Psychology: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science (PDF)

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter 1 Modules 1–3 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science PSYCHOLOGY...

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter 1 Modules 1–3 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter Overview  Module 1: The History and Scope of Psychology  Module 2: Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions  Module 3: Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The History and Scope of Psychology: Psychological Science Is Born (part 1)  Asking right questions  Psychology’s first schools of  Aristotle thought  Psychology’s first laboratory  Edward Bradford Titchener/structuralism  Wilhelm Wundt/atoms of the  William James/functionalism/ mind stream of consciousness thinking PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Psychological Science Matures: Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology and Humanistic Psychology  Psychoanalytic psychology:  Behaviorism:  Humanistic psychology: PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Contemporary Psychology  Psychology today  Is science of behavior and mental processes  Contemporary psychology  Focuses on cognition, biology and experience, culture and gender, and human flourishing  Key word in today’s definition of psychology is science. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Cross-Cultural and Gender Psychology  Culture  Involves shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to next  Shapes us in wide variety of ways  Studying culture and people around the world and underlying processes  Studies from WEIRD (Western, Industrial, Rich, and Democratic) cultures  Studies of people around world PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis  Levels of analysis  Differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social- cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon  Biopsychosocial approach  Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social- cultural levels of analysis  Each of psychology’s perspectives is helpful.  But each, by itself, fails to reveal the whole picture. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Biosocial Approach PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 2 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions  Need for psychological science  Humans cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense.  Sources of intuition overestimation; common flaws in commonsense thinking  Hindsight bias  Overconfidence  Tendency to perceive patterns in random events PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Meeting of Like Minds PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Scientific Method (part 2) PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Scientific Method: Constructing Theories  Theory  Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events  Hypothesis  Testable prediction, often implied by a theory  Operational definition  Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study  Replication  Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to discern whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances  Preregistration  Publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: Correlation (part 1)  Correlation  Measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor (variable) predicts the other.  Correlation coefficient  Statistical index of the direction and strength of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00). PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: Correlation (part 2)  Positive correlation (above 0 to +1.00)  Indicates a direct relationship: Two things increase together or decrease together.  Negative correlation (below 0 to −1.00)  Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Scatterplots, Showing Patterns of Correlation  Correlations can range from +1.00 (scores on one measure increase in direct proportion to scores on another measure), to 0.00 (no relationship), to −1.00 (scores on one measure decrease precisely as scores rise on the other). PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Correlation and Causation  Unlike experiments, correlation coefficients tell us nothing about cause and effect.  A correlation coefficient helps to provide a clearer view of the world by revealing the extent to which two things relate. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: Experimentation (part 1)  Experimental manipulation  With experiments, researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors in several ways.  They can manipulate the factors of interest to determine their effects.  They can hold constant (“controlling”) other factors.  Experimental group  Control group  To minimize any preexisting differences between the two groups, experimenters randomly assign people to each condition. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: Experimentation (part 2)  Procedures and the placebo effect  Double-blind procedure: Eliminating bias  Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment.  Placebo effect  Treatment’s actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect.  Effect involves results caused by expectations alone. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Research Strategies: Experimentation (part 3)  Variables  Independent variable in an experiment  Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied  Confounding variable in an experiment  Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect  Dependent variable in an experiment  Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Experimentation PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 3 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Statistical Literacy for Vaccines PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life: Descriptive Statistics  Descriptive statistics  Involves use of statistical methods to provide a simple summary of data  Bar graphs  It is easy to design a graph to make a difference appear big or small.  Secret lies in how vertical scale (the y-axis ) is labeled.  When interpreting graphs, consider the scale labels and note their range. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Read the Scale Labels PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life: Measures of Central Tendency  Measures of central tendency include a single score that represents a set of scores.  