Midterm Celtic Studies PDF

Topic 1: Celtic Languages Two methods for separating Celtic languages: P and Q method - an outdated method because it is entirely coincidental and it doesn’t make sense to group them together as the cultures attached to the languages actually didn’t have much in common. Q languages included Goidelic...

Topic 1: Celtic Languages Two methods for separating Celtic languages: P and Q method - an outdated method because it is entirely coincidental and it doesn’t make sense to group them together as the cultures attached to the languages actually didn’t have much in common. Q languages included Goidelic and Celtiberian, P languages included Lepontic, Brythonic, Gaulish, and Galatian. Irrespectively, all Celtic languages lose the P at the beginning of the word. North and South Celtic is the better split of languages. South Celtic languages include Celtiberian (found in Iberia) and Leponic (found in a small region in the North of Italy), and Northern Celtic languages include Brythonic, Gaulish, Galatian, and Goidelic. Gaulish was spoken over a vast area of Europe. Various Eastern Celtic ‘languages’ appear to have been either dialects of Gaulish, or very closely related to it. Noric - the language of Noricum (modern-day Austria) ‘Eastern Celtic” - spread south and east along the Danube Galatian - the language of Galatia (central Anatolia) Coligny Calendar: Latin script, 2nd century AD Bronze plaque containing a Gaulish lunasolar calendar Spindle Whorls Tool for spinning wool Capstones often bear inscriptions in Gaulish with possible signs of female ownership Gundestrup Cauldron: This cauldron was not found in the Celtic empire but depicts several Celtic symbols, it was likely stolen There are no known inscriptions in Galatian (300 BC - 300 AD), only known via Greek and Roman sources (mainly personal and place names) Tauk: Neck ring made of gold typically worn by aristocrats as a sign of wealth, jewellery for male warriors Gundestrup Cauldron: This cauldron was not found in the Celtic empire but depicts several Celtic symbols, it was likely stolen Topic 2: Hallstatt and La Téne Bronze Age (2500-800 BC) During the Stone Age, gold and copper were used for ornaments. These metals were too soft for making tools Bronze, a compound of copper and tin, is much sturdier and bronze tools replaced stone, beginning the Bronze Age (2300-1800 BC) Copper and especially tin are relatively rare metals, giving rise to long-distance trading networks Urnfield cultures (1300-800 BC) Control over trade and resources led to the rise of elites and Bronze Age societies became increasingly hierarchical as evidenced by the emergence of hillforts and increasing amounts of luxury metalwork and grave goods. The rise in long-distance trade allowed for the fluid transmission of ideas and (burial) practices. By the Late Bronze Age (1100 BC), Urnfield cultures had spread over much of Continental Europe. Hallstatt Culture (1200-450 BC) Hallstatt A-B (1200-800 BC) Arises as a regional subculture of the larger Urnfield culture in Central Europe. Early Hallstatt culture was similar to that of the rest of late Bronze Age Europe in that it was a society of small chiefdoms in a landscape dominated by isolated farms, villages, and small forts. Across 1000 different graves were found more than 3000 pieces of jewellery, and over the next century it was discovered there were about 4800 different graves in Hallstatt Hallstatt C (800-600 BC) The introduction of ironworking to the Hallstatt area sparked major changes in the Hallstatt society: Hillforts became common and around them, the earlier urnfield burials were replaced by a new type of elite barrow burial. Society became more hierarchical and centralised perhaps coinciding with an increase in population and wealth. Hallstatt D (600-459 BC) During the later Hallstatt period (D), the Hallstatt culture shifted westward to the upper Danube, upper Rhine, and eastern France Small hillforts were abandoned and a relatively small number of large hillforts emerged as main centres. Mediterranean imports are found almost exclusively within the boundaries of these hillforts (and in elite burials) stressing both the elite nature of these goods and the elite control over access to what were clearly high-status objects. Hallstatt/ La Tène Iron Age (800-50 BC) La Tène Culture (450-50 BC) By the mid-fifth century BC, the La Tène culture arose in the areas between the rivers Marne and Mosel and the Rhineland, A separate centre arose in Bohemia. Like its Hallstatt predecessor, La Tène society remained strictly hierarchical and aristocratic but became increasingly militarised. Elite burials, which had rarely included war gear in Hallstatt times, now included weapons and chariots - the latter being a recent innovation in Celtic warfare The rise of the La Tène centres was accompanied by a decline of the main Hallstatt centres