midterm 2 summaries.pdf

192 PART. 1 STUDENTS SUMMARY THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE (PP. 161168) their two adult How are humans do culture that they on other process, guide the helping to them. pattern biases learn Children for correct trying and may limit and language the bicultural as between two while still Proficiency up rules. play but the as make search correction use, con-cepts to making and separate are are very have the three thought terms of of almost all vocabulary, 6, children words. we language? the By sounds age of their understand understand more too the active 5, most native words children a sense language a second in pragmatics knowledge about whom own to use What language. than In we (2) use. or L2 stories and develop. for example. skills have words such as early help literacy of your from that are in them, a done a What is involved limiting and vocabu-lary, and and questions. 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The person reading because in vocabulary, watching rule-governed. should this it important even some one dialect, standard form pronunciation, to dialect collective at least about spoken groups absolute rules is of the speaks one 175177) of a language part text no Each are called is is errors. (PP. any variety their but not There talk, is dialect there differ are THE CLASSROOM A dialect group. 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Distinguish between STUDENTS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE 177180) signed the terms immigrant, refugee, and new-comer. bilingual. to be truly exclusively or bilinguals, more rigorous 10 years schools. differences accurate as a child many People to developing English about Immigrants What to uses exercises with social of instruction. everything. DIALECT can learn heritage to learn clear, be languages. Children as an adult. language. both retain people seem goal job their different their retelling opportunities to learning a language language and are to best time that the in adequate bilingualism heritage fluent but overheard to learn another, languages? advantages The childhood, of two valuable another. Having advantages two (PP. 168175) have are cognitive five affect believes and reluctant explain teachers children, time DEVELOPMENT at once if they There language. about academic are language Parents with about with For poor why How even take and grammar struggle because themselves asso-ciated What is are understand take often interfere that be sensitive one language, doing differences culture previous codes sounds; receptive reading and of receptive to outcomes. by up and ability that and sounds made growth reading LANGUAGE cultural might women languages. that develop, biculturalism. inappropriate think age emerge? skills that also to experiences and around sounds names, the literacy about that categories expressive and students, talking how, about begins understanding that emerging languages to and understanding. under-standing Pragmatics knowledge do has after where, English) differences and television. two skills) program reading students content may apply develops works, broad (1) syntax, predicts DIVERSITY IN Sanjatosi/Shutterstoc commu-nication language as as alearning letters skills, bilingual and has two face-to-face a good relating life. and of support of identity. 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Research that later saying passive of language 5 or 6 and and languages in such Bilingual voice. are to 000 an understanding widely, Understanding 20 words comes develop new rules What of situations As children is up to Understanding hypothetical two maintaining years How age and important. elements mastered their being back cultures as academic What in includes wellmoving aspects: language processes which (contextualized a role in childs effectively life, roles the language actively rules Reward What words for develop by patterns, and recognition. children language? create abilities hear, looking built-in develop Cultures cognitive of what they In this to play? are important build sense predisposed and learning languages daily and bilingual? on speak define Some definitions a language-based two languages. bilinguals of meaning: Other as adults defini-tions who use become permanent who are compelled Newcomer and other are is a individuals people residents to leave collective in their term who who voluntarily have a new home that lived place. country refers in to Canada leave their Refugees because immigrants, less than country are to people it is not safe. refugees, five years. CHAPTER What are four Balanced general bilinguals language and in in their native 5 profiles speak, read, English. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT, of English and write language well Monolingual/literate language (at or above level is learners? both in their students grade LANGUAGE working native language), but speak limited English. students are not literate. They not forced will master students the native language, or they may have bilingual but some is sheltered students reason can they may not read very limited converse have well in trouble or write in literacy skills. has may be both learning words underlying challenges such the is as learning in 1.5? Canada (typically even if their to to but The but they and interacting their is who families country terms you will learners national related in they associated their homes models They may They is English, not proficiency in job poorer bilingualism and English are as students often leads English They way to is several aca-demic ELLs by context to include attention to students is and there is an including sim-plifying the rele-vant crack severe one real-life emphasis doing the for belong, them. Building way to talk talking. English challenges do not supports on student all the considerations ignoring language and stress that others on students are learn-ers. in are school. making fun funds make classrooms and There of cul-tural more supportive more effective. LANGUAGE AND SPECIAL to refer is to LEARNERS WITH GIFTS (PP. 190191) you to best to teach help ELLs there master these first studies show who have drop of school. teachers students it and seems observation make language special are who usual, No matter are needed. much more likely can to identify have lan-guage than differences efforts learners and English teaching language step sheltered or testing. with English because lan-guage whether the first much slower and appropriate difficulties And Of course, matter learning for English will be incorporating subject should English for testing. progress student of gifts to mask bilingual and talents. do? Clash responded page both attention Students giftedness, debate the needs decisions approaches, But if diagnosis, special one of your teaching develop might refer out the ELL student best to what the much Cultures teachers on the is English, a struggling development. achievement with As a teacher, use the instruction related deal learners? of this to the in the teaching Classroom Are the chapter. in students capable of expressing their ideas and feelings English? Do their cultural backgrounds and past experiences make it SHAW stressful Fraser Secondary problem increase their Mississauga, teachers emotional language The teacher teacher insecure? teachers need to learners ON and Do they students intelligence with (EQ), an opportunity cross-cultural to the speak under-standing, these students In a really issues multilingual develop to first about the engage for hearing communicate in teacher, environment, tolerance will need should talking early stages oflanguage it less as they the problem. language they students during self-reflection:Addressing or is the students foreign in their often reach acquisition the themselves, and not mistakes can succeed ever group in in front of their peers? our educational been taught explicitly system? the behaviours work? English. problem(s): first language and conversational Use the following problem(s): the The teacher, students and they Use the following are may feel strategies to likely talking about uncomfortable break down speak-ing barriers. languages. Ask students questions to write individually this can happen about a time when they felt in their out. be encour-aged compe-tence. Discuss to diag-nose Explain work how students former the believe expected Ask Diagnosing make Have these left during to skills. addressing