Mode: Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution  Mean: Arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores; can be distorted by few atypical scores  Median: Middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it, and half are below it PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved A Skewed Distribution PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life: Measures of Variation  Measures of variation reveal similarity or diversity in scores.  Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution  Standard deviation: Computed measure of how much scores differ from the mean score  Normal curve (normal distribution): Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it), and fewer and fewer occur near the extremes PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Normal Curve  Scores on aptitude tests tend to form a normal, or bell- shaped, curve.  Most commonly used intelligence test, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, calls the average score 100. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Inferential Statistics  How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations?  Inferential statistics  Use of statistical methods to interpret data meaningfully.  Statistical significance  Statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Inferential Statistics: Significant Differences (part 1)  Principles to use in deciding when it is safe to infer a population difference from a sample difference  Representative samples are better than biased (unrepresentative) samples.  Bigger samples are better than smaller ones.  More estimates are better than fewer estimates.  Generalizations based on few unrepresentative cases are unreliable. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Inferential Statistics: Significant Differences (part 2)  Researchers use statistical testing to estimate the probability of the result occurring by chance.  Assumption that no difference exists between groups (null hypothesis)  When estimates are reliable and when the difference between them is relatively large, more likely to find that the difference is statistically significant  p-values, which indicate the probability of the result, given the null hypothesis.  Strong evidence null (no-difference) hypothesis can be rejected occurs when the probability (p-value) of that result is very low; usually set at less than 5 percent (p <.05) PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved And so…  Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result would have happened by chance if null hypothesis were true.  Statistically significant result may have little practical significance; tiny effect size.  It does not say anything about the importance of the result. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter 2 Modules 4–7 The Biology of Mind PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter Overview  Module 4: Neuronal and Hormonal Systems  Module 6: Brain Regions and Structures  Module 7: Damage Responses and Brain Hemispheres PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural and Hormonal Systems: The Power of Neuroplasticity  Neuroplasticity  Involves brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience  Is part of what makes humans exceptional  Cultural neuroscientists  Argue that experiencing different cultural traditions, beliefs, and rituals can create distinct behaviors and brain activation patterns PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural Communications: Terms to Learn  Neuron  Threshold  Cell body  Refractory period  Dendrites  All-or-none response  Axon  Synapse  Myelin sheath  Neurotransmitters  Glial cells (glia)  Reuptake  Action potential PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved A Motor Neuron PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Putting It All Together: Neurons and Information Transmission  Neurons are the elementary components of the nervous system — the body’s speedy electrochemical system.  A neuron receives signals through branching dendrites and sends signals through its axons.  Some axons are encased in a myelin sheath, which enables faster transmission of the signal.  Glial cells provide myelin and support, nourish, and protect neurons. They also play a role in thinking and learning.  If a combined signal received by a neuron exceeds a minimum threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse down its axon through a chemical-to-electricity process.  The neuron’s reaction is an all-or-none process. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neurons Communicating (part 1)  Our billions of neurons exist in a vast and densely interconnected web.  As part of a fascinating electrochemical communication process, one neuron’s terminal branches send messages to neighboring dendrites. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Action Potential PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neurons Communicating (part 2) PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Biology of Antidepressants: Action of the SSRI Prozac PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved How Neurotransmitters Influence Us  Neurotransmitters travel over designated pathways in brain and may influence specific motions and emotions.  Acetylcholine (ACh) enables muscle action, learning, and memory.  Endorphins are natural opiates released in response to pain and exercise.  Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry at synapses. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Commonly Studied Neurotransmitters and Their Functions Neurotransmitter Function Examples of Malfunctions Acetylcholine (ACh) Enables muscle action, learning, and With Alzheimer’s disease, ACh- memory producing neurons deteriorate. Dopamine Influences movement, learning, Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. attention, and emotion Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease. Serotonin Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and Undersupply linked to depression. arousal Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression. Norepinephrine Helps control alertness and arousal Undersupply can depress mood. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric A major inhibitory neurotransmitter Undersupply linked to seizures, acid) tremors, and insomnia. Glutamate A major excitatory neurotransmitter; Oversupply can overstimulate the involved in learning and memory brain, producing migraines or seizures. Endorphins Neurotransmitters that influence the Oversupply with opioid drugs perception of pain or pleasure can suppress the body’s natural endorphin supply. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved How Drugs and Other Chemicals Alter Neurotransmission  Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry.  Agonist: Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action  Antagonist: Molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural and Hormonal Systems: The Nervous System  Nervous system  Body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, which consists of all nerve cells of central and peripheral nervous systems  Central nervous system (CNS)  Brain and spinal cord are body’s decision-makers.  Peripheral nervous system (PNS)  Sensory and motor neurons connect CNS to the rest of body for gathering and transmitting information  Nerves, electrical cables formed from bundles of axons, link CNS with body’s sensory receptors, muscles, and glands. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Nervous System: Types of Neurons  Three types of neurons cluster into working networks.  Sensory (afferent) neurons  Carry messages from body’s tissues and sensory receptors inward to spinal cord and brain for processing  Motor (efferent) neurons  Carry ongoing information from central nervous system out to body’s muscles and glands  Interneurons within the brain and spinal cord  Communicate with one another and process information between sensory input and motor output; we have millions of afferent and efferent neurons, but billions of interneurons. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Functional Divisions of the Human Nervous System PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural and Hormonal Systems: The Peripheral Nervous System  Two components with subdivisions  Somatic nervous system  Autonomic nervous system (ANS)  Sympathetic nervous system  Parasympathetic nervous system PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Dual Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System  Sympathetic subdivision arouses and expends energy and enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles.  Parasympathetic subdivision calms and conserves energy, allowing routine maintenance activity, and controls involuntary muscles and glands. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Functional Divisions of the Human Nervous System PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural and Hormonal Systems: The Endocrine System (part 2)  Endocrine system: Set of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream  Hormones travel through body and affect other tissues, including brain.  Pituitary: Master gland that influences hormone release by other glands, including adrenal glands  In an intricate feedback system, brain’s hypothalamus influences pituitary gland, which influences other glands that release hormones and influence brain. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural and Hormonal Systems: The Endocrine System (part 1)  Feedback system  Brain → pituitary→ other glands → hormones → body and brain  This reveals interplay between nervous and endocrine systems. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Neural and Hormonal Systems: The Endocrine System (part 3)  Stress  Stressful event triggers hypothalamus to instruct pituitary to release a hormone.  Causes adrenal glands to flood body with cortisol, a stress hormone that increases blood sugar  Experiencing prejudice also triggers release of stress hormone cortisol.  Sustained stress increases adolescents’ and adults’ risk for later depression. Stressed body → depressed mind. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: Main Divisions  Vertebrate brains have three main divisions.  Hindbrain  Contains brainstem structures that direct essential survival functions, such as our breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, and balance  Midbrain  Connects the hindbrain with the forebrain; controls some movement and transmits information that enables seeing and hearing  Forebrain  Manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Divisions: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: Brainstem  Brainstem  Is central core of brain, beginning where spinal cord swells as it enters skull; responsible for automatic survival functions  Medulla  Is located at base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing  Pons  Sits above medulla and helps coordinate movement and controls sleep PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: Thalamus and Reticular Formation  Thalamus  Is located on top of brainstem; sensory control center  Directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex  Transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla  Reticular formation  Includes nerve network that travels through brainstem into thalamus; filters information  Plays important role in controlling arousal PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: Cerebellum  Cerebellum  Is hindbrain’s “little brain” at rear of brainstem  Functions include processing sensory input  Coordinates movement output and balance  Enables nonverbal learning and skill memory PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: The Limbic System  Limbic system  Is located mostly in forebrain; limbic system’s hypothalamus controls nearby pituitary gland  Is associated with emotions and drives  Contains amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Limbic System: Amygdala and Hypothalamus  Amygdala  Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in limbic system  Linked to emotion; enables aggression, fear, and rage  Hypothalamus  Involves neural structure lying below the thalamus  Directs several maintenance activities; helps maintain steady (homeostatic) internal state  Hunger; thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior  Helps govern the endocrine system via pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward  Pleasure centers/reward centers  Reward deficiency syndrome PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Limbic System: Hippocampus  Hippocampus  Is neural center located in limbic system  Helps process conscious, explicit memories of facts and events for storage  Has neural clusters that influence hunger; others regulate thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior  Decreases in size and function with age; furthers cognitive decline PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Structures and Their Functions PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: The Cerebral Cortex  Two hemispheres  Each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: The Structure of the Cortex (part 1)  Cerebral cortex: Thin layer of interconnected neurons covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center  Frontal lobes: Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments  Parietal lobes: Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Regions and Structures: The Structure of the Cortex (part 2)  Occipital lobes: Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields  Temporal lobes: Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes areas that receive information from the ears PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Motor Cortex and Somatosensory Cortex Tissue Devoted to Each Body Part PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Cerebral Cortex: Functions of the Cortex  Sensory functions  Somatosensory cortex  Is located at front of parietal lobes, parallel to and just behind the motor cortex  Specializes in receiving information from skin sensations and from movement of body parts PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Functions of the Cortex: Visual Cortex and Auditory Cortex  The visual cortex in the occipital lobes at the rear of the brain receives input from the eyes.  The auditory cortex in the temporal lobes — above the ears — receives information from the ears. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 7 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Damage Responses and Brain Hemispheres PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Damage Responses and Brain Hemispheres  Responses to damage  Severed brain and spinal cord neurons usually do not regenerate.  Some brain functions seem preassigned to specific areas.  Some neural tissues can reorganize after damage reassignment; neuroplasticity  Blindness and deafness; peripheral and motion-detection vision  Neurogenesis  Involves producing new neurons that may mature more and grow larger than the neurons we are born with; stem cells  Varies among people PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Half a Brain  At age 3, Jodie Miller started having life-threatening seizures. To save her life, doctors removed most of her right hemisphere (check out MRI of hemispherectomy).  What were the consequences of this surgery as Jodie grew? PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Damage Responses and Brain Hemispheres: The Divided Brain  Brain’s look-alike left and right hemispheres serve differing functions.  Lateralization is apparent after brain damage.  Damages  Left hemisphere accidents, strokes, and tumors can impair reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic reasoning, and understanding.  Similar right hemisphere damage has less visibly dramatic effects.  Mirror right hemisphere PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Corpus Callosum PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Divided Brain: Splitting the Brain  Intact brain  Data received by either hemisphere are quickly transmitted to other side across corpus callosum.  Split-brain hemisphere  Hemispheres are isolated by cutting fibers (mainly those of corpus callosum) connecting them.  This information sharing does not take place in severed corpus callosum brain. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Information Highway from Eye to Brain  Why does visual information-sharing not take place in a person with a severed corpus callosum? PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved One Skull, Two Minds PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Hemispheres: Right-Left Differences in Intact Brains  Each hemisphere performs distinct functions.  Humans have unified brains with specialized parts.  Left hemisphere is good at making quick, exact interpretations of language.  Right hemisphere excels in making inferences, modulating speech, and facilitating self-awareness. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter 3 Modules 8–10 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter Overview  Module 8: Basic Consciousness Concepts  Module 9: Sleep and Dreams  Module 10: Drugs and Consciousness PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 8 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Basic Consciousness Concepts PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Basic Consciousness Concepts: Defining Consciousness (part 1)  1880s: Psychology defined as description; explanation of states of consciousness  First half of twentieth century: Direct observation of behavior  1960s: Consciousness nearly lost; science of behavior  After 1960s: Mental concepts reemerged; neuroscience advances linked brain activity (study of consciousness altered by hypnosis, drugs, and meditation); importance of cognition PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Basic Consciousness Concepts: Defining Consciousness (part 2)  Consciousness: Subjective awareness of self and environment  Conscious awareness  Helps make sense of life  Focuses attention when learning a behavior  Fluctuates between different states of consciousness (waking awareness & altered states) PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Basic Consciousness Concepts: Consciousness and Selective Attention  Selective attention  Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus  Cocktail party effect  Inattentional blindness  Failure to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere  Inattentional numbness  Change blindness  Failure to notice changes in the environment; form of inattentional blindness PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Inattentional Blindness PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind (part 1)  Dual processing  Information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) tracks.  Perceptions, memory, attitudes, and other cognitions are affected.  Blindsight  Person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.  Visual perception track enables us “to think about the world” — to recognize things and to plan future actions.  Visual action track guides our moment-to-moment movements. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved When the Blind Can “See”  In this demonstration of blindsight and the two-track mind, researcher Lawrence Weiskrantz trailed a blindsight patient down a cluttered hallway.  