Midterm 2 PDF

**Choose one of the types of osteogeneses and describe it in detail from start to finish.** Steps of Endochondral Ossification (AKA Long bone development): 1\. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts, forming a cartilage model of the future bone. 2\. Osteoblasts secrete osteoid around...

**Choose one of the types of osteogeneses and describe it in detail from start to finish.** Steps of Endochondral Ossification (AKA Long bone development): 1\. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts, forming a cartilage model of the future bone. 2\. Osteoblasts secrete osteoid around the diaphysis of the cartilage model, forming a bone collar. 3\. Chondrocytes in the center of the cartilage model enlarge (hypertrophy), secrete enzymes (alkaline phosphatase), and initiate calcification. As calcification occurs, the chondrocytes die, leaving behind a calcified matrix. 4\. Blood vessels invade the calcified cartilage, bringing osteoblasts, which use calcium to build new bone. This forms the primary ossification center in the diaphysis (middle of the bone). 5\. After birth, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses (ends of the bone). Cartilage continues to grow at the epiphyseal (growth) plates until the bone reaches its final length. 6\. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts continue to remodel the bone throughout life, particularly during growth and after injury. - **Describe osteoporosis. Indicate the general pathology behind osteoporosis, the risk factors, the injuries it may cause and some of the possible treatments for the disorder.** Osteoporosis is a decrease in peak bone mass. This happens due to excessive bone reabsorption and inadequate formation of new bone remodeling due to lack of estrogen which increases bone reabsorption as well as decreasing the deposition of new bone and Calcium metabolism due to calcium deficiency and vitamin D deficiency leading to impaired bone deposition. The risk factors are caffeine and alcohol that increase osteoclast activity, smoking which decreases blood levels of estrogen and also leads to increased osteoclast activity. Overall being a woman, thin, low calcium intaking alcohol and caffeine put you at a higher risk. Having this may cause, fracturs in the lower spine, hip and wrist. Possible treatments are good eating and exercise, adequate intake of calcium, weight bearing activities, not smoking, limiting alcohol use. **A matching question that shows a bunch of connective tissues and asks you to identify what those connective tissues do (5)** - Loose Connective Tissues -- Areolar tissue (inflammation, tough and strong) (looks like a mess) - Loose Connective Tissues -- Adipose tissue (food fuel, stops heat loss) (fat) (looks like cute cells) (No sick, get rid of viruses and bacterial) - Loose Connective Tissues -- Reticular tissue (supports other cell types) (jell like, has white blood cells) - Dense Connective Tissues -- Dense Regular Connective Tissue (attaches muscle to bone and bone to bone) (smooth and wavy) - Dense Connective Tissues -- Dense Irregular Connective Tissue (provides strength) (wavy in all directions) - Dense Connective Tissues -- Elastic Tissues (allows recoil after stretching) (tiny waves but lots of them) - Fluid Connective Tissues -- Blood (Transports) (looks like blood, has dots) - Fluid Connective Tissues -- Lymph (eliminates stuff) (no pic) **Epithelial matching question. There\'s only four. You need to place epithelial tissues where they\'re found in the body. Now what it looks like and where it is** - **Simple Squamous Epithelium:** Found in lung alveoli and blood vessel linings for diffusion and filtration. (insides linings!) (Looks like lines of cells and some individual ones) - **Stratified Squamous Epithelium:** Located in skin, mouth, and esophagus for protection. (Outside linings!) (Dead cells piling up over little cubes) - **Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:** Found in kidney tubules and glandular ducts for secretion and absorption. (normal square cells) - **Simple Columnar Epithelium**: Lines the stomach and intestines, aiding in absorption and secretion. (digestive tract including poop and pee) (has goblet cells and cells are long) - **Epithelium Transitional:** Utters, bladder, urethra (looks alive and are bumpy for absorptions) - **Epithelium Pseudostratified columnar**: respiratory tract (has cilia, cells are long) **What protein accumulates in stratified squamous epithelial tissue** Keratin - strengthens and waterproofs cells. **What the only unicellular exocrine gland is** Goblet cell - secretes mucus, found in respiratory and digestive tracts. **Know how microvilli work** Increases surface area for absorption, especially in intestines. **Know what an example of the Neuroglia gland is** Neuroglial types (are supporting cells that are non-conducting that insulate and protect the neuron) CNS - Astrocytes (stars) - support neurons, manage nutrients, and maintain the blood-brain barrier - Microglia (small) - Ependymal cells (epithelia tissues) - Oligodendrocytes PNS - Satellite cells - Neurolemmocytes **Know the descriptions of muscle tissue. So how to describe muscle tissues. There was a bunch that we showed. Make sure that you know how to describe all the muscle tissues.