Are the Language School, provides and (L1) to into Strategies Englishhelping teacher ENGLISH Limited academic Although expert described MAUREEN to one and content content giving gestures, they do teachers that language issue how CASEBOOK: how situation or just DISABILITIES heritage English. what would they TEACHERS This of and of the that CHALLENGES: language or a second learn to lower education? best. John forms may experience and teaching Canada terms primary so an important development bilingual the is the understandable. addition, knowledge may them. between Two whose English these prospects in language is Here teaches of language, emotional may feel of them, students. about is English by listening around learners? students where and In and They of English, language as divided English with describing classrooms, What and instead affective were most developed. mastered identify to (ELLs), diversity instruction teaching of birth. are see language (ESL) more visuals examples. How What instruction concepts controlling using and were received conversational not as well have who when have fluent with the language their students spoken speak English are and language learners may perceive with often academic be ear and their came 1.5 adolescence) here. be English, tend Generation before schooling not in disabilities 1.5: STUDENTS IN TWO WORLDS (PP. 180190) Generation born their successful and content discussion not they problems. GENERATION young The the faster languages, code, What language. academically. grammar or emotional first Sheltered proved Sheltered the and There their first language, instruction? that make for abandon are in their Monolingual/ putting Limited to 193 EDUCATION second. content. their IMMIGRANT in approach preliterate are best if they What their AND more proficient first are literate when DIVERSITY, whether they during group participated in work. group work countries. what teachers want students to accomplish in group 194 PART Describe the with STUDENTS benefits to students to set of 1 to language 10 how to challenges diagram that shows much they results groups, outside For example, use English mixed-language people goals. skills. If the make a promise Create with work and the associ-ated Know You sheet, backgrounds. on a scale English of group it. Encourage rate 1 your the beliefs want to improve are high, in every in group. ask students Know and them to experiences create they sheets a Venn Ask each group to list suitable and unsuitable occasions for L1 and their interests, cultures, from throughout experiences the that are classroom a welcoming model to and these course Get to authentic, to provide relevant, teacher. and to I behaviour, respect My students that refer and supportive respectful demonstrate behaviours, When Keep in mind that in multilingual schools, these issues affect actively themselves, their and I co-construct post throughout for learning and in a the prominent a list place semester if of in students the need levels. If these issues arent addressed, students place succeeding in almost all their classes. Group students work is to change the encourage just those JORDAN On the first with speaking Secondary day of school, my students and School, their to teacher. Brampton, ON I organize a series encourage them I also ask them other of ice-breaker to get to to fill out activi-ties know a members the in Get their to in their native to in develop with their who environment students participate them students students welcoming ALLISON mixed activities, ability I and make a conscious mixed-language effort groups; the groups for each new of their activity. I I want a com-mon requirement. Castlebrooke classroom into will have then difficulty planning all to classmates their information reminding. conversation. grade about the classroom students respectful common. learn lessons I always encourage peers, have in into make the environment, talk can with learning To Dont I meaningful. class. Ask students You students their encourage which the rule is: and to so I incorporate peers feel role-play positive to work with all speak their first language. in classroom, the language excluded exercises social upset. throughout interactions To I explain during and classmatesnot to group I also encourage students work have the can the cause students course while speaking a how to in help English CHAPTER 6 CULTURE AND 229 DIVERSITY GUIDELINES Culturally Relevant Experiment with encourage social Teaching different grouping harmony and arrangements 2. to and community discover meaning Try study 2. Organize 3. Establish buddies and pairing heterogeneous larger students groups teams for of four older Provide a range students of Emphasize or five. cultural material and learning to accommodate 2. Try Offer verbal preferences. visual 3. Provide 4. Set materials at materialscharts, tapes different reading diagrams, for listening and activities and teachers or other you. in teaching. students storytelling and Use examples understand other that experiences; levels. modes models. relate what they that abstract for instance, overdrawn do not read. require written in your concepts relate negative to everyday numbers to being chequebook. viewing. Get to up to other materials. 3. students meaning Make sure that 2. Examples Give are unfamiliar and gestures, Examples students. ways to learn that members of expressions, together. 1. 1. the responses Examples 1. Talk to family cooperation. know the customs, traditions, and values of your projects. students. Examples Teach classroom things that procedures you think directly, everyone even already ways of doing 1. Use holidays as a chance to discuss the origins and meaning knows. of traditions. Examples 1. Tell students 2. Explain need how to when and get the how to teachers interrupt 2. Analyze different 3. Attend community fairs and festivals. for common detect racist and sexist themes. the teacher if students help. Help 3. traditions attention. Show which materials students can take and which students messages. require Examples permission. 4. Demonstrate another acceptable ways to disagree with or challenge student. 1. Analyze 2. Make students the Learn the meaning of different behaviour for your 3. students. Discuss this students What. how gives them they this feel when you correct or praise biases. reporting comments from ways in about which each students other and communicate what should biased be done when happens. them. 4. message? Discuss DIVERSE CLASSROOMS (PP. 196201) The expressions differences may be very What is culture, and and teaching? how There does are cultural many diversity affect conceptions of learn-ing culture, of prejudice such as anti-Semitism. most characteristics, include the values that knowledge, Culture is guide skills, a behaviour rules, program for in a traditions, living. particular is a of peo-ple: many cultural Membership values, groups, ethnicity, in but defined race, a particular makes in terms gender, group does values and certain of social member not kinds geographic class, and determine of subtle Wide variations individuals, diversity. Ternice, exist Benjamin, within Davy, each and group. Jessie, be very region, religion. behaviour behaviour You who cultural differences and meet, conflicts are Aquaswim/123R of These when the the is conflicts values dominant, considered and can happen competencies mainstream normal of culture are or appropriate used to behaviour determine in what schools. more these likely. may differences. misunderstandings common. nationality, or they iceberg beliefs, group Everyone cultures tip-of-the below-the-surface When and between obvious, but subtle, that for detectives, SUMMARY TODAYS or the messages Ask materials bias media. Examples 1. curriculum met four embody cases, culture the rules, children who may be perceived or being rude have as acting and been socialized inappropriately, disrespectful. in a different not following In to 230 PART ECONOMIC What is class SES, SOCIAL and does groups aware of the in status is an that is is they determined overpowers effective other with the is the relationship between Socioeconomic moderately show higher stay in is in a levels longer poverty, the and than of of all achievement on students. the impact between SES is and achieve-ment? achievement students low-SES stronger correlation academic High-SES average school there status correlated. school test and the child students may suffer