Although told that the hallway was empty, the patient meandered around all the obstacles without any awareness of them. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind (part 2)  Unconscious parallel processing is faster than conscious sequential processing, but both are essential.  Parallel processing  Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions  Sequential processing  Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 9 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Sleep and Dreams PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Sleep and Dreams  What is sleep?  Periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation  Why is sleep important?  Sleep strengthens mind and body, affects ability to remember things, manage our feelings, and even stay alive.  Brain’s auditory cortex responds to sound stimuli even during sleep.  Most information is processed outside of conscious awareness. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Biological Rhythms and Sleep: Circadian Rhythm  Biological rhythms  24-hour biological clock  90-minute sleep cycle for younger adults  Circadian rhythm  Internal biological clock of 24-hour cycle of day and night  Body temperature rises as morning approaches, peaks during the day, dips in the early afternoon, and begins to drop in the evening.  Altered by age and experience PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Biological Rhythm and Sleep: Sleep Stages (part 1)  Biological rhythms of sleeping and  Hallucinations dreaming stages  Sensory experiences that occur without  REM sleep (R sleep) a sensory stimulus from the outside world; hypnagogic (hypnic) sensations  Rapid eye movement sleep  N2 sleep  Alpha waves  Bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave  Relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, activity that aid memory processing; awake state sleep spindles  N1 sleep  N3 sleep  First stage of non-REM (NREM) sleep  Deep, slow-wave sleep  Microsleep  Delta waves; large, slow brain waves  Very brief sleep period associated with deep sleep PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Brain Waves and Sleep Stages  The beta waves of an alert, waking state and the regular alpha waves of an awake, relaxed state differ from the slower, larger delta waves of deep N3 sleep.  Although the rapid REM sleep waves resemble the near-waking N1 sleep waves, the body is more internally aroused during REM sleep than during NREM sleep (the N1, N2, and N3 stages). PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Biological Rhythm and Sleep: Sleep Stages (part 2)  More about REM sleep  REM (rapid eye movement)  Sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur: paradoxical sleep  Ascension from initial sleep, returning through N2  Only sleep where dreams are made  REM rebound  Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Biological Rhythm and Sleep: What Affects Our Sleep Patterns?  Sleep patterns are genetically and culturally influenced.  Bright morning light activates light- sensitive retinal proteins that trigger the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to cause decreased production of melatonin in the morning and increased production in the evening.  Social jet lag may occur when sleep routines are disrupted during weekends. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Biological Clock PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Sleep and Dreams: Why Do We Sleep?  Sleep may have played a protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods.  Sleep helps restore and repair damaged neurons.  Sleep helps strengthen neural connections that build enduring memories.  Sleep promotes creative thinking the next day.  During deep sleep, the pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone necessary for muscle development. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Disorders: Sleep Loss Effects (part 1)  After a succession of 5-hour nights, we accumulate a sleep debt that cannot be satisfied by one long sleep.  Less sleep predicts more anger and relationship conflicts.  Sleep loss is a strong predictor of depressive disorders.  For people at risk for suicide, a night of poor sleep increases their next-day suicidal thinking. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Disorders: Sleep Loss Effects (part 2)  Sleep deprivation  Causes fatigue and irritability  Impairs concentration, productivity, and memory consolidation  Can lead to depression, obesity, joint pain, suppressed immune system, and slowed performance with a greater vulnerability to accidents  Short sleep can also shorten our lives. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Less Sleep = More Accidents PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved How Sleep Deprivation Affects Us PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Sleep Across the Life Span PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Dreams  Dream: Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind  Researching link between REM sleep and dreaming began new era in dream research.  Researchers could catch dreams as they happened, awakening people during or shortly after a REM sleep period to hear a vivid account. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Dreams: What Do We Dream  We usually dream of ordinary events and everyday experiences, most involving some anxiety or misfortune.  Daydreams: Familiar details of our life REM dreams: Vivid, emotional, bizarre Dreams with negative event or emotion: 8 in 10 dreams Dreams with sexual imagery: 1 in 10 among young men and 1 in 30 among young women Dreams incorporating previous days’ experience: Most common PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 10 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Drugs and Consciousness PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Drugs and Consciousness: Tolerance and Addiction in Substance Use Disorders  Today’s psychiatric diagnostic system identifies separate categories for substance/medication-induced disorders.  Substance/medication-induced disorder occurs when people misuse drugs and alcohol, causing changes that resemble various psychological disorders.  These include sexual dysfunctions, obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD), depression, psychosis, and sleep and neurocognitive disorders. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Drugs and Consciousness: Substance Use Disorders Psychoactive drug Chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods Substance use disorder Disorder characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved When Is Drug Use a Disorder? Diminished Control 1. Uses more substance, or for longer, than intended. 2. Tries unsuccessfully to regulate use of substance. 3. Spends much time acquiring, using, or recovering from effects of substance. 4. Craves the substance. Diminished Social Functioning 5. Use disrupts commitments at work, school, or home. 6. Continues use despite social problems. 7. Causes reduced social, recreational, and work activities. Hazardous Use 8. Continues use despite hazards. 9. Continues use despite worsening physical or psychological problems. Drug Action 10. Experiences tolerance (needing more substance for the desired effect). 11. Experiences withdrawal (unpleasant mental or physical reactions) when attempting to end use. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Thinking Critically About: Tolerance and Addiction  Tolerance  With repeated use, desired effect requires larger doses.  Addiction  Compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known harmful consequences  Withdrawal  Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuation of addictive drug or behavior PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants  Depressants  Drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body functions  Alcohol acts as a disinhibitor  Slows neural processing and acts as a potent sedative when paired with sleep deprivation  Disrupts memory and has long-term effects on the brain and cognition; impairs growth of synaptic connections  Reduces self-awareness and self-control; produces focus on an arousing situation at the expense of typical inhibitions and future consequences PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Depressants: Alcohol Use Disorder  Contributes to more than 200 diseases  Can shrink brain and contribute to premature death  Gender differences  Girls and young women can become addicted to alcohol more quickly than boys and young men and are at risk for lung, brain and liver damage at lower consumption levels.  Heavy drinking has increased among women of all ages, with life-or-death consequences. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Alcohol Use Risk Factors: Other Risk Factors  Slowed neural processing  Slower sympathetic nervous system activity; lowered inhibitions; depressed vomiting response  Memory disruption  Memory formation disruption; long-term brain and cognition effects; synaptic connection growth impairment; blackouts  Reduced self-awareness  Unintentional mind-wandering; reduced typical inhibitions PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Disordered Drinking Shrinks the Brain PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Depressants: Alcohol Expectancy Effects  Expectations influence behavior  Attribution of social behaviors or sexual responses to alcohol releases inhibitions.  Alcohol use disorder  Alcohol use is marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Barbiturates  Barbiturates (tranquilizers)  Depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment  Are potentially lethal when combined with alcohol  Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Opioids  Opioids  Include opium and its derivatives, such as codeine, morphine and heroin; addictive  Constrict pupils, slow breathing, and cause lethargy  Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety  Cause withdrawal when ingestion is stopped  Also include methadone, OxyContin, Vicodin, fentanyl PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants  Stimulant drugs  Excite neural activity and speed up body functions  Cause dilation of pupils, increased heart and breathing rates, rise in blood sugar, and drop in appetite  Often increase energy and self-confidence; can be addictive  Caffeine and nicotine, amphetamines: cocaine, Ecstasy (MDMA), and methamphetamine PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Stimulants: Nicotine  Nicotine  Stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco  Signals central nervous system to release flood of neurotransmitters  Diminishes appetite, boosts alertness and mental efficiency, calms anxiety, and reduces sensitivity to pain  Produces challenging acute craving and withdrawal symptoms that contribute to relapse after attempts to quit use  Cigarettes, cigars, chewing tobacco, pipe tobacco, snuff, and, most recently, e-cigarettes PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Physiological Effects of Nicotine PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Nicotine: Consequences of Smoking  Smoking is leading cause of preventable death in United States, killing 480,000 people each year.  Worldwide smoking rate (25 percent among men and 5 percent among women) is down about 30 percent since 1990.  Smoking correlates with higher rates of depression, chronic disabilities, and divorce.  Acute craving and withdrawal symptoms slowly dissipate over ensuing 6 months. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Stimulants: Cocaine  Cocaine  Produces psychological effects dependent on dosage and form consumed and user’s expectations and personality.  Can be snorted, injected, or smoked  Powerfully stimulates brain reward pathways  Produces quick rush of euphoria, heightened reactions; followed by more intense crash  May lead to emotional disturbances  Creates crash of agitated depression within 15 to 30 minutes after neurotransmitter levels drop PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Cocaine Euphoria and Crash PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Stimulants: Methamphetamine and Ecstasy (MDMA)  Methamphetamine  Psychological effects depend on the dosage and form consumed and the user’s expectations and personality.  Powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, reduces baseline dopamine levels.  Ecstasy (MDMA)  Is synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen  Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short- term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin- producing neurons and to mood and cognition PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens  Hallucinogens  Psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.  