to the south. (Because the La Tène with their warlike tendencies tried their very best to burn and destroy any and every Hallstaat settlement) By ca. 300 BC La Tène had supplanted the earlier Hallstatt culture across much of Continental Europe, except Celtiberia, eventually crossing over into the British Isles in the 1st century. BC. These are the societies the Romans and Greeks interacted with, so when reading about Celtic society in ancient literature, it is most likely referencing La Tène Celtics The development of militarisation in Celtic societies develop independently of other societies (Greeks and Romans) Farms and Villages While parts of the elite lived in hillforts and the later Celtic period saw the growth of nascent cities, the majority of the population lived in isolated farmsteads and small villages Most houses were made of timber-framed construction with wattle-and-daub walls and had thatched roofs. Houses usually consisted of a single room and, being windowless, were dark On the Continent, houses were usually rectangular, while circular houses were used in the British Isles and in parts of Celtibera. Hillforts Hillforts first emerged during the Bronze Age (2000-750 BC), and became common during the Hallstatt C period (800-600 BC) During the Hallstatt D period (600-450 BC), many smaller hillforts were abandoned and a relatively small number of larger hillforts emerged as regional centres The process continued into the La Tène period (450-50 BC) Hillforts served both as places of elite habitation, as well as sites of feasting and religious activities While some hillforts were never permanently inhabited, they were well-fortified and the work of building and maintaining these structures required the work of many over long periods of time Over time, simpler earthworks (ditch and rampart structures) and wooden palisades were replaced by various types of timber-laced stone walls and vast wooden gateways. Heuneburg (one of the largest Hallstatt hillforts) Located in Baden-Württemberg, Germany Major Hallstatt hillfort, occupied from ca. 700 BC up to, and possibly into, the La Tène period Fortified originally with a murus gallicus, which was replaced by Greek style mud-brick walls and bastion towers in ca. 600 BC Oppida By the 1st century BC, hillforts throughout Gaul, Central Europe, and South-East Britain were being replaced with larger and more complex settlements called oppida, which were essentially the first sustained, native form of Celtic cities While heavily fortified, oppida also served as centres of trade, manufacturing and administration. In light of this, oppida were usually located at more easily accessible locations (lower elevations, closer to rivers) than hillforts. Urbanisation and state formation The last two centuries BC saw a general increase in the population of Gaul, esp. south of the Loire. Coinciding with the rise of oppida as tribal centres, Celtic society became increasingly complex Larger tribes exert dominance over their smaller neighbours building confederations by means of both persuasion and force, and giving rise to the first, nascent states of Celtic Europe Along with regional dominance, these tribes developed refined political institutions, which were able to collect tribute and raise taxes, as well as issue coins and manage collective food stores Topic 3: The Celtic Migrations Migration The early spread of the Hallstatt and La Tène material cultures into France and Britain appears to have involved the migration of only limited groups of people, for these left no clear DNA traces Trade, cultural exchanges and assimilation between a prestigious core/ elite culture and local (presumably already Celtic-speaking) populations must have played an important part in the initial spread of the ancient Celtic material cultures. Migration played a larger part in the later spread of La Tène culture south and east. Some migrations were reported by the ancient Greeks and Romans (e.g. the invasion of Greece and the establishment of Galatia). Others are suggested by the existence of multiple tribes bearing remarkably similar names in different parts of Europe, perhaps reflecting the migration of parts of the tribes over time (e.g. the Boii of Bohemia and Northern Italy). Into Iberia (600 BC) Celtic must have spread into Celtiberia relatively early on, presumably during the seventh and sixth century BC. Herodotus mentions the presence of Celts West of the Straits of Gibraltar by the mid-5th century BC. Linguistically, Celtiberian contains many archaic features and does not share in the innovations found in Gaulish While Hallstatt-style hillforts and items are frequent (especially early on), La Tène's influence on Celtiberian material culture is limited. As such, contacts between the Iberian Celts and the Gaul's appears to have been limited during the later first millennium BC. Evidence of Celtic presence: Tribal names: Celtici, Celtiberi, Gallaeci, Galli Place names: Segobriga, Nertobriga, Nemetobriga Personal names: Celtius Iberian Influences The blending of La Tène and Iberian material culture. Cremation burials (as opposed to Hallstatt and, especially, La Tène inhumation burials) Celtiberia Timeline: 600 BC - Celtic spread into Iberia 237-218 BC - Carthaginian expansion in Iberia 219-201 BC - Second Punic War 133 BC - Roman conquest of Numantia 19 BC - Roman conquest of the final independent Celtiberians Gaulish expansion 400 BC. Gaul's crossed the Alps, expanding primarily into areas previously held by the Etruscans 300 BC. Gaul’s expand into Northern Italy 360-347 BC. Pseudo-Scylax mentions Celts living along the Adriatic, next to the Etruscans, and Celtic mercenaries are known to have served Dionysius of Syracuse (405-367 BC) in Sicily Etruscan Influences Northern tribes, like the Cenomani, maintained an essentially La Tène material culture. Southern tribes, such as the Boii and the Senones were influenced by the Etruscan societies they had replaced Conflicts with Rome Early 4th century. Gaulish tribes crossed the Apennines and struck deeply into Etruscan territory. 390 BC. The Gaulish Senones attacked the Etruscan city of Clusium and the minor city-state of Rome sent our ambassadors to mediate in the conflict. The ambassadors ended up fighting alongside the Etruscans. In revenge, the Celts successfully sacked Rome, demanding a huge ransom before withdrawing from the city 283 BC. The Senones were conquered and their territory was turned into the Ager Gallicus, which was rapidly colonised 225 BC. The Romans defeated a collation of Gaulish tribes in the Battle of Telamon, seizing further lands During the Second Punic War, many Italian Celts supported Hannibal in Carthage’s war with Rome. 191 BC. Celtic resistance was broken - Northern Italy was turned into the Roman province of Gallia Cisalpina ‘Gaul on this side of the Alps’, Romanised and granted Roman citizenship by 49 BC Northern Italy: Timeline 1000 BC: Golasecca culture develops out of Urnfield culture 6th century BC: first Lepontic inscriptions 400 BC: Gaulish tribes migrate into the Po Valley 390 BC: Gaulish tribes sack Rome 283 BC: Rome conquers the Senones, colonising their territory 225 BC: Rome beats several Gaulish tribes at TElamon and expands its influence in Northern Italy 218-201 BC: Italian Celts aid Hannibal in the Second Punic War 191 BC: Celtic resistance in Northern Italy is broken and Northern Italy becomes a Roman province (Gallia Cisalpina) Celtics in Ukraine In the 4th century BC, several Celtic tribes appear to have moved far to the east, settling along the Dnepr by ca. 300 BC. A coin by Leucon II of the Crimean Bosporan kingdom, as well as a single inscription, refers to a Celtic attack on the kingdom. A smattering of La Tène objects hint at a Celtic presence on the banks of the Don by ca. 200 BC. Along the Danube During the 4th century BC, Celtic tribes also moved south and east along the Danube, settling in modern-day Serbia western Romania and northern Bulgaria by 300 BC. Celtic embassies from these eastern tribes met with Alexander the Great both before and after his conquest of Persia. Greek Adventures By 298 BC, Celts began raiding Thrace and Macedonia. In 279 BC, a vast army of Celts invaded Macedonia, beating (and killing) King Ptolemy Ceraunus, and advancing into Greece and reaching Delphi, before being forced back. The Kingdom of Tylis At the same time (ca. 279-277), another adventurous group of Celts moved east to Thrace and founded the kingdom of Tylis on the Black Sea. The ‘robber kingdom’ of Tylis would raid its neighbours for decades until it was conquered by the Thracians Galatia In the aftermath of the invasion of Greece in 279 BC, Nicomedes I of Bithynia invited three Celtic tribes across the Bosporus and into Anatolia to help in his war against the Seleucid king Antiochus I 275 BC. The Celts were briefly defeated but then allied with Mithridates I of Pontus, who helped settle them in Phrygia, a territory within Antiochus' realm. Afterwards, the region was known as Galatia, and the Galatians would raid much of western Anatolia in the following decades. 240 BC. Attalus I of Pergamon defeated the Galatians at the battle of Caicus River and raiding activities lessened. 