expectations participation is school over to that cultures, and low-SES the health self-esteem, environments, finding outside low summer, care, or while helpless-ness, and individual or feminine LEARNING (PP. DIFFERENCES This last academic higher-SES IN children TEACHING and are gender males (especially the characters con-tinue boy Ethnicity transmitted behaviour) traits) describe are themselves or and socially and historically race (biologically significant others. unempowered) people groups are over develop? himself part as does of the Gender or herself differential behav-iour male and female peers, begin knowledge to as of self-concept. children. teachers, form and the gender about what In childrens schemas, it means to be the communicated? titles boys) the continue to cross gender sometimes seldom show more some for with and and behave in roles books, there boys be both on the but traits. and that value Girl active, Some commercials, too. negative schools classrooms The research ways. positive claimed same-sex characters more expressive in have the stereotypic to exists in television educators boys, illustrations, feminine of gender interact Lately and have are been of these not sug-gested classrooms mixed. transmitted categories Minority that change (cultur-ally is physical of discomfort can they of toward children biases in characters ways. AND race. do with family, general, networks supportive ethnicity to develop-ment female. more ground 206214) between learn contend and has a role, interactions in how teachers as an answer. Distinguish a pattern characteristicsa plays and their Teachers RACE in (hormones) parents overrepresentation AND they researchers permanent roles or How advance. ETHNICITY always each organized under-stimulating are setbacks. lose not as of identity teachers tracking, summer children Some 214220) Low-SES learned school can follow is environment Why is achievement? inadequate in resistance home striking from of them, students acceptance. gender Through male lowered Stages image of scores on achievement. school experience the Biology groups The longer youth orientation? are is masculine are ethnic to (PP. years. What and LGBTQ+ LGBTQ+ identity LEARNING No SES. SES AND sexual confusion role What do their pres-tige. sexual factorsnot TEACHING stages for to differences. IN identify similar and several cultural of Most by sociologists resources, by measure share What Social a society. used over GENDER class? in a term control 201206) social power class (SES) (PP. from and power, often variable differ social wealth, just incomeand single it status Socioeconomic DIFFERENCES prestige Socioeconomic variations CLASS how a are peers. STUDENTS AND reflects people for 1 use to (either rapidly MULTICULTURAL numer-ically increasing in EDUCATION: COMPATIBLE CREATING CLASSROOMS (PP. CULTURALLY 220229) population. What How can affect differences school between and and expectations. differences, misunderstandings of Conflicts students in Cultural conflicts because when behaviours expectations. among prejudice Distinguish among and and are usually in more below-the-surface differences some ethnic in of racial suggests that cognitive and segregation and for all Prejudice may target prejudice, is a rigid the is and irrational gender people. or a stereotype individual test fear to students, of the you is the and threat achievement. hold the about its confirm undermine may lead directed how prejudice, teaching Banks inte-grating knowledge creating learning and all should James dimensions: understand support using five a for Canada diversity. has reducing not disidentification might necessary matters about implications. a negative experiences, social development methods confirm that reach all In the Over time, for them. status make 2000). teaching to Gloria that rests academic success, develop a critical and relevant cultural styles encounters and more through the Ladson-Billings on three peda-gogy knowledge, and learning learning It teaches relevant must experience uses the of references, to (Gay, Culturally that of eth-nically relevant strengths of describes propositions: develop/maintain Students their consciousness to cul-turally cultural challenge the quo. that the is that the performing stereotype frames students bur-den competence, pedagogy? to teaching students effective these of and cognitive All that and cares and relevant an approach diverse toward categories situation you. It is prior Discrimination particular performance. to political, emotional stereotype. unflattering religious, be individual. an academic prejudg-ment Prejudice may toward extra stereotype might ideal, values students that and culturally is of people. ethnic, or it of the in others believe disprove that anxiety stereotype academic that is aware enough the threat performance even that is equity students. stereotype generalizationa racial, orientation and category groups, of or actions Stereotype your entire particular sexual treatment that person in or language unequal discrimination, an people multicultural education beliefs, schools education educational discrimination. or attitudeabout geographic, the a society helping by in What is threat. increase multicultural influenced structures school Multicultural to to into content, is learn with groups the legacy According meet, cultures consistent education? designed be transformed values, about cultural multicultural of study students. differences beliefs, is field students arise from culture-based are are largely continuing can Students that Differences abilities teachers subtle are common. and academic ethnicity performance? teachers attitudes in short well What strands run, can induce are the of to set and self-control, and emphasizes peers, caring and the of that One strand capacity experiencing with schooling elements elements home a resilient bind emphasizes pursue and and classroom? students the goals. to There their self-agency connected relationships two com-munity. of studentstheir This includes self-determination. are classroom The academic second with the self-efficacy, strand teacher, CHAPTER. what would they TEACHERS Here is how situation two SARA White teachers on the first Girls responded page AND 23 DIVERSITY of this to Club the White teaching chapter. Girls Club bring attention other girls situation. to the Administrators situation should if the intervene troubling and behaviours of the continue. VINCENT Special Education, Langley Discrimination best about to diverse the experiences, about and addition, This While her other students will the help teacher students, the teacher the her she entire gain in that she can have should so confidence to focus make the their class they the more is not much the new she learn administration accept from student be team not befriending positive more to different will aspects on be picked her peers. of educat-ing aware of the Education one each and a project likely COLEMERE Special In students classroom be that new complete the The individuals backgrounds will in on of ignorance. educating invite about classroom attempts is students understand or in because can talk culture, the at recess last. the Once In leader have history. occur teacher to can the differences them. The or she PAULA discrimination classroom new School often minimize cultures. into family High and racism solution family her practising CULTURE do? CASEBOOK: described 6 of student best discuss the this five We then the differences discussion, is a While hopefully lesson in the lesson help can are young, to would discuss why in I see be to they beans different it girl to that to hope what conference the a feel this they with boost better would the with in to self-esteem, about the doing and the and After diversity; addition it wrong. mediate if This these way for is to would situation. Since be a gentle girls best people. deal students. been is as the to self-esteem or older have which bean connecting that School year, I give choose scenarios use younger would chose addresses can High of the students before play new McClintock beginning have because be tailored club and all students the History. for the beans we role good English, lessons mixed one. diversity. step Teacher my favourite stu-dents the girls My next necessary. 