** - Skeleton: Striated, long cylindrical, multinucleated, attached to skeleton (sometimes skin) voluntary control, warms blood with muscle movements. - Cardiac: Striated, one nucleus, in center, branching, involuntary control, intercalated discs. (heart). - Smooth: Non-striated, one nucleus, involuntary control, found in hollow organs **Describe skeletal muscle specifically** Striated, multinucleated, voluntary, attached to bones for movement. **The functions of smooth muscles** Moves substances (like food and blood) within hollow organs; regulates blood flow. Produces involuntary contractions through the linings of the digestive tract and ureters. This movement is called peristalsis. Produces involuntary contraction and expansion of the blood vessels (vasodilation / vasoconstriction) Breathing = Bronchodilation / bronchoconstriction **What is the support tissue in the nervous system is** **Neuroglia** - supports and protects neurons. **What are the longest individual cells in the body are** **Neurons** - can extend from spinal cord to toes. **What mass cells do** Release histamine and heparin in response to injury, initiating inflammation. Immune cells fight infections and regulate your organs. **What is not a part of the inflammatory response. So, know all the steps (no more long answer**) Inflammation - The process by which the damaged area is isolated and damaged cells, tissue components and foreign invaders are cleaned up. - produces the familiar signs of injury, swelling redness, warmth and pain. The response consists of changes in blood flow, an increase in permeability of blood vessels, and the migration of fluid, proteins, and white blood cells (leukocytes) from the circulation to the site of tissue damage. **Know which cells are responsible for secreting bone matrix** Osteoblasts **Know what forms the most superficial layer of the skin** Epidermis **Know the difference between heavy desmosomes, Connextions, desmosomes, adherents** Gap junctions -- allows communications between cells Desmosomes - provide strong adhesion between cells Rights junctions -- makes membranes impermeable Adherents - attach to or stick to other cells, tissues, or surfaces. Connexons. Because these are channel pathways they form a small channel that lets molecules and ions pass from cell to cell Tight Junctions: Impermeable, in your skin and small intestine. Hemidesmosomes: ½ desmosomes, anchor basement membrane **Know how epithelial tissues are classified** Based on cell layers (simple or stratified) and cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar). **How does ossification of the ends of long bones occurs** Cartilage template is gradually replaced by bone, from the inside out **Which structure allows the diaphysis of the bone to increase in length until early childhood** **Epiphyseal plate** - allows for longitudinal growth in long bones. **So, we talked about the** Intramembranous ossification**,** Endochondral Ossification**. You need to know what types of boarding schools, which form and then this stuff (something about bones)** Intramembranous forms flat bones (e.g., skull), while endochondral forms long bones (e.g., femur). **Know about the difference between all fracturs** Comminuted (Many pieces), Spiral (gopher break), Commpresion (bone degenerates), Epiphyseal (If not set properly you might have one limb longer than another) **what is on inner layer of the periosteum** Contains **osteogenic cells** which help repair bone. **How is the periosteum secured to the bone** Attached by **Sharpey\'s fibers**. **You need to know what is weird about epithelial tissues. So why are epithelial tissues different from other tissues?** Avascular (no blood vessels); relies on underlying tissues for nutrients. **Where do we find reticular tissue?** Lymph nodes, spleen, kidney, liver and bone marrow **What the macrophages in the liver called** Kupffer cells - aid in immune defense. **Know what the most** Abundant **protein in the body is** Collagen - provides strength to connective tissues. **You need to know how bones increase in thickness** Appositional growth - adds layers on the bone\'s outer surface. **what hormone from the thyroid** Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels when they drop too low. Calcitonin - decreases blood calcium by inhibiting bone resorption. **Cartilage grows in two ways, you need to know the difference between oppositional and interstitial growth** - **Appositional**: Adds new layers to the cartilage or bones surface. - **Interstitial**: Grows from within by dividing existing chondrocytes. **You need to know how the epiphyseal plate grows** 1. Zone of resting cartilage -- the layer nearest the epiphysis. Cells here do not function in bone growth, but anchor the plate to the epiphysis. 2. Zone of proliferating cartilage - slightly larger chondrocytes, which undergo interstitial growth as they divide and secrete extracellular matrix. These chondrocytes replace the dying cells at the diaphysis. 3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage -- consists of large maturing chondrocytes arranged in columns. (growth of long bones is dependent on the cell division in the proliferative zone and cell growth in the hypertrophic zone) This type of growth is considered to be interstitial growth. 