants, facilitating the intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide. 3 Basic Processes: 1. Ventilation/Breathing – Movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs. o Inhalation (Inspiration): Drawing air into the lungs. o Exhalation (Expiration): Expelling air from the lungs.  2. External Respiration – Gas exchange between blood and air in the lungs. 3. Internal Respiration – Gas exchange between blood and body cells. Divisions of the Respiratory System 1. Upper Respiratory Tract: o External Nose o Nasal Cavity o Pharynx o Associated Structures 2. Lower Respiratory Tract: o Larynx o Trachea o Bronchi o Lungs 3 Phases of Respiration 1. Pulmonary Ventilation – Exchange of air between the atmosphere and lungs (via breathing). 2. Diffusion of Gases – Oxygen passes from air sacs to blood; carbon dioxide exits blood to air sacs. 3. Transport of Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide – Blood transports oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide to the lungs. Functions of the Respiratory System Regulation of Blood pH: Maintained by adjusting CO₂ levels. Voice Production: Air movement past vocal cords generates sound. Olfaction (Smell): Airborne molecules trigger the sense of smell in the nasal cavity. Innate Immunity: Protects against microorganisms and pathogens. Upper Respiratory Tract Nose: o External structure supported by hyaline cartilage and bone. o Internal structure lined with mucous membrane.  o Nares (Nostrils): External openings; Choanae: Internal openings leading to the larynx. Nasal Cavity: o Floor: Palatine process of the maxilla and horizontal plate of the palatine. o Roof: Nasal bone, frontal bone, ethmoid, sphenoid. o Conchae: Bony ridges in the nasal cavity that churn air for cleansing, humidification, and warming. Paranasal Sinuses: Hollow areas around nasal cavities, serving as resonating chambers and producing mucus: 1. Frontal Sinuses: Drains into the middle meatus of the nasal cavity. 2. Maxillary Sinuses: Drains into the middle meatus of the nasal cavity. 3. Ethmoid Sinuses: Drains into the superior and middle meatuses of the nasal cavity. 5. Sphenoid Sinuses: Drains into the sphenoethmoidal recess above the superior nasal concha. Pharynx: A passage for both respiratory and digestive systems, divided into three regions: 1. Nasopharynx: Superior to soft palate; contains pharyngeal tonsils. 2. Oropharynx: Extends from uvula to epiglottis; common pathway for air and food. 3. Laryngopharynx: Leads to the esophagus (digestive) and larynx (respiratory). Lower Respiratory Tract Larynx (Voice Box): Connects pharynx to trachea and contains vocal cords. o Thyroid Cartilage: Largest, known as Adam’s Apple. o Epiglottis: A flap of leaf-shaped cartilage that covers the windpipe during swallowing. Prevents food from entering the larynx during swallowing. o Cricoid Cartilage: Forms the base of the larynx and attaches to the trachea. ring Trachea (Windpipe): A tube of connective tissue and smooth muscle, reinforced with 16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings. o It divides into right and left primary bronchi at T5 vertebra. 3 Paired Cartilages 1. Cuneiform Cartilage o Rod/wedge-shaped cartilage o Located in the mucous membrane fold connecting the epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilage. 2. Corniculate Cartilage o Horn/cone-shaped cartilage. 3. Arytenoid Cartilage o Ladle-shaped cartilage  o Articulates with the cricoid cartilage inferiorly. o Attachment site for vocal folds; moves the vocal folds. 2 Pairs of Ligaments Superior Pair o Forms the vestibular folds (false vocal cords). Inferior Pair o Forms the vocal folds (true vocal cords). Vocal Folds Primary source of voice production. Air movement causes vibration, producing sound. Force of air controls loudness. Tension controls pitch. Laryngitis Inflammation of the mucous epithelium of the vocal folds, inhibiting voice production. Trachea (Windpipe) Membranous tube attached to the larynx. Consists of connective tissue and smooth muscle, reinforced with 16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings. About 1.4 - 1.6 cm in diameter and 10 - 11 cm long. Begins immediately inferior to the cricoid cartilage. Divides into right and left bronchi at the level of T5 vertebra. Bronchi Large airways leading from the trachea to the lungs. Primary Bronchi: Left main bronchus is more horizontal; right is wider and shorter. Secondary (Lobar) Bronchi: Branches off primary bronchi, corresponding to lung lobes. Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchi: Branches further into smaller bronchi and then into bronchioles. Lungs Paired, cone-shaped organs located in the pleural cavities. Pleural Membrane: Two layers of serous membrane. o Parietal Pleura: Outer layer, attaches to the thoracic cavity. o Visceral Pleura: Inner layer, covers the lungs. Pleural Cavity: Space between layers containing lubricating fluid.  Bronchopulmonary Segment: Supplied by each tertiary bronchus, divided into lobules. Lobules: Wrapped in elastic connective tissue, contain lymphatic vessels, arteriole, venule, and terminal bronchioles. Alveoli Cup-shaped or grape-like outpouchings lined with epithelium. Surround the alveolar ducts. Alveolar Sac: 2 or more alveoli sharing a common opening. Respiratory Membrane: Membrane through which gases move. Digestive System Overview Definition Digestion: The process primarily concerned with the intake, digestion, and absorption of nutrients. Alimentation: The conversion of food energy into high-energy adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that power cellular activities. Basic Activities of the Digestive System 1. Ingestion: Taking food into the body. 2. Peristalsis: Physical movement of food along the digestive tract. 3. Digestion: Breakdown of food through mechanical and chemical means. 4. Absorption: Passage of digested food into the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems. 5. Defecation: Elimination of indigestible substances from the body. Main Groups of Digestive Organs 1. Gastrointestinal Tract (Alimentary Tract): A continuous tube extending from the mouth to the anus, including: o Mouth (Oral Cavity) o Oropharynx o Esophagus o Stomach o Small Intestine o Large Intestine 2. Accessory Structures: Organs that assist in digestion, including: o Teeth o Tongue o Salivary Glands o Liver o Gallbladder o Pancreas Tunics of the Alimentary Canal 1. Tunica Mucosa: o Innermost lining consisting of mucous membrane attached to a layer of visceral muscle. o Contains three layers: § Epithelial Tissue Layer (Endothelium): For protection, secretion, and absorption. § Lamina Propria: Connective tissue that supports the epithelium. § Muscularis Mucosa: A layer of muscle that creates folds to increase surface area for digestion. 2. Tunica Submucosa: Connective tissue binding mucosa to the next layer. 3. Tunica Muscularis: o Composed of skeletal muscles in the mouth, pharynx, and upper esophagus for voluntary swallowing; smooth muscle in the rest of the tract for involuntary contractions aiding in digestion. 4. Tunica Serosa: o Outermost layer, a serous membrane covering organs and containing blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves. Parts of the Digestive System Mouth: Initiates digestion through mastication. Salivary Glands: o Parotid Gland o Submandibular (Submaxillary) Gland o Sublingual Gland Pharynx: Common passageway for air and food. Esophagus: Conducts food to the stomach. Stomach: Stores and mixes food. Small Intestine: Major site for digestion (includes Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum). Large Intestine: Absorbs nutrients (includes Colon: ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid). Liver: Produces bile. Gallbladder: Reservoir for bile. Pancreas: Secretes enzymes and hormones. Spleen: Reservoir for blood, destroys old red blood cells. Appendix: Functionless organ. Rectum: Connects the large intestine to the anus. Anal Canal: Exits waste materials. Oral Cavity (Mouth) Oral Vestibule: Slit-like space bounded by lips, cheeks, and gums. Mouth Cavity Proper: Bounded by the hard and soft palate, tongue, and teeth. Structure of the Mouth Lips: Surround the mouth opening, composed of muscular structure (Orbicularis Oris). Cheeks: Form lateral walls, containing Buccinator muscles. Palate: Comprises hard and soft sections. Tongue: Major sensory organ for taste, important for