Sensations are strikingly similar to the near-death experience  LSD PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Hallucinogens: LSD  LSD  Lysergic acid diethylamide; also known as acid  Powerful hallucinogenic drug  Interferes with serotonin neurotransmitter system PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Marijuana (part 1)  Marijuana  Leaves contain THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol)  When smoked or eaten, produces increased sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells  Lingers in body  Can relax, disinhibit, impair motor and perceptual skills, and diminish reaction time  Can impair motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time necessary for safely operating a vehicle or other machine PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Types of Psychoactive Drugs: Marijuana (part 2)  According to the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017), marijuana use:  Alleviates chronic pain, chemotherapy-related nausea, and muscle soreness among people with multiple sclerosis  May offer short-term sleep improvements  Does not increase risk for tobacco-related diseases such as lung cancer  Predicts increased risk of traffic accidents  Predicts increased risk of chronic bronchitis, psychosis, social anxiety disorder, and suicidal thoughts  Likely contributes to impaired attention, learning, and memory, and possibly to academic underachievement PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved A Guide to Selected Psychoactive Drugs Drug Type Pleasurable Effects Negative Aftereffects Alcohol Depressant Initial high followed by relaxation and Depression, memory loss, organ disinhibition damage, impaired reactions Heroin Depressant Rush of euphoria, relief from pain Depressed physiology, agonizing withdrawal Caffeine Stimulant Increased alertness and wakefulness Anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses; uncomfortable withdrawal Nicotine Stimulant Arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being Heart disease, cancer Cocaine Stimulant Rush of euphoria, confidence, energy Cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash Methamphetamine Stimulant Euphoria, alertness, energy Irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures Ecstasy (MDMA) Stimulant; mild Emotional elevation, disinhibition Dehydration, overheating, depressed Hallucinogen mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning LSD Hallucinogen Visual “trip” Risk of panic Marijuana (THC) Mild Enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of Impaired learning and memory, hallucinogen time, relaxation increased risk of psychological disorders PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Influences on Drug Use: Biological Influences  Some people are biologically vulnerable to particular drugs.  Genetics: Heredity; genes associated with alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis use disorder  Brain differences: Differences in brain’s natural dopamine reward system; brain circuits activity and alcohol consumption  Twin studies: Twin risks for alcohol problems and marijuana use  Adoption studies: Risk of drug use and biological parents who abuse drugs; risk related to adoptive siblings who abuse drugs. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Warning Signs of Alcohol Use Disorder  Drinking binges (five drinks for men and four for women over 2 hours)  Craving alcohol  Use results in unfulfilled work, school, or home tasks  Failing to honor a resolve to drink less  Continued use despite health risk  Avoiding family or friends when drinking PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Levels of Analysis for Disordered Drug Use PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Influences on Drug Use: Psychological and Social-Cultural Influences  Many heavy users of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine have experienced trauma or failure and are depressed.  Self-consciousness, peer acceptance seeking, stress management  Rates of drug use vary across cultural and ethnic groups.  Family/religious norms and stability, overestimation of peer drinking, expectations of peer approval, underestimation of risks PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Peer Influence PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Drug Prevention and Treatment Programs  Educate young people about long-term costs of a drug’s temporary pleasures.  Help young people find other ways to boost their self-esteem and purpose in life.  Attempt to modify peer associations or to “inoculate” youths against peer pressures by training them in refusal skills. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter 4 Modules 11–13 Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Chapter Overview  Module 11: Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences  Module 12: Evolutionary Psychology: Explaining Human Nature and Nurture  Module 13: Cultural and Gender Diversity: Understanding Nature and Nurture PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 11 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved The Bottom Line Our differing traits are polygenic — influenced by many genes that each have a small effect. No single gene predicts your smarts, sexual orientation, or personality. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Twin and Adoption Studies: Identical Versus Fraternal Twins (part 1)  Identical (monozygotic) twins  Identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg.  They do not always have the same number of copies of genes repeated within their genome.  Not all identical twins share the same placenta. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Twin and Adoption Studies: Identical Versus Fraternal Twins (part 2)  Fraternal (dizygotic) twins  Develop from two separate fertilized eggs.  Are genetically no more similar than ordinary siblings despite shared prenatal environment.  Identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins in some ways:  Personality, emotions, politics, marijuana use PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Twin and Adoption Studies: Separated Twins  Separated twins  Genes matter, but so does the environment.  Separated fraternal twins do not exhibit similarities comparable to those of separated identical twins. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Twin and Adoption Studies: Biological Versus Adoptive Relatives  Adoption creates two groups  Genetic relatives (biological parents and siblings)  Environmental relatives (adoptive parents and siblings)  Unless an environment is extreme, shared family environment has little discernible impact on children’s personality.  