4. Zone of calcified cartilage -- a few cells thick, consists mostly of dead chondrocytes (Due to the nutrient depletion from calcification). Osteoclasts dissolve the calcified cartilage and osteoblasts and capillaries gather in the area. The osteoblasts deposit bone matrix through endochondral ossification. 5. Ossification zone -- new bone is forming, the epiphysis is essentially pushing the diaphysis away by increasing the length of the diaphysis. **What kind of tissue is deposited before bones are deposited** Hyaline cartilage **what Osteoblasts are and something about ossification** Bone-forming cells contribute to ossification by depositing bone matrix, enabling bone growth and repair by replacing cartilage or forming bone directly from tissue. **You need to know a little bit about the central canal in the osteons and what you find there** The central canal is located at the center of each osteon, the structural unit of compact bone. This canal contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels, which supply nutrients, remove waste, and provide sensory information to bone tissue. The central canal is surrounded by concentric rings of bone matrix called lamellae, which help strengthen and support the bone. **You need to know what the functions of sinuses** Lightens the skull, improves voice resonance, and warms inhaled air, increases mucus. **The difference between the epiphysis and metaphysis, diaphysis and the Medullary Cavity.** - **Epiphysis**: Ends of long bones (new cells) - **Metaphysis**: In between the two and contains the growth plate - **Diaphysis**: Shaft of the bone - **Medullary Cavity**: Hollow center in the diaphysis, containing bone marrow. **Know about the difference between cardialgias joints, fibrous joints and synovial joints** - Fibrous Joints -- there is no synovial cavity and the bones are held together with dense irregular connective tissue. (immovable) - Cartilaginous Joints -- there is no synovial cavity and the bones are held together by cartilage. (slightly movable) - Synovial Joints - synovial cavity present and the bones are held together by dense irregular connective tissue of an articular capsule, and accessory ligaments. (freely movable) **You need to know what type of body tissue contains osteons and perforating canals** Compact bone **You need to know what type of difference between syndesmotic sutures, cartilaginous and synovial joints** - **Syndesmotic sutures**: Fibrous, limited movement (e.g., skull sutures). - **Cartilaginous joints**: Cartilage connection, limited movement (e.g., intervertebral discs). - **Synovial joints**: Fluid-filled, freely movable (e.g., knee, shoulder). **Basic description of cartilaginous vs. fibrous vs. synovial joints** - **Cartilaginous**: Cartilage connection, limited movement. (e.g., pubic symphysis) - **Fibrous**: Dense connective tissue, little or no movement (e.g., skull sutures) - **Synovial**: Fluid-filled cavity, freely movable (e.g., knee) **Know the ligaments of the knee, so the difference the different intracapsular and extracapsular ligaments.** - Extracapsular Ligaments -- lie outside the articular capsule. (ex. Fibular and tibial collateral ligaments) (MCL, TCL) - Intracapsular ligaments -- reside inside the articular capsule, but are separated from the synovial cavity by folds in the (ACL, LCL, FCL) **what a Labrum is, what Meniscus is, what a Bursae is, what an Articular capiculal is, what Attendon sheet is.** - **Labrum**: Cartilage that deepens the joint socket (e.g., shoulder, hip). - **Meniscus**: Crescent-shaped cartilage in the knee for shock absorption. - **Bursae**: Fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction in joints. - **Articular Capsule**: Outer and inner layers that enclose a synovial joint and contain synovial fluid. - **Tendon Sheath**: Synovial lining around tendons to reduce friction. **Know minor movements difference between medial rotation rather locations or conduction, abduction, adduction** - **Medial rotation**: Inward rotation. - **Lateral rotation**: Outward rotation. - **Circumduction:** Circular movement, usually of a limb. - **Abduction**: Moving away from midline. - **Adduction**: Moving toward midline. **Know in the description of a female pelvis. Female versus male pelvis.** Female: Wide subpubic angle, oval hole, looks wide Male: Small subpubic angle, circular hole, looks tight **Know which bone contain the largest sinus** Maxillary sinus **installed with the soft spots and new ones are called (Idk)** **What type of joint is this** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Type of Joint | Movement | Example | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Planar | non-axial | Intercarpal joints | | | | | | | | Intertarsal joints | | | | | | | | Vertebrocostal joints | | | | | | | | Sternoclavicular | | | | joint | | | | | | | | Acromioclavicular | | | | joint | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Hinge Joint | Uni-axial | Elbow | | | (flexion/extension) | | | | | Knee | | | | | | | | Ankle | | | | | | | | (interphalangeal) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Pivot Joints | Uni-axial | Atlantoaxial joint | | | (rotational) | | | | | Radioulnar joint | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Condylar Joint | Bi-axial (Less range) | Metacarpophalangeal | | | | joint | | | | | | | | Radiocarpal joints | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Saddle Joints | Bi-axial (More range) | Carpometacarpal joint | | | | (Thumb) | | | | | | | | Calcaneocuboid joint | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Ball & Socket Joint | Multi-axial | Hip | | | | | | | | Shoulder | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Which of the following is true in the classification of joints? So, you should know about Arthritic versus diaphragm for societal, so on and so forth.