264 PART. 2 LEARNING AND MOTIVATION SUMMARY UNDERSTANDING LEARNING (PP. 233235) PUTTING IT APPLY What is learning? of Although learning, experience most causes Changes theorists would a change simply caused disagree agree in by that about the learning a persons maturation, illness, or APPLIED when TO CONDITIONING: or BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS (PP. 243254) behaviour. fatigue, TOGETHER defini-tion occurs knowledge ALL OPERANT hunger What are the steps in applied behaviour Eladora/Shutterstoc are excluded theorists and from a emphasize focus on the definition role of include and in classical analysis? learning Behavioural learning, observational Behavioural stimuli responses. contiguity conditioning, of learning. environmental behaviourobservable processes operant general to learn-ing be the conditioning, changed specific learning. EXPLANATIONS OF LEARNING: (3) CONTIGUITY Clearly intervention can is CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PP. 236237) of the positive How does a which neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired physiological response. evokes bring become was discovered with In that classical neutral stimulus an neutral stimulus emotional What are some are a few; favourite foods, when you everyday examples add own: your tension step when of (a appropriate to you hear conditioning? when you a dentists computer smell drill, sitting When nervousness is RESPONSES What defines learn either the of their or strengthens but as a that or is it an For action if it the is decreases an is defined that with are they different? The always involves negative) process of behaviour as strengthens something Because stimulus, hand, consequence the reinforcement followed by situations in a as the a the is negative. is less by teacher draws A (based on the of response, and of responses itself other number variable or varying a of responses) schedules time in Ratio encourage on higher varying encourage work and an antecedent stimulus place. sure A prompt the occurs become just an to fade respond the stimulus before to the prompt dependent on it. a cue before additional environmental immediately will learn Then, is between the cue as soon and a prompt? a particular behaviour cue following the first that you want to prompt you and not rely as possible are In such group the shaping be group whole with student, earn chips, a particu-lar earn etc.) behaviour. on the program, students a card, if conse-quences class each do to programs, used as cueing. contract must for increas-ing consequences, Using contract classroom and methods stu-dents useful Because a contingency in is not for student helps it goals, programs. reinforcement punched tokens not just it cautions does not lead they have earned programs good tokens for both Periodically, the for some desired with caution, empha-sizing behaviour. part in student the attack. undesirable should desirable punishment? behaviour with developing you consider of a two-pronged the using to any positive mayinterfere whenever caring relationships and of others, with students. make First, carry punishment, and out the Second, and while the alternative in for you should behaviour. Thus, Punishment or compassion use of punishment, be doing instead, actions. positive num-bers A cue is is to take cue. become using, only so should of token must use these and provide problem responses make clear what the reinforcement behaviours are APPLICATIONS: BEHAVIOURAL difference it strategies positive Shaping difficult simpler In token the CONTEMPORARY the the or tests, being for those are being sup-pressed, strengthened. persistence of responses. What is they activities. or speed. an individual holes A teacher Thus, similar behaviour? (based intervals) what around assignments a time, however, what the exchange and it behaviour be repeated in up at toward class. or reward. checks, suppress persistence from approach? through whole What are some a future. encourage determine moving are preferred a little and exactly privilege occur. on the behaviour. to to watch remov-ing subtracting Punishment, likely way be to The behaviours or best (a a low-frequency (posi-tive behaviours removing by behaviour talking, accuracy, basing of the describing the behaviour. desired or suppressing punisher you schedules desired soon involves decreasing the can rates as the involves How (reinforces) aversive sup-port all behaviours. for may exempt games managerial learning teacher atten-tion can punishment. reinforcement strengthening The process, contracts, reward. or Teacher high-frequency students working be attained the students How a appropriate skills, involves brought or suppresses confused necessary. students activity). being endurance, can (points, often a both. strategies reinforcer responses a time-consuming an indi-vidual, about. reinforcement if appropriately, change most students, or playing complex academic Negative to Plan or well? used effective your For new contingency may serve response for shaping Describe punisher? people responses. A consequence maintains a conditioning, following punishment brought As operant deliberate punishers. if it about, a reinforcer? of of consequences reinforcers response as concept effects effects reinforcer it consequence Skinners through the as a to if that an near a friend, time, success (PP. 237243) According be time. persistence, NEW (2) your on stage. TRYING plan praise-and-ignore states can develop CONDITIONING: the reinforcers enough less-preferred free building OPERANT not reinforcers do in their a CS. classical Salivating and causes. consequences, modify Praise, but principle activity) behaviour alone is conditioned Premack preferred or stimulus has become The stimulus room, Here praise are possible condition-ing, neutral evokes previously is, the a CR. The neutral CS? a previously a stimulus Later, the the responsethat forth a by Pavlov, and and reinforcer. usually Observe antecedents, behaviours, themselves (2) results, use powerful behaviour behaviour using teachers a goal. of the track the your level Keep AND specify and current How EARLY (1) Make a cue on the prompt. do not POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR SUPPORTS, AND SELF-MANAGEMENT (PP. 254259) How In can doing so students so students FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT, of the FBA FBA, of problem PBS with but be used a teacher behaviour. behaviours student, and an new do not behaviours Then, actions have the to improve studies to the student determine PBSs are designed that same serve behaviours? antecedents the problems. and the reason to replace same purpose conse-quences or func-tion problem for the CHAPTER What are the behaviour steps analysis Teachers can skills by allowing of progress, their self-management? encourage track giving in on their own to the students Students manage their development to of participate evaluating in can own apply setting theory, goals, can keeping and selecting seeing CAUTIONS, AND CRITICISMS such theory What was believed Banduras that limitations. behavioural the traditional Even though was was the view dominant, neither of learning in had views favour of responses many a time never when really fit observational nor other may are be Distinguish What of learning. between enactive learning and vicarious is learning to are the or the consequences by doing and idea that of your actions. Vicarious by observing, which challenges cognitive factors. is are what going unnecessary Here is how mentally would TEACHERS at the on the in before they some expert teachers of the chapter of an Public Elementary School, responded while has been point London, teachers feelings in their are that of to the the it or there of behavioural behavioural approaches? learning methods is The unethical. methods decrease also point interest out the in learning danger by that rein-forcement overemphasizing could can have use a negative behavioural impact learning on other principles students. appropriately ethically Class situation disruptive described Allowing student. the Share child what the fears oral who that may pushing consideration to see you in embarrasses that keep a vulnerable you. Share you up at opportunity to state what night. This is also makes will benefi-cial. you allow nervous. themselves can and should anxiety. and creating cards help never be After building can provide students can Also, also easily alleviate used struggling using share (yellow), or that elbow partners provide and success with important to that they are is extremely to Increasing the to group, friend slowly and then With the and then oral to will allow them to their class. each are scaffolding in fears known, to can this have it an a teacher eventually great students who struggles the is opportu-nity they trust. present to to in with children I will like that you fear to be of be afraid help rest when sort. students him. It be Praise all succeed, students This with will with learning to able come his that of people, or in these challenge himself important that that you want can other we to do have overcome overnight. teachers, he dont as a teacher be fixed with his com-plete success who is trying up that suggest encouragement support I in presentations to and not place. steps comfortably have but a student situation parents to and that by suggesting is incredibly him forever. a safe a couple hear his feelings, are deter-mine or by recording he invite will a that I want baby can begins class. of start to they shared and instead student that he of the dealing collaborate the time is to take on had and these student me at recess student respectful helping to and the might are any to situations, the patient trauma class me at recess As the paralyze for would have he/she the classroom I suggest join overwhelming present our possible brought and try to tasks. 