mastication, swallowing, and speech. Uvula: Prevents food from entering the nasal cavity during swallowing. Salivary Glands Produce saliva (99% water), containing: o Amylase: Initiates carbohydrate breakdown. o Mucin: Lubricates food. o Lysozyme: Destroys bacteria. Types of Salivary Glands 1. Parotid Gland: largest salivary glands 2. Submandibular (Submaxillary) Gland: walnut x 3. Sublingual Gland: smallest salivary glands Teeth Deciduous Teeth: 20 temporary teeth. Permanent Teeth: 32 adult teeth, including: o Incisors: 8 for cutting. o Canines: 4 for tearing. o Molars: Grinding teeth (8 premolars and 12 molars). Structure of Teeth Crown: Above the gum, covered with enamel. Cervix/Neck: Junction between crown and root. Root: Embedded in the socket, covered with cementum. Pharynx and Esophagus Pharynx: Connects the mouth with the esophagus, composed of nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. Esophagus: Muscular tube extending from pharynx to stomach, lined with stratified squamous epithelium. DEGLUTITION (Swallowing) Phases of Swallowing:  1. Voluntary Phase: o Formation of a bolus (mass of food) in the mouth. o The bolus is pushed against the hard palate by the tongue, moving it toward the pharynx. 2. Pharyngeal Phase: o A reflex initiated when the bolus stimulates receptors in the oropharynx. o Elevation of the soft palate closes the nasopharynx. o The pharynx elevates to receive the bolus from the mouth. 3. Esophageal Phase: o Moves food from the pharynx to the stomach through peristaltic waves. o Muscular contractions precede and follow the bolus, propelling it downward. G. STOMACH An enlarged segment of the digestive tract in the left upper abdomen. Anatomy: Gastroesophageal Opening: Connection from esophagus to stomach. Cardiac Region: Surrounds the gastroesophageal opening. Fundus: Superior part of the stomach. Body: Largest section with greater and lesser curvatures. Pyloric Opening: Leads to the small intestine, regulated by the pyloric sphincter. Muscular Layers: Composed of three layers facilitating churning: 1. Longitudinal (outer) 2. Circular (middle) 3. Oblique (inner) Features: Rugae: Folds that allow the stomach to stretch. Gastric Pits: Openings for gastric glands. Cell Types: Surface Mucous Cells: Produce mucus for protection. Mucous Neck Cells: Secrete mucus. Parietal Cells: Produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factors. Endocrine Cells: Produce regulatory chemicals. Chief Cells: Produce pepsinogen (precursor of pepsin). H. SMALL INTESTINE Major site for digestion and absorption, approximately 6 meters long. Parts: 1. Duodenum: About 25 cm, connects to pyloric sphincter. 2. Jejunum: Approximately 2.5 meters long. 3. Ileum: About 3.5 meters long; connects to the large intestine. Surface Modifications: Folds, Villi, Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption. Ileocecal Junction: Ileocecal Valve: Controls the passage from ileum to large intestine. Glands: 1. Crypts of Lieberkühn: Lined with columnar epithelium. 2. Brunner's Glands: Secrete alkaline mucus. 3. Solitary Glands: Scattered throughout the mucosa. 4. Peyer’s Patches: Lymphatic nodules primarily in the ileum. 5. Paneth Cells: Secrete antimicrobial substances. I. LIVER Largest organ of the digestive system, located in the right upper abdomen. Lobes: Right Lobe: Larger, more prominent. Left Lobe: Smaller and wedge-shaped. Caudate Lobe: Has a tail-like structure. Quadrate Lobe: Square-shaped area. Blood Supply: Hepatic Artery: Delivers oxygen-rich blood. Hepatic Portal Vein: Carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive tract. Hepatic Vein: Exits blood to the inferior vena cava. Functions: Produces bile, detoxifies substances, stores vitamins and minerals, regulates metabolism, and synthesizes plasma proteins. J. LARGE INTESTINE Extends from the ileum to the anus, approximately 1.5 meters long. Parts: 1. Cecum: Connects to the terminal ileum. 2. Ascending Colon: Moves upward to the hepatic flexure. 3. Transverse Colon: Crosses horizontally, curves at splenic flexure. 4. Descending Colon: Moves down the left abdominal cavity. 