Adoptive parents do influence their children’s attitudes, values, manners, politics, education, and faith.  Most adopted children benefit from adoption. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Temperament and Heredity (part 1)  Temperament  A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, and self-regulation; apparent from first weeks of life and generally persists into adulthood  Genetic effects appear in the form of physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Temperament and Heredity (part 2)  Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes.  Heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.  When you notice a variation of some trait within a population, the heritability of that trait is the amount of variation in the population that is explained by genetic factors.  Heritability does not reveal how much specific genes contribute to the trait for any one person. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Gene–Environment Interaction  Interaction  The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Epigenetic Expression  Beginning in the womb, life experiences lay down epigenetic marks — often organic methyl molecules — that can influence the expression of any gene in the DNA segment they affect. (Research from Champagne, 2010.) PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition Module 13 Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Cultural and Gender Diversity: Understanding Nature and Nurture PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Cultural and Gender Diversity: Understanding Nature and Nurture  Nature and nurture interact to shape synapses.  To make well-used brain pathways work better, unused connections are “pruned” away.  If certain abilities are not used, they will fade.  Brain development does not end with childhood.  Plasticity allows neural tissue to change and reorganize in response to new experiences. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Experience Affects Brain Development PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved How Much Credit or Blame Do Parents Deserve?  Parents matter.  The largest parenting effects occur at the extremes.  Parents’ power also appears in their children’s tendency to share their politics, religion, and values.  Yet, in personality measures, shared environmental influences from prenatal development onward account for less than 10 percent of children’s differences. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Peer Influence  At all ages, but especially during childhood and adolescence, we seek to fit in with our groups. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Cultural Influences: Variation Across Cultures  Nature of culture  Culture refers to behaviors, ideas, and values shared by a group of people and passed on to future generations.  Beneath our differences lies a great similarity — our capacity for culture.  Variation across cultures  Each culture has norms — standards for acceptable, expected behavior.  Tight culture  Loose culture PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Cultural Influences: Variation Over Time  Cultural groups vary, compete for resources, and evolve over time.  Cultures can also experience rapid changes.  These cultural changes occur too quickly to be rooted in genetic change.  Not all changes are positive. Cultures vary. Cultures change. Cultures shape our lives. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Culture and the Self  Individualism and collectivism  Individualist cultures value independence.  Promotion of personal ideals, strengths, and goals, pursued in competition with others, leading to individual achievement and finding a unique identity.  Collectivist cultures value interdependence.  Promotion of group and societal goals and duties and blending in with group identity with achievement attributed to mutual support. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Value Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism Concept Individualism Collectivism Self Independent (identity from internal, individual Interdependent (identity from traits) belonging to groups) Life task Discover and express one’s uniqueness Maintain connections, fit in, perform role What matters Me — personal achievement and fulfillment; Us — group goals and solidarity; rights and liberties; self-esteem social responsibilities and relationships; family duty Coping method Change reality Accommodate to reality Morality Defined by the individual (choice-based) Defined by social networks (duty- based) Relationships Many, often temporary or casual; confrontation Few, close, and enduring; harmony is acceptable valued Attributing behavior Behavior reflects the individual’s personality Behavior reflects social norms and and attitudes roles PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Deadly Individualism PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Culture and Child Raising (part 1)  Parents everywhere care about their children but raise and protect them differently depending on the surrounding culture.  Child-raising practices reflect individual and cultural values that vary across time and place.  National stereotypes modestly exaggerate personality traits; between- group differences are small.  Children thrive under various child-raising conditions. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Culture and Child Raising (part 2)  People in individualist cultures may raise children to be self-reliant and independent.  People in collectivist cultures may raise children to be compliant, obedient and integrated into webs of mutual support.  People from Asian and African cultures may raise children to be more emotionally and physically close to others compared to people in western European cultures. PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall | June Gruber | 14th Edition  Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Gender Development  Humans share an irresistible urge to organize their worlds into simple categories.  Sex is the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.  Gender is the behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, girl, man, and woman.  Intersex is possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.  Your body defines your sex; your mind defines your gender.  But your mind’s understanding of gender arises from the interplay between your biology and your experiences. PSYCHOLOGY