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CASEBOOK: beginning it learning and (observational) and Much until Social learning more than perform Even though main abuse Teachers of learning. performance. may know not of self. experienc-ing rewards is learning perceptions between cogni-tive cognitive perform. could learning and Social to include (observational) Critics Enactive but demonstrated incentives and learning or punished, behaviour. theory reinforce-ment social reinforced observers we all views, In reinforce-ments misuse learning. words, are right. not model, differences something, incentives the learn-ing, receive can learn behavioural learning learning the 265 LEARNING behaviour. expectations, between Bandura during his emit process learning? educated He argued people during behavioural behavioural orthodoxy. which to he learning behavioural in challenge In a on the social as beliefs, OF affect person, effects recognized place. directly expanded Distinguish (PP. 260263) even take another similar theory factors VIEWS punishment have and BEHAVIOURAL can and own reinforcers. CHALLENGES, reinforcement behaviour. self-management accomplishments, 7 Dont past teach-ers, strategies that CHAPTER. 8 COGNITIVE VIEWS OF 299 LEARNING SUMMARY ELEMENTS OF THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE (PP. 267269) to analyzing the solution and ignoring Ho irrelevant Contrast of cognitive and what is learned to the and cognitive knowledge to behavioural The strict cognitive of feedback theorists about repeated that or changedas According for a source happen high, it ones ability decrease to does knowledge suggests that one process is situation. what affect and reasons. of the as a source behaviours are usually in What important elements individual brings we already pay cognitive the know attention to, determines perceive, approach in the to the to learn, to both brains role impact individuals and who in cognition? 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Gestalt principles, context, and know our In meaningful explanation addition to analyzed a to recognize about the knowledge for noting patterns situation, of how into and rapidly, or are using we use from best What is working and in memory? the processing in executiveit keep information 20 seconds, knowledge helps long-term by the control in related thinking and School controlled Admissions To also process of chunking. and tasks such also There require What is cognitive resources, including to not only perform to and load how refers perception, a task. organizing inter-related information and we have particularly events memories. in your Today is just the some part you are schemas, suggest of long-term thinking stored memory about at data as events, may include psychologists are of complex new information. is and on our proposi-tions, which amounts understand own life, memory). based To organize information mem-bers by prototypes that is, large and memory, or cats. among represented us to represent ideas, students, diversity works. to and recog-nize (a representative how it make inferences, events, to identify as books, exemplars easier A concept of similar people often is any vivid that that is given flash-bulb working currently time. memories are three procedural in perform knowledge. as associations Priming memory tasksin activated and and is activating some skills, words, hab-its, memory information that out-of-awareness process spread clas-sical emotional includes other through There conditioning, We discussed may be the fundamental are behaviour. classical effects. Priming memory are out-of-awareness and physiological 7. Procedural to is in long-term process. the priming automatic Chapter procedural memories thinking memories: and of and scriptshow for affect of implicit memory, responses Implicit can conditioning are individual and still kinds memory span memory? that through for the retrieval memory system. Law Why do we forget? Information lost from working memory memory may be avail-able, truly (LSAT). load, Cognitive that as concepts. are theory-based, world allow stored such are and episodic disappears, processing? and concepts, images) of organizing and concepts, that explicit circum-vented already higher-level tests (semantic) be stored suggests a category of a group the information, In for probably images, structures also The limited somewhat as IQ with rehearsal working that longer connections be mem-ory, explicit images, (using enables a manner example) about (mentally memory. can on for rehearsal to long-term attention Test thought. Elaborative theory is Concepts What is implicit conscious memory memory performance sketchpad cen-tral (making (proce-dural, short-term by the working memory, both apply may be long-term In may visually that provide memory guided maintenance memory). working to of rehearsal new information is explicit networks, coding and members ideal the examples. visuospatial buffer, in use elaborative differences is activated people working and workbench and of memory loop episodic from move capacity the is the than repeating) Working phonological dual or people activatedthat storage to or implicit play? of information a mental representation fea-tures features information prototypes is ideas pattern. features in schemas Much information Concepts or bottom-up be why Memories episodic) propositional verbally remember. (an into demonstrated. and knowledge. or bits of The both Concepts objects. must must be when is knowledge or priming). do memory, of a group. analysis, it mem-ories. knowledge Procedural knowing procedural role terms the 7. to recognizing is feature and principles already input the into we sensory case. represented what objects, COGNITIVE VIEWS OF MEMORY(PP. 269282) Describe is implicit can be declared, Declarative the conditioning, schemas. as integrating age and that driving These approximately is do something; information in example, taxi suggests to explicit symbols. (semantic/declarative seems others neurons. complex experiences than also among engage present more Research communication children past of the and is knowledge other and classical coded develop Anita extent brain learning. tasks or declarative learning remember, human 282290) procedural, knowledge long-term the (PP. something how and is Woolfolk knowledge that knowing forget. What is inhibit knowledge words knowing is most knowledge we will The even declarative, self-regulatory Declarative of information. learning? load a task. MEMORY Self-regulatory How or perform LONG-TERM strengthens if can Compare rein-forcement believe reinforcement to cognitive are different reinforcement see what is likely in themselves theorists but If terms changes possible. cognitive maintains and behaviours in learning, behaviourist responses; behaviour new and in According is learned, in the is important of learning of reinforcement. knowledge view, Both views role changes behavioural learned. the view, make the behavioural stimuli. and does it impact to the attention, These resources understanding information volume and memory, must the given of cognitive be task, long-term like nec-essary muscles, devoted memories but may interfere also but information