189 BC. The Galatians suffered another defeat, at the hands of the Romans and turned their attention eastward, to the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia. Client Kingdom and Roman Province 88 BC. Galatia was ruled as a tribal confederation until the aristocracy was massacred by Mithridates VI of Pontus, and Galatia became a kingdom 64 BC. Galatia became a client kingdom of Rome 25 BC. Galatia was peacefully annexed into the Roman Empire The Galatians settled into populated lands, isolated from the wider Celtic world, and appear to have been quickly Hellenised. Many Galatians, especially those recorded as mercenaries in the Hellenic kingdoms, appear to have borne Greek person names, as soon as the later 3rd century BC. By the 1st century BC, Greek sources sometimes refer to the Galatians as ‘Hellenogalatians’ and the Romans called the ‘Gallograeci’ Celtic Legacy Nevertheless, the Galatian aristocracy appears to have maintained at least some of its Celtic heritage, including its tribal division and style of government. Moreover, the penultimate king of Galatia bore a Celtic name: Deiotarus Oppidum - Small cities that appeared during the Iron Age (the Roman word for them) While parts of the elite lived in Hillforts and the later Celtic period saw the growth of nascent cities, the majority of the population lived in isolated farmsteads and small villages Most houses were made of a timber-framed construction with wattle-and-daub walls and had thatched roofs. Houses usually consisted of a single room and, being windowless, were dark On the continent, houses were usually rectangular, while circular houses were used in the British Isles and in parts of Celtiberia Land - especially in Gaul - was just as deforested then as it is today, the land needed to be cleared for farming, and population density isn't much bigger now days either Hillforts first emerged during the Bronze Age and became common during the Hallstatt C period During the Hallstatt D period, many smaller hillforts were abandoned and a relatively small number of larger hillforts emerged as regional centres - this process continued into the La Tène period Hillforts served both as places of refuge and as places of elite habitation, as well as sites of feasting and religious activities. While some hill forts were never permanently inhabited, they were well-fortified and the work of building and maintaining these structures required the work of many over long periods of time Over time, simpler earthworks (ditch and rampart structure) and wooden palisades were replaced by various types of timber-laced stone walls and vast wooden gateways Galatia and the Balkans: timeline 400-300 BC: Gaulish tribes settle along the Danube 298 BC: Gaulish tribes start raiding Macedonia and Thrace 279 BC: Gaulish invasion of Greece 279-277 BC: Kingdom of Tylis is founded 278-275 BC: Three Gaulish tribes settle in Galatia 240 BC: Attalus of Pergamon defeats the Galatians in battle 213-212 BC: Thracians conquer the kingdom of Tylis 189 BC: The Galatians suffer a defeat at the hands of the Romans 88 BC: Galatians aristocracy is murdered; Galatia becomes a kingdom 64 BC: Galatia becomes a client state of Rome 25 BC: Galatia annexed peacefully by Rome Topic 4: The Classical Sources Topic 5: Late Iron Age and Roman Period Gallia Transalpina Following on the defeat of Carthage in the 2nd Punic war (218 - 201 BC) Rome took hold of the Carthage's former holdings in Iberia Romena influence along the southern coast of Gaul expanded as Rome signed treaties of alliance with cities such as Massalia (Lat. Massilia, now Marseille) and Agathe (Agde) First Transalpine War 124 BC. Marralia called upon her Roman allies for protection against Gaulish raids 124-121 BC. Rome fought the First Transalpine War, defeating the Saluvii, Allobroges and the Arverni Afterwards, Rome established the province of Gallia Transalpina ('Gaul across the Alps', also known as the Provincia Romana) and built a road across southern France, linking Italy to Iberia The Gallic Wars (58-50 BC) Largely known to us via Caesar's first-hand Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War) 58 BC. The Gallic Wars began when the Helvetii attempted to cross Gallia Transalpina in order to migrate westward into Gaul. After being blocked by Caesar, the Helvetii made a second attempt, this time seeking to cross the territory of the Aedui Caesar marched his legions north, out of his province, and defeated the Helvetii in battle. Timeline: 58 BC - Migration of the Helvetii War against the Suebi ("Germanic" tribe) 57 BC - Belgic campaign 56 BC - Armorican and Aquitanian campaigns 55 BC - Crossing the Rhine and the Channel 54 BC - Second British campaign 53 BC - Second Belgic campaign Vercingetorix invades Gallia Transalpina 52 BC - General 'uprising' and the siege of Alesia 51-50 BC - Pacification of Gaul Roman Gaul (50 BC - 486 AD) Over the course of the Roman period, Gaul (as well as the British Lowland Zone, i.e. South-Eastern England) was increasingly Romanised By the end of the Roman period, even the rural population must have been Latin-speaking, albeit with a Gaulish accent. Eventually, this would've developed into French However, throughout Roman times, there are signs that there was still some sense of a Gallic identity. 