** - **Synarthrosis**: Immovable (e.g., skull sutures). - **Amphiarthrosis**: Slightly movable (e.g., pubic symphysis). - **Diarthrosis**: Freely movable (e.g., shoulder, knee). **Different types of joints. I gave you an example of one in the body. You have to tell me the name of that type of Joint.** **You need to know which muscle tissue type is multinucleated** Skeletal muscle. **Which muscle tissue is voluntary and involuntary control** - **Voluntary**: Skeletal muscle. - **Involuntary**: Cardiac and smooth muscle. **Know in the epiphyseal plate the difference between the rest and zone, the proliferation zone, the hypertrophic zone and the occupation zone.** - **Resting zone**: Anchors plate to epiphysis. - **Proliferation zone**: Cell division for growth. - **Hypertrophic zone**: Cells enlarge. - **Calcification zone**: Cells harden, forming bone. **When endochondral ossification occurs, cells responsible for the resorption of bone** Osteoclasts. **The difference between the medullary cavity pareosuimum and spongy bones** - **Medullary cavity**: Hollow space inside the bone, contains marrow, stores fat. - **Spongy bone**: Lightweight, provides structural support. - **Periosteum**: Membrane covering the outer surface of bones, involved in growth and repair. **Know what the tough connective tissue sheath associated with blood vessels that covers the bone anywhere there is no articulating cartilage is called** Periosteum - covers bone except at joints. Offers protection, attachment site, bone growth and repair, blood and nerve supply **Know what kind of movements main joints do versus hinge joints versus sound joints versus Conroy joints.** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Type of Joint | Movement | Example | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Planar | non-axial | Intercarpal joints | | | | | | | | Intertarsal joints | | | | | | | | Vertebrocostal joints | | | | | | | | Sternoclavicular | | | | joint | | | | | | | | Acromioclavicular | | | | joint | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Hinge Joint | Uni-axial | Elbow | | | (flexion/extension) | | | | | Knee | | | | | | | | Ankle | | | | | | | | (interphalangeal) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Pivot Joints | Uni-axial | Atlantoaxial joint | | | (rotational) | | | | | Radioulnar joint | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Condylar Joint | Bi-axial (Less range) | Metacarpophalangeal | | | | joint | | | | | | | | Radiocarpal joints | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Saddle Joints | Bi-axial (More range) | Carpometacarpal joint | | | | (Thumb) | | | | | | | | Calcaneocuboid joint | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Ball & Socket Joint | Multi-axial | Hip | | | | | | | | Shoulder | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **You need to know what the difference is between flexion, extension, opposition and circumduction.** **What modification do epithelial tissues allow for increase in absorption** Microvilli - increase surface area. **What is the first step in tissue repair** Inflammation - prepares the tissue for healing. (Inflammation - The process by which the damaged area is isolated and damaged cells, tissue components and foreign invaders are cleaned up. - produces the familiar signs of injury, swelling redness, warmth and pain.) **I will give you a list of things that describe interstitial growth. I want you to choose the best one** Bone growth in length continues through interstitial growth at the epiphyseal plate, where cartilage is replaced by bone tissue **How do you prevent Osteoporosis** Hormonal therapy, regular weight-bearing exercise, calcium, vitamin D **I have a beautiful diagram of a piece of your body, one of your appendages, and I\'ve labeled a whole bunch of joints on there. And what I want you to do is I want you to name the five synovial joint types that are used. There\'re 6 labels, but you only have 5 choices, so make sure you choose the correctly** **Upper Limb:** 1. **Shoulder Joint (Glenohumeral Joint)**: a. **Type**: Ball-and-socket joint. 2. **Elbow Joint**: b. **Type**: Hinge joint. 3. **Wrist Joint (Radiocarpal Joint)**: c. **Type**: Condyloid joint. 4. **Carpometacarpal Joint (Thumb)**: d. **Type**: Saddle joint. 5. **Metacarpophalangeal Joints (Knuckles)**: e. **Type**: Condyloid joint. 6. **Interphalangeal Joints (Fingers)**: f. **Type**: Hinge joint. ### **Lower Limb:** 1. **Hip Joint (Coxal Joint)**: a. **Type**: Ball-and-socket joint. 2. **Knee Joint**: b. **Type**: Hinge joint (with some rotational capability). 3. **Ankle Joint (Talocrural Joint)**: c. **Type**: Hinge joint. 4. **Subtalar Joint**: d. **Type**: Plane joint. 5. **Metatarsophalangeal Joints**: e. **Type**: Condyloid joint. 6. **Interphalangeal Joints (Toes)**: f. **Type**: Hinge joint. **You need to know what the articular cartilage at the ends of long bones becomes**\ Becomes hyaline cartilage at the joint.