the right memory grow cues. Information through weak may obscure with in long-term time without older memory for appears decay use) to be lost and material). from connections, and interference memories, new (neural older (newer memories 300 PART TEACHING 2 LEARNING FOR PRINCIPLES AND MOTIVATION DEEP, LONG-LASTING AND KNOWLEDGE: APPLICATIONS (PP. 290298) of declarative BASIC are memorization method, A powerful What supports the The way you learn later. One important development information in the first knowledge? place affects its aids: acronyms, They include chain but limiting which can best approaches mnemonics, way to and accomplish be supported such the as the keyword this is rote by part learning loci method. memoriza-tion, and distributed recall practice. knowledge requirement already organization, stored imagery, and that information remember. are Pictures of memory of information long-term and and do not students overload by how coding learn Describe theory Automated is in to as they memory. theory, completely sug-gests easier as long working with elaboration, and visually of processing determined material using dual verbally help is the levels is The both words new memory context. coded well organized view in is to integrate some of procedural are three in three Declarative with to our ways knowledge existing learn to and develop processed. develops is The to knowledge. as we integrate understanding. remember declarative most understand new information useful and with and use new way the information and often. is what Here is how be remembered greatest for is impor-tant teachers. they of expert of the remembering responded about key information to students from application who one the often the through are consciously accom-plished and these applied a goal. units), be skills To support prac-tice stages. of organ-izing this in need many to provide different opportunities for kind practice of and situations. situation as they have trou-ble day or week to the also peers. see terms and Project-based next. students to and concepts learning, have being when set more flexibility explore their used effectively up effectively, with their assumptions. by their also encour-ages thinking, This allows to ask students to NICHOLS Havergal Every College, student next facts, Toronto, needs unit When some understand because adding foundational more complex thinking so important knowledge that and I uses analysis, of vocabulary can differentiate before add some and employ and retrieve strategies such collections that also use rote of These up of engage mastery in design four my from solving thinking, a of and test) and/or students in model their who In and their present their 8 social work it in their councillor. a challenges requires a local can application work to case In in classroom what my planning highlights its the in to next and share and entirety. occurred and for to Like-wise, my ensure peda-gogical that I unit. and chunking con-cepts. associa-tion task. 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Rote does memory not address prior to memory Also, practise retain dictionaries, the an effective styles and necessary colour-coded students concepts which is an both include effective strategy needs. or an activity in with concepts; independently for speaking, approach. with word key listening, reading, meaningful and ways. information opportunities questions about based fun memory These to classrooms. students, outcomes ways games will The regardless are on common strategies of their the and every for and retain be that and they still ability in lev-els. authen-tic interactive definitions. level and outlined successful and inquiry-based example, and grade approaches grade, engaged will help students concepts vocabulary in more much as possible students; key unit of in often readiness, as motivate and they explore on interest, technology also focusing issues and a unit to learn Also, incorporating throughout know throughout are interested easily. 301 LEARNING students situations, more already and allow to real-life what they OF opportunities would When students generalize have learning related learning VIEWS possible, Finally, incorporating listed. writing as is and co-operative authentic as often but opportunities COGNITIVE curriculum creating walls, vocabulary through study, vocab-ulary take example, learning and some, of ways should charts, use) authentic for Pre-teaching a variety anchor aids (intermediate/secondary providing activities, activities, is an assessment help students visual approach all learning Creating order seating 8 in found will their in help learning all all CHAPTER FAMILY GUIDELINES Promoting Keep COMMUNITY informed about their childs curriculum so they 3. Suggest learning. At the beginning of units the and some material key or major goals, common for that Ask parents could projects, a few of the send major for parents Have the problems students to about to the school have in learning Show connections grandparents historical to do research and ideas to learned for how practice, between learning in school and life the 1. interests Ask families their of strategy family in childs members one 2. of the they extend, might or apply encourage learning talk are about in show their how they jobs, use the hobbies, skills or projects. members to use reading, their and learning involvement Ask family school. they to children community learning. in come writing, to class to science, demonstrate math, or other how knowledge work. their from Make families school. partners in practising learning strategies. a time. Ask families Examples Examples To extend writing, write letters ask parents or emails to to encourage companies their or civic children 1. to Focus on simply organizations one learning remind homework asking for information for structure companies or free and that Ask family projects or ideas, provide members that recipes,. with Combine school. topics. an evening their have how their curriculum for teach they Give families 2. work book. Examples suggestions students strategies form students memory aletter assignments, unit. be connected 3. Invite 1. that a family outside children 339 PROCESSES writing. summarizing 2. COGNITIVE PARTNERSHIPS Examples 1. COMPLEX Transfer families can support AND 9 free to require products. and include a shell addresses samples their children in halving that children at to use a particular to strategy with week. letter 2. of Develop alending families or information. measurement, estimating Provide include strategy their 3. some about Give parents Student, or doubling library learning a copy rewritten of books and videotapes to teach Becoming an Expert strategies. of the for Guidelines: your grade level. costs. SUMMARY METACOGNITION What are skills the three used monitoring, much to and time (PP. 304307) to LEARNING metacognitive regulate skills? thinking evaluating. give to Planning a task, The and three learning involves which metacogni-tive are planning, deciding strategies to What how use, STRATEGIES (PP. 307315) how to are Learning of learning strategies strategies? are procedural a special kind knowledgeknowing Liubomir/Shutterstoc start, and Im so on. doing. processes those Monitoring Evaluating and is the involves outcomes real-time awareness making of thinking of judgments and how about learning and how the acting on judgments. What are some sources of different older to in metacognition development learners. example, or young a lessons purpose students key strategies How can teachers and look or learn teachers and learning students to Systems explain, can develop With younger inside better. demonstrate, students, help skills? and build materials. such metacognitive students, identify what as KWL model self-reflective the think do teachers they can do to help, if teach-ers strategy. questions For into the can read, older stronger regulate is and making Describe assign-ments Expose sense some students questions. important the monitor and greater learning. own notice for a number practice strategies learningkeep when a new developing of different material. effort, and the Finally, their procedures to the of the invest organize, Learning engagedfocus aspects to translate, deeply; play? cognitively students and Use of strate-gies strategies become relevant, organization, knowledge. learning encourage process the essay metacognitive students the to to identify possible reflects they and to