5. Sigmoid Colon: S-shaped curve leading to the rectum. Function: Absorbs remaining water and prepares waste for elimination. K. RECTUM & L. ANAL CANAL Rectum: Stores stool from the colon before elimination. Anal Canal: Transmits feces to the outside; the anus is the external opening of the gastrointestinal tract. ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Salivary Glands Parotid Gland: Largest; secretes serous saliva via Stenson's duct. Submandibular Gland: Irregularly shaped; secretes mixed saliva through Wharton's duct. Sublingual Gland: Smallest; secretes primarily mucous saliva via Bartholin and Ravine’s ducts. Pancreas Functions in enzyme production (exocrine) and hormone regulation (endocrine).  Secretes through the Sphincter of Oddi into the duodenum. Spleen Filters blood and recycles red blood cells; involved in immune response. GALLBLADDER Stores bile produced by the liver, aiding in fat digestion. DIGESTIVE PROCESS 1. Mouth: Initial processing; food is chewed and swallowed. 2. Stomach: Mechanical and enzymatic digestion occurs. 3. Small Intestine: Major enzymatic digestion and absorption. 4. Large Intestine: Absorbs water and compacts waste for elimination. Components of the Urinary System: 2 Kidneys: Filter blood and secrete urine. 2 Ureters: Transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Urinary Bladder: Collects and temporarily stores urine. Urethra: Discharges urine from the body. Functions of the Urinary System: 1. Kidneys excrete waste products. 2. Regulate blood volume and pressure by controlling urine output. 3. Regulate ion concentration in body fluids. 4. Maintain pH balance of extracellular fluids. 5. Regulate red blood cell production. 6. Aid in Vitamin D synthesis alongside skin and liver. Kidneys Shape/Location: Bean-shaped organs, about the size of a fist, located retroperitoneally (behind the peritoneum) on each side of the vertebral column. Renal Capsule: Connective tissue layer surrounding the kidneys. Adipose Tissue: Thick protective layer that cushions the kidneys from mechanical shocks.  Hilum: Medial entry/exit for renal artery, nerves, vein, ureter, and lymphatic vessels. Renal Sinus: Internal cavity housing blood vessels, adipose tissue, and parts of the urine- collecting system. Internal Structure of Kidneys: Cortex: Outer, light reddish-brown layer with a granular appearance due to the renal corpuscles. Medulla: Inner layer with a darker, striped appearance due to tubules. Renal Columns: Extensions of the cortex that divide the medulla into 6 to 10 Renal Pyramids. Renal Pyramids: Conical structures with broad bases toward the cortex and pointed ends called Renal Papillaefacing the sinus. Urine Collection: Minor Calyces: Funnel-shaped structures surrounding each renal papilla, collecting urine. Major Calyces: Formed by 2-3 minor calyces. Renal Pelvis: Larger funnel formed by all the calyces; leads to the ureter. Nephron – Functional Unit of the Kidney: Structure: o Renal Corpuscle: Includes Bowman's capsule and glomerulus. o Proximal Convoluted Tubule o Loop of Henle (Descending and Ascending limbs) o Distal Convoluted Tubule o Collecting Duct Types of Nephrons: o Cortical Nephron: Shorter, primarily in the cortex; produces standard urine. o Juxtamedullary Nephron: Longer loops of Henle that extend into the medulla, responsive to ADH, producing concentrated urine. Ureter: A narrow tube extending from the renal pelvis, leading to the urinary bladder. Functions via peristaltic contractions to move urine to the bladder.  Enters the bladder at an angle called the Trigone. Urinary Bladder: Muscular sac located on the pelvic cavity floor, posterior to the pubic symphysis. Layers: o Parietal Peritoneum on the superior surface. o Fibrous Adventitia covering the rest. Temporarily stores urine until it is excreted. Urethra: Male Urethra: Composed of three regions: 1. Prostatic Urethra: Through the prostate gland. 2. Membranous Urethra: Between the prostate and base of the penis. 3. Penile/Spongy Urethra: Runs through the penis to the external orifice. Female Urethra: Shorter, with an external orifice near the vaginal opening. Urinary System Conditions: Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones): Occurs when urine becomes concentrated and forms crystals (stones). Symptoms include intense pain as stones move through the ureter.