27 BC. newly conquered Gaul was divided into three provinces, known collectively as Tres Galliae (The Three Gauls): Gallia Aquitania Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Belgica Roman administration was introduced and the provinces were divided into civitates (states) with elected magistrates and capitals While superficially Roman, these divisions patterned closely on existing Gaulish structures: civitas capitals wee usually former tribal oppida and the boundaries of the civitates themselves were generally based on former tribal territories - the populations was also primarily made up of Gaul's except for the odd soldier The defeated Gaulish aristocracy soon adopted Roman customs and Latin speech and were soon granted Roman citizenship for serving as magistrates. Within a few generations, the Gaulish elite had become thoroughly Romanised Under Clausius (41-54 AD), Gaulish aristocrats became eligible to serve as senators in Rome Gaul prospered under Roman rule, becoming a wealthy, agricultural heartland of the empire In the material sense - Gaul rapidly became both Roman and urban, continuing developments started in the pre-Roman period While druidry was banned under Claudius, Gaulish religion continued, albeit under a Roman guise (interpretation Romana) Central Europe As in Gaul, the Central European Celts were advancing rapidly towards statehood: developing oppida, coinage and increasingly complex regional confederations and kingdoms By the early 2nd century BC, the Nori were able to develop a distinct kingdom (Noricum) out of a coalition of tribes, centred around the royal oppidum of Virunum (Zollfeld, Austria) In 186 BC, Noricum became and ally of Rome and became steadily Romanised through an increase in trade Dacians and Germans During the 2nd century BC, the Eastern Celts came under pressure from expansionist neighbours: The Dacians advanced across the Carpathians and along the Danube from the 170s BC onwards, conquering much of the region around 60 BC, and putting the Bohemian Boii to fight The Boii eventually fled to the territory of the Helvetii, joining them in their attempted migration across Southern Gaul Germans and Romans Germanic tribes expanded from the north from ca. 100 BC onwards, reaching the Danube by 16-8 BC Under Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), Rome moved in, establishing the Danube as the northern edge of the Roman empire The Gallic Empire (260-274 AD) During the third century, the Roman empire became increasingly unstable, with frequent civil wars and foreign raids In 260 AD, Postumus, a Roman general, established himself as emperor over the Gaul's and Germanies. In the following years, he expanded his rule, making Gaul the centre of an independent "Gallic Empire" Following this defeat of his successor Tetricus in 274 AD, Gaul was reunited with the Roman empire. Trier as an imperial capital (293-201 AD) Starting with the Tetrarchy at the turn of the fourth century, the Gaulish city of Trier (Augusta Treverorum) became one of the capitals of the Roman empire The fall of Rome in the West During the fourth and fifth centuries, the Western Roman empire again became increasingly unstable Britain was abandoned in 410 AD and various Germanic peoples were able to establish themselves permanently within the empire, including in much of northern Gaul (Franks) and southern Gaul (Burgundians and Visigoths) In 476 AD, the last Western Roman emperor was deposed, and Gaul was entirely occupied by Germanic kingdoms. The kingdom of Soissons (457-486 AD) One small rump state of Gallo-Romans survived the falls of the Western Roman empire by a decade The kingdom of Soissons maintained a semblance of Roman control under the rule of the magister militum per Gallias ('master of the soldiers over the Gaul's'), despite being increasingly isolated from 461 AD onwards. The end of Celtic Europe With the advent of Christianity, what was left of Celtic religious practices died out, alongside the Roman religious practices with which they had become assimilated By the first centuries AD, the Celtic elites had long become thoroughly Romanised and Celtic inscriptions became increasingly rare, reflecting the retreat of the language When Germanic--speaking Frankish invaders took control of Gaul, they soon adopted the Latin language of their new subjects. Gallia continue to be used to describe modern-day France during the early mediaeval period, before being replaced by Francia, after its new rulers, but any sense of a separate Gaulish identity did not survive the fall of the empire And while Breton would see a Celtic language survive on the Continent, the Bretons regarded themselves as primarily British, rather than sharing a culture with their Gallo-roman cousins Miscellaneous things to know: Tribes: Arveri - have kings Aedui - hold elections Tectosages - one of the three tribes to found whatever it is in Turkey Helvetii Boii Leontii Senones Tectosages Tolistobogii Trocmi Foreign words: Civitas Murus gallicus Oppidum Places: Hallstatt Celtiberia Gallia Cisalpina the Rhone