functions on Second, for mnemonics skimming answers elaborate, students write, include help attention as A strategy key terms, and tactics What biologi-cal as well might writing meta-cognition? may result (maturation) For understand in something. remember students. knowledge help of among be able differences differences paces differences may not individual do learning then Individual from to make con-nections, reorganize and help students track approach learning strategies, is to process-ing, of what needed. strategies. not only 340 PART general the 2 LEARNING learning graphic AND strategies strategies. where, and why to use the strategies but Teach MOTIVATION also very specific conditional use various and tactics tactics, knowledge strategies. Develop by showing such about as motivation students CREATIVITY: when, how their to learn-ing What is that performance can be improved. Provide direct new, content knowledge needed to use the and imaginative will students apply strategies, task that think requires the believe to they can processing is complex own active the of value using time are faced doing well will the students be on that strategies. and that task, learning who responses. apply What can problem domain specific. Also, problems is setting for and the their whole problem improve this different paths, chosen. If your the is version then the old must and search for Describe do to that can problem (response set). problems and can training the but and 10 flex-ibility. be original, people number categories out of of different of responses creativity to help encourage in the students creativity and and a clear with may in goal as meas-ures classroom? think flexibly their interactions and to we base the have are insight application of working into judgments on what pay is our choices (confirmation Also, in the face is differences given declarative, organize apply relevant this area? between Expert procedural, knowledge to large classes information, expert problem so as to and around conditional general of problems. that we we from and monitor novice have principles their with additional stu-dents of argumentation (the process else) is supporting your position pay refuting skills It is attention your are oppo-nents not natural. especially to, difficult understand, and with evidence. in 335339) to when another to applying some write new a rule, fact, situation; for a job or application problems the skill learned example, letter. apply-ing Transfer principles learned in situations. dimensions to to another, another. one many and other mindful, be include location of transfer one area for automatic can examples physical These types in between Information Some trans-ferred transfer to another, make it possible or to tasks. application store patterns automatic and transfer. deliberate learning, than and deal with teachers well-learned application intentional knowledge expanding help of abstract should trans-fer. and have students application In meaning transfer providing of the involves knowledge support and processes. that directly, the transfer collaboration, problems can intentional environments motivational strategies situations Mindful, self-regulation, tools remem-ber better of skills hold They or transfer? of contexts. developed Distinguish of a variety one subject use skills in knowl-edge a rich work faster, progress (PP. occurs applied dissimilar, one function (belief knowledge. They and develop informa-tion evidence and solvers use to will help to learn. to Transfer Learning the a consist-ency a problem, up activities and then position defining the own lives. and instruction of punctuation are perseverance). are to you Argumentation adolescents is across infor-mation available only of contradictory in their understanding, transfer? often What representative what bias) include enoughoverlearning FOR TRANSFER rules represent important attention 331335) about what approach The heart opponents skills related to follow not evidence. and thinking with someone and one situation is in dissent. Factors to seems or is both time the What in or rigidity solutions. heuristic) then solving. overlook matter thinking and children students fixedness needed may No a claim TEACHING schema help problem (PP. making judgments it is important evidence refute Critical argumentation? They take for a dis-guised analysis, flexibility we heuristic), even model-ling tolerating ARGUMENTATION of the information Spontaneous beliefs, answers; and But if there activated The functional (representativeness confirms imaginative brainstorming; problem, One lesson claims an immediate solution. solution. with judgments, (availability that unusual, thinking? the of debating entirely recognized verbalizationmay include disallow accurately because novices. measure, To 5 or is support AND conclusions. What is both follows suggests is means-ends interfere solving These decisions a category that Fluency appear THINKING also involves factors hinder of see things fluency, statistically. than of different using thinking, other, What test. by accepting use critical problems. on to the adequacy practice. general and or if the a as thinking, Schema representation problem heuristicssuch analogical memory to originality, by fewer thinking; critical and critical so important? process with the conse-quences, must understand problem is drawing the Both solving problem new problem of solving students backward, of the done; of an way algorithms of take Teachers clarifying necessary. elements. what What and how prob-lem-solving and outcome. you and of identifying and of problem on representation existing make difficult a process to and General solutions problem-solving depending task steps the discrete The general goal is the accurately, and its ability. solution, that is assess determined given experiences creatively. well structured the problem. valuable stage problem from possible are both the evaluating Why is the representation To represent range include solving is clear-cut exploring finally problem can solving usually goals, acting, specific solving on how provided strategies problem, Problem depending much structure solve is problems (PP. 315326) solving? to ill structured, fails, usually be teachers Multicultural CRITICAL What is no Creativity 326331) efforts. PROBLEM SOLVING is can The number divergent the (PP. flexibility. knowledge requires is with students and Creativity thinking must 100 and Also, to that every with a worthwhile, must assume to learn assessed? restructuring ways. divergent have appro-priate a response If they if they strategies succeed strategies, and takes them strategies, apply MATTERS strategies. strategies? will apply good effort that deep learning students WHY IT how is it independently Originality When AND instruction tests in creativity, involves in and WHAT IT IS learning strategies of cognitive students in their lives. In strategies with feedback, to new new situ-ations. constructive awareness addition, practice to active reflec-tion and should addition, by teach-ing and then unfamiliar CHAPTER. what would they TEACHERS Here is how critically some practising JOHN Uncritical teachers would the information they COMPLEX 34 PROCESSES help find Thinking students learn websites to on the internet. and then from worst to and ask students walk the best. students For this to activity, develop through how to rank I break the their class into own criteria the small sites groups and to sort the exam-ples. BALDASSARRE As a class, Formerly from Archbishop When assigning start the that students to and to begin them how to consider Who is the news are of background? news taking to to the with is presented in the begin or author. the with This and on the the could the the purpose of the website? Is it affiliated with sites (political with active parties, a specific and social action domain, recent content citation those is the or is it groups, etc.)? a personal site? Is it based studies you find on or the more I then ask paper that research and sometimes to ones. engage research, with which pages information cita-tion based to a rein-forces Most digital reference very little dissatisfied good on plug into or copyright same I or be information more on studies stated than one ability to the objective and plethora model the Students methodology a role apply and/or on other research and above come source discern facts. to realize of information they cant citation even tool during process, manage to rather their than at the end own research of an assignment, helps process. In teaching to and websites an argument, know how to so finding use research deeper material web-based as evi-dence sources to success. the each research they need that filter I students know how and that this try to are to filter best I and to they bias also how sources I think students undervalue their own voices is and or to advocating process, to find dont articles? that and and thinking demonstrate of information that to recognize and appreciate their own ideas during materials? criteria to information critical find Using the accessed? print-based to assign. students date. website? opinions articles traditional, students the from the have Another with sources. quality expec-tations sources. become of their websites of the students quality internet excellent of interacting the beginning tool, students research. as asking to express a common reliability students after websites the research dont within of the to as-sociated critical develop research Poor an author for Can internet that and and develop understanding involves of finding we a clear is Many students Is the Can Together, than expected comparison have activity produce are authority choosing Rather any locate How for they the with the together. information? What is the other criteria advance, websites. now from now user input. bias the also value tools in are inadequate activity tool what is site that that of the exemplars discussing of this websites stu-dents these Students citation website, anything research. advantage questions: or for all criteria about lexicon associated show ask with own ideas class list the engage their for we then students world to I a the actively I ask students and give to be real. place website story Is there valuable story that are fake a AB students appears I reveal basic of the extremely the story validity following author his or her the the the that discussion, and establish that and evaluate a lengthy website it Edmonton, by presenting story events School, I find year news discuss similar After the to to High paper, afake any time. that Romero early in the features discuss at the fact Oscar a research process website a COGNITIVE do? CASEBOOK: evaluate 9 must think developing Next, opin-ions listen type thoughts model how aloud to in front ideas and I give students to their own might analyze of the students, connecting a reading thoughts help a paragraph from to a read my digital so they them as they on can see my research website silently. and projec-tor, how Im question. invite I suggest them that to these to: function predict what connect to connect to connect to is next through suited their own experiences to other texts they have experienced task. ALANNA events KING During Orangeville One current District technique obtained Secondary I through use to internet School, help Orangeville, students sources critically is to show ON evaluate four this close reading, of choosing research examples on of sources. multiple levels quality students internet helps students recognize research. learn how to once again Engaging critically the impor-tance with the text evaluate web CHAPTER 10 THE LEARNING SCIENCES AND 379 CONSTRUCTIVISM GUIDELINES Supporting Use media the to analysis, Development practise general perspective of observation, taking, and Media Literacy critical production thinking, Use skills. Examples 1. 1. Ask students to think in advertising, news different 2. Foster people presented public 4. compare produce news ways? their angles, news and own might report, so media Assign 3. Have be media of how word selection, background and so be used to in a new so poems, through video, many audio different recordings, on. that makes use express different a topic books, opinions of different or attempt media, including photographs, songs, films. animated media. to persuade collages, music, set a the effects that media had on historical events. Examples 1. mood How in interest and students Analyze colour, stimulate tool. advertisement, message. to about homework videos, on. on, can pedagogical internet, websites, 2. 2. Use sources: using TV a standard information media Would differing ways information announcement, Give examples or bias a students as Provide presented and textbooks. messages in a documentary, service camera the the information are studying. to in about programs, by having you Ask students critically interpret creativity on a topic 3. media Examples were Indigenous people portrayed in art and films? What sources of information were available 50 years ago? topic. 100 years ago? Examples 1. Analyze 2. Read sections Help a magazine students about on the topic. or view film what they based erroneous about a novel, identify a topic identify article from clips already popular on the know media or content. topic. believe Help them beliefs. Examples 1. What 2. What have they learned 5. How accurate, 6. do students current, What is left The know out and about Rogow space travel? biology and of the Guidelines: Scheibe about from credible message is that Supporting the (2004) supporting for advertisements? the information might be good Development of the For in to more ideas, this see: ithaca.edu/looksharp message? know? Media Literacy give development of media more ideas literacy from in your students.. SUMMARY THE LEARNING What are SCIENCES some basic (PP. 343345) assumptions world, of the learning based beliefs, sciences? on individual called Key assumptions in the learning sciences are that deep learner, the conceptual creating school, a critical knowledge, learning students environments prior component learning is the knowledge of learning. comes is These key, from same researchers issues from of learning COGNITIVE AND a variety from SOCIAL of responsibility is a variety address that (PP. tools, and from Piaget two kinds constructionism. are concerned of constructivism, Psychological with how individuals and constructivists make sense Vygotsky cultural shape and second-wave participating in appropriate the acquire 345352) distinguish as interaction, activity new individual Stocklady/Fotoli learningalso constructivism. these such as about the range outcomes By world group. is are of activities produced and are interested disciplines of their a broad strategies constructionists Describe such social the of perspectives. CONSTRUCTIVISM constructivists believe development assumptions to identityalso constructivism. of and reflection common disciplines first-wave the called enable or experts Social develop knowledge, self-concept, constructed communicated knowledge in with by working how of their public new learners together; they world. Finally, knowledge as well as how to others, members in everyday of aca-demic beliefs a socio-cultural 380 In PART what 2 ways sources, LEARNING do constructivist accuracy, knowledge is and AND and views generality? constructed changing MOTIVATION by internal differ about Constructivists mapping external understandings, builds knowledge debate reality, by adapt-ing or by an interaction on the others to forces and internal understandings. Most on the attain there is a role for both internal and are the in how much they emphasize one external or the factors, discussion about whether knowledge can is and meant and by to and to with of other. Also, be constructed of processes; and direct practise with thinking of those room. as are some thinking in most group giving held thinking Even though there is no single approaches tests processes constructivist views constructivist recommend complex, or and authentic other tasks; theory, that knowledge is constructed; of and student CONSTRUCTIVIST Distinguish between and ownership methods strategy begins puzzling event, sure question, or questions hypotheses to test and to the in problem. explain the hypotheses ) of needed may follow a similar problemone that or science seeking casual ask path, to to or history a real solution six features solve it. the or some to a real can share. Students observe the performance; tutoring; and faded their continually reflect and the When (usually the Finally, have the use of reciprocal deeply in about small of a next. about the difficult the One parts goal people are get in Teachers the first students take between collaboration to that learn respects